Orbital Parameters 47
Figure 2.18 True anomaly of a satellite
Figure 2.19 Angles defining the direction of the satellite
vector and its projection in the local horizontal and the second by angle Az between
the north and the projection of the satellite’s velocity vector on the local horizontal
(Figure 2.19).
Problem 2.1
A satellite is orbiting Earth in a uniform circular orbit at a height of 630 km from the surface
of Earth. Assuming the radius of Earth and its mass to be 6370 km and 5.98 × 1024 kg
respectively, determine the velocity of the satellite (Take the gravitational constant G =
6.67 × 10−11 N m2 /kg2 ).
48 Satellite Orbits and Trajectories
Solution:
Orbit radius R = 6370 + 630 = 7000 km = 7 000 000 m
Also, constant = GM = 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.98 × 1024
= 39.8 × 1013 N m2 /kg
= 39.8 × 1013 m3 /s2
The velocity of the satellite can be computed from
39.8 × 1013
V= = = 7.54 km/s
R 7 000 000
Problem 2.2
The apogee and perigee distances of a satellite orbiting in an elliptical orbit are respectively
45 000 km and 7000 km. Determine the following:
1. Semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit
2. Orbit eccentricity
3. Distance between the centre of the Earth and the centre of the elliptical orbit
Solution:
apogee + perigee
1. Semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit a =
2
45 000 + 7000
= = 26 000 km
2
apogee − perigee 45 000 − 7000 38 000
2. Eccentricity e = = = = 0.73
2a 2 × 26 000 52 000
3. Distance between the centre of the Earth and the centre of the ellipse = ae
= 26 000 × 0.73
= 18 980 km
Problem 2.3
A satellite is moving in an elliptical orbit with the major axis equal to 42 000 km. If the
perigee distance is 8000 km, find the apogee and the orbit eccentricity.
Solution:
Major axis = 42 000 km
Also, major axis = apogee + perigee = 42 000 km
Therefore apogee = 42 000 − 8000 = 34 000 km
apogee − perigee
Also, eccentricity e =
major axis
34 000 − 8000
=
42 000
26 000
= = 0.62
42 000
Orbital Parameters 49
Problem 2.4
Refer to the satellite orbit of Figure 2.20. Determine the apogee and perigee distances if
the orbit eccentricity is 0.6.
Figure 2.20 Figure for Problem 2.4
Solution: If e is the orbit eccentricity and a the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit, then
the distance between the centre of the Earth and the centre of the ellipse is equal to ae.
Therefore ae = 18 000 km
This gives a = 18 000/e = 18 000/0.6 = 30 000 km
Apogee distance = a(1 + e) = 30 000 × (1 + 0.6) = 48 000 km
Perigee distance = a(1 − e) = 30 000 × (1 − 0.6) = 12 000 km
Problem 2.5
The difference between the furthest and the closest points in a satellite’s elliptical orbit
from the surface of the Earth is 30 000 km and the sum of the distances is 50 000 km. If
the mean radius of the Earth is considered to be 6400 km, determine orbit eccentricity.
Solution: Apogee − Perigee = 30 000 km as the radius of the Earth will cancel in
this case
Apogee + Perigee = 50 000 + 2 × 6400 = 62 800 km
Orbit eccentricity = (Apogee − Perigee)/(Apogee + Perigee) = 30 000/62 800 = 0.478
Problem 2.6
Refer to Figure 2.21. Satellite A is orbiting Earth in a near-Earth circular orbit of radius
7000 km. Satellite B is orbiting Earth in an elliptical orbit with apogee and perigee distances
of 47 000 km and 7000 km respectively. Determine the velocities of the two satellites at
point X. (Take = 39.8 × 1013 m3 /s2 .)
Solution: The velocity of a satellite moving in a circular orbit is constant throughout the
orbit and is given by
V=
R
50 Satellite Orbits and Trajectories
Figure 2.21 Figure for Problem 2.6
39.8 × 1013
Therefore the velocity of satellite A at point X =
7 000 000
= 7.54 km/s
The velocity of the satellite at any point in an elliptical orbit is given by
2 1
v= −
R a
where a is the semi-major axis and R is the distance of the point in question from the cen-
tre of the Earth. Here R = 7000 km and a = (47 000 + 7000)/2 = 27 000 km. Therefore,
velocity of satellite B at point X is given by
2 1
v= 39.8 × 1013 × − = 9.946 km/s
7 000 000 27 000 000
Problem 2.7
Refer to Figure 2.22. Satellite A is orbiting Earth in an equatorial circular orbit of radius
42 000 km. Satellite B is orbiting Earth in an elliptical orbit with apogee and perigee dis-
tances of 42 000 km and 7000 km respectively. Determine the velocities of the two satellites
at point X. (Take = 39.8 × 1013 m3 /s2 .)
Solution: The velocity of a satellite moving in a circular orbit is constant throughout the
orbit and is given by
V=
R
Orbital Parameters 51
Figure 2.22 Figure for Problem 2.7
39.8 × 1013
Therefore, the velocity of satellite A at point X =
42 000 000
= 3.078 km/s
The velocity of the satellite at any point in an elliptical orbit is given by
2 1
v= −
R a
where a is the semi-major axis and R is the distance of the point in question from the
centre of the Earth. Here R = 42 000 km and a = (42 000 + 7000)/2 = 24 500 km. There-
fore, velocity of satellite B at point X is given by
2 1
v= 39.8 × 1013 × − = 1.645 km/s
42 000 000 24 500 000
Problem 2.8
Refer to Figure 2.23. Satellite A is orbiting Earth in a circular orbit of radius 25 000 km.
Satellite B is orbiting Earth in an elliptical orbit with apogee and perigee distances of
43 000 km and 7000 km respectively. Determine the velocities of the two satellites at the
indicated points X and Y. (Take = 39.8 × 1013 m3 /s2 .)
Solution: The velocity of a satellite moving in a circular orbit is constant throughout the
orbit and is given by
V=
R
52 Satellite Orbits and Trajectories
Figure 2.23 Figure for Problem 2.8
39.8 × 1013
Therefore the velocity of satellite A at points X and Y = = 3.989 km/s
25 000 000
The velocity of the satellite at any point in an elliptical orbit is given by
2 1
v= −
R a
where a is the semi-major axis and R is the distance of the point in question from the centre
of the Earth. For satellite B, at points X and Y, R = 25 000 km and a = (43 000 + 7000)/2 =
25 000 km. Therefore, velocity of satellite B at points X and Y
2 1
v= 39.8 × 1013 × − = 3.989 m/s
25 000 000 25 000 000
Please note: In Problems 2.6, 2.7 and 2.8, three different cases of satellites moving in
circular and elliptical orbits have been considered. Note that the velocity of the satellite at
a point in the elliptical orbit is more than the velocity of the satellite in a circular orbit if the
distance of the satellite from the centre of the Earth happens to be less than the radius
of the circular orbit. It will be less than the velocity in the circular orbit if the distance of
the satellite in the elliptical orbit happens to be more than the radius of the circular orbit.
The two velocities are the same at a point where the distance of the satellite from the
centre of the Earth in the elliptical orbit equals the radius of the circular orbit provided that
the semi-major axis of the ellipse also equals the radius of the circular orbit.
Orbital Parameters 53
Problem 2.9
Calculate the orbital period of a satellite moving in an elliptical orbit having a major axis of
50 000 km. (Take = 39.8 × 1013 Nm2 /kg).
Solution: Semi-major axis, a = 50 000/2 = 25 000 km
√ √
Orbital time period, T = 2 × (a3 /) = 2 × 3.14 × (25 000 000)3 /(39.8 × 1013 )
= 39 344 seconds = 10 hours 55 minutes 44 seconds
Problem 2.10
Refer to Figure 2.24. The semi-major axes of the two satellites shown in the figure are
18 000 km (satellite 1) and 24 000 km (satellite 2). Determine the relationship between their
orbital periods.
Figure 2.24 Figure for Problem 2.10
√ 3
Solution: The orbital time period T = 2 × a / where a is the semi-major axis. If a1
and a2 are the semi-major axes in the two cases and T1 and T2 are their time periods, then
a31
T1 = 2 ×
and
a32
T2 = 2 ×
This gives
3/2 3/2
T2 a2 24 000
= = = 1.54
T1 a1 18 000
The orbital period of satellite 2 is 1.54 times that of satellite 1.
54 Satellite Orbits and Trajectories
Problem 2.11
The elliptical eccentric orbit of a satellite has its semi-major and semi-minor axes as
25 000 km and 18 330 km respectively. Determine the apogee and perigee distances.
Solution: If ra and rp are the apogee and perigee distances respectively, a and b are the
semi-major and semi-minor axis respectively and e is the eccentricity, then
r a + rp
a=
2
and
√
b= (ra rp )
Now (ra + rp )/2 = 25 000, which gives ra + rp = 50 000
√
and (ra rp ) = 18 330, which gives ra rp = 335 988 900
Substituting the value of rp from these equations gives
ra (50 000 − ra ) = 335 988 900
which gives
ra2 − 50 000ra + 335 988 900 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation gives two solutions:
ra = 42 000 km, 8000 km
If the semi-major axis is 25 000 km, ra cannot be 8000 km. Therefore
Apogee distance ra = 42 000 km
and
Perigee distance rp = 50 000 − 42 000 = 8000 km
Alternative solution:
√ 2 √
(a − b2 ) [(25 000)2 − (18 330)2 ]
e= =e= = 0.68
a 25 000
This gives
Apogee distance = a(1 + e) = 25 000 × 1.68 = 42000 km
and Perigee distance = a(1 − e) = 25 000 × 0.32 = 8000 km
Therefore, from both the methods,
Apogee distance = 42 000 km and Perigee distance = 8000 km
Problem 2.12
Refer to Figure 2.25. The satellite is moving in an elliptical orbit with its semi-major and
semi-minor axes as a and b respectively and an eccentricity of 0.6. The satellite takes
Orbital Parameters 55
Figure 2.25 Figure for Problem 2.12
3 hours to move from point B to point A. How much time will it take to move from point A
to point B?
Solution: This problem can be solved by applying Kepler’s law of areas, which says that
the line joining the satellite and centre of the Earth spans equal areas of the ellipse in equal
times. Now, the area spanned when the satellite moves from point B to point A (area of
the shaded region) is given by
1 ab
× (area of ellipse) − (area of AOB) = − b OC
2 2
ab
= − bae (where OC = ae)
2
= 1.57ab − 0.6ab
= 0.97ab
The area spanned when the satellite moves from point A to point B (area of the unshaded
region) is given by
1
× (area of ellipse) + (area of AOB) = 1.57ab + 0.6ab
2
= 2.17 ab
The ratio of the two areas is given by 2.17/0.97 = 2.237. The time taken by the satellite to
move from point A to point B should therefore be 2.237 times the time taken by the satellite
to move from point B to point A. Therefore
Time taken = 3 × 2.237 = 6.711 hours
56 Satellite Orbits and Trajectories
Problem 2.13
The apogee and perigee distances of a certain elliptical satellite orbit are 42 000 km and
8000 km respectively. If the velocity at the perigee point is 9.142 km/s, what would be the
velocity at the apogee point?
Solution: The product of the distance of a satellite from the centre of the Earth and the
component of velocity vector in the direction of local horizontal at that point is constant at
all possible points on the orbit; i.e. dv cos = constant, where is the angle between the
direction of motion of the satellite and the local horizontal. This has been explained earlier.
The angle is zero at the apogee and perigee points. The expression thus reduces to
dv = constant for the apogee and perigee points. Therefore
8000 × 9.142
Velocity at the apogee = = 1.741 km/s
42 000
Problem 2.14
In the satellite orbit of Problem 2.13, at a certain point in the orbit at a distance of 16 000 km
◦
from the centre of the Earth, the direction of the satellite makes an angle of 56.245
with the local horizontal at that point (Figure 2.26). Determine the satellite velocity at
that point.
Figure 2.26 Figure for Problem 2.14
Solution: The product dv cos = 8000 × 9.142, which gives
8000 × 9.142
v=
16 000 × cos 56.245◦
73 136 73 136
= = = 8.236 km/s
16 000 × 0.555 8880
Therefore
v = 8.236 km/s