BasicGrammar

Basic English English Grammar

Guide
Antecedents are indefinite or unknown: each, all, He looks sick to me. (Sick describes he)
PARTS OF SPEECH either, somebody, whoever, etc. Common copulative verbs: be, become, seem, smell,
NOUN, n., naming word Possessive case formed by adding apostrophe and s: look, grow, feel, get, sound, appear, taste.
Name of a person (John, child), place (San an bod s,  ever one s Voice: a characteristic of transitive verbs only.
Francisco, forest), thing (car, truth, softness, anger, INTENSIVE AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS ACTIVE: used when the subject is the actor.
flight). SINGULAR: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself Simmons sent the letter to Mexico.
COMMON NOUNS: Names applying to any or all PLURAL: ourselves, yourselves, themselves PASSIVE: used when the subject is the receiver of
members of a class. Intensive to intensify a personal pronoun: I myself the action.
SINGULAR: dress tree ox will do it. The letter to Mexico was sent by Simmons.
PLURAL: dresses trees oxen Reflexive to refer back to a personal pronoun: They PROGRESSIVE AND INTENSIVE FORMS OF
PROPER NOUNS: Titles of specific persons, hurt themselves. VERBS
places, things. Not used alone; must accompany personal pronoun Progressive: Add appropriate tense of auxiliary to
Always Capitalized: John, Detroit, Greece, New referred to. be to indicate continuing action.
York State USE OF CASE OF PRONOUNS I am going. She was sewing. They will be
In lengthy titles: First and last word always Subject of a verb stated or understood: Nominative rehearsing.
capitalized and all others except articles, short case: Intensive: Add appropriate tense of auxiliary to do
prepositions, and conjunctions. He is tired. Who will help me? I (will). for intensified meaning.
He Who Gets Slapped, The Boy Scouts of Jane, who learns quickly, passed the test. I do want to see you. They did eat their
America, The Last of the Mohicans She sings nearly as well as I (do). dinner.
Capitalize: names of holidays (Lincoln s  Birthda ), Predicate complement after any tense of the verb to PRESENT TENSE
days of the week (Tuesday), months of the year be: Nominative case To describe a present event: He is in his room.
(October). It is I. The organist was she. To refer to a general statement: He sings well.
Do not capitalize the seasons (winter). Subject or object of an infinitive: Objective case To describe artistic productions: Shakespeare writes
A Common Noun becomes a Proper Noun when I asked him to pretend to be me. eloquently.
used as a title to specify one particular course, city, Object of verb or preposition: Objective case To summarize plots: The hero sees the villain. He
region, firm, person, etc. (History 103, Father, Oak The employment agency sent them to us. runs.
Tree Tavern, the old Southwest, The Red Cross). Whom do you seek? Whom are you looking FUTURE TENSE
POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS for? To describe future events, the auxiliary shall is
General Rule: Add apostrophe and s to words not Apposition (placed beside): Pronouns in apposition added to the infinitive in the first person, will in the
ending in s or sound. are in the same case as the word or words to which second and third.
Lad s men s John s cat s they are apposed. I/we shall go. You/he/she/it/they will go.
Add only apostrophe to words ending in s  or Two students, John and I, were absent. To indicate a promise or determination, will is used
sound. He commended two students, John and me. in the first person, shall in the second and third.
Ladies Joneses beaux Steinmet VERB, v., (v.i. intransitive verb. v.t. transitive I/we will go. You/he/she/it/they shall go.
Shared Possession: Use possessive case for last verb) asserting word PAST TENSE
noun in group. Tense is time indicated by the assertion. To indicate an occurrence in the past: He went
Mar  and  Louise s  room (one room) Principal parts are the basic forms of a verb: home.
Johnson,  Finch,  and  Smith s  office (one office) INFINITIVE: GO, TO GO PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
Inanimate Objects: Possessive case does not exist. PRESENT TENSE: GO To refer to a past event or events now completed or
the front door of the house NOT the  house s  front   PRESENT PARTICIPLE: GOING perfected.
door PAST TENSE: WENT I have been waiting for you. I have seen him
Except Personified Objects: PAST PARTICIPLE: GONE several times.
The  ship s  rudder the  plane s  fuselage Number and Person in Present Tense: FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
And idiomatic applications to time or money. I, you, we, they go BUT he, she, it goes. To indicate that an anticipated event will be
A  month s  work ten  dollars  worth Mood: variations of attitude expressed in the form completed before some definite future time. Formed
of the verb. by adding future tense of have to past participle.
Pronoun, pron., used in place of a noun He will have reached Sea le  b   i   cl ck.
Antecedent: Word for which the pronoun stands. INDICATIVE: the usual mood--used for statements
and questions. VERBAL
Fred ate his dinner.
The men were laughing as they walked down Derived from a verb but functioning simultaneously
Pronoun: his, Antecedent: Fred
the street. as another part of speech.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
What were they talking about when they were Infinitive: present (to go), perfect (to have gone).
First Person (the person speaking or writing)
interrupted? To live well is my ambition. (As noun: subject
Case Singular Plural
IMPERATIVE: for commands, requests, directions. of is) (As verb: modified by adverb well)
Nominative I We
Be on time. Please leave me. Turn at the first Gerund: present participle naming action or state of
Possessive my, mine our, ours
corner. being and therefore functioning as a noun.
Objective me us
SUBJUNCTIVE: to express a wish or a condition Playing the piano was her principal
Second Person (the person spoken or written to)
contrary to fact: occupation. (As noun: subject of was) (As
Nominative you you
I wish I were in bed. verb: takes object piano)
Possessive your, yours your, yours
To express determination or request: Present and Present Perfect Participles:
Objective you you
I insist that he do his work and be on time. Function as adjectives
Third Person (the person, place, or thing spoken or
In a motion or resolution in parliamentary The dying man. Having eaten dinner, he went
written about)
procedure: to bed. (As adjective: modified he) (As verb:
Masculine Feminine Neuter
I move that the meeting adjourn and that the takes object dinner)
Nominative: he she it, they
minutes be prepared by the secretary. Past and Past Perfect Participles:
Possessive: his her, hers its, their, theirs
TRANSITIVE VERB Function as adjectives to describe something
Objective: him her it, them
A transitive verb requires an object to complete its happening to the word being modified.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
meaning. Defeated in his efforts, he finally gave up
Relate dependent clauses to a word in the main
He is throwing the ball. (Object: ball) (modifies: he)
clause.
He has taken the money. (Object: money) Having been discovered, the culprit
Who refers to persons. Nominative: who
INTRANSITIVE VERB surrendered. (modifies: culprit)
Possessive: whose Objective: who
Which refers to things. That refers to persons and An intransitive verb is self-sufficient, does not ADJECTIVE, adj., modifies noun or pronoun
things. require an object. Limits: three men / Describes: tall men
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS He swims, wrestles, rides, dances and even ARTICLES:
Ask a question: Who? Which? What? sings. (Descriptive words and phrases are not Definite: the
(Antecedent is answer to the question.) objects: He sings well.) Indefinite:   a  bef e  a   d  beginning   i h  a  
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS A copulative verb is an intransitive verb that c n nan   nd.     an  bef e  a   d  beginning   i h  
Point out without naming: connects the subject to a noun, pronoun, or adjective a vowel sound.
SINGULAR: this that in the predicate. PREDICATE ADJECTIVE:
PLURAL: these those Mr. Simmons was the mayor of the town. Follows a copulative verb and describes the subject.
(Antecedent is person, place or thing being pointed (Simmons = Mayor) Arithmetic is simple. The building looks
out.) It was he whom they were looking for. decrepit
INDEFINATE PRONOUNS (it = he)

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ADVERB, adv., modifies a verb, an adjective In late October, John put up the storm A Plural Subject Requires a Plural Verb
or another adverb. windows on his house. The knife and the fork (two objects) are
They talked quietly. (modifies verb talked) Phrase: A group of closely related words that Several were selected.
An extremely dull subject. (modifies adjective function as a unit as part of a complete subject or Singular Nouns Denoting Number or Quantity
dull) predicate. When the sense is singular, a singular verb should
He talked most glibly. (modifies adverb Prepositional Phrase: introduced by a preposition follow; a plural verb when the sense is plural.
glibly.) He sat in the shed all afternoon. A ton (one ton) of coal was delivered.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND Participial Phrase: introduced by a participle A large number of the apples (many of them)
ADVERBS He saw the child eating a cookie. were rotten.
Positive, comparative and superlative degrees. Infinitive Phrase: introduced by an infinitive Many such expressions are singular or plural
For one- ab e   d :    Add   er to compare two Mother hated to cook spaghetti. depending on their application.
persons or things. Verb Phrase: a main verb and auxiliary verb/s Twenty dollars is all I need. (one amount of
Adj.: He was the smaller of the twins. He must have gone home. money)
Adv.: He ran faster than the dog. Gerund Phrase: introduced by a gerund. Twenty dollars were distributed to the
For more than one-syllable words: Add more to the Smoking a pipe is an economical form of children. (twenty items)
positive form. enjoyment. The jury agrees. (acts as a unit)
Adj.: She was more talented than her sister. The family were arguing with each other.
Clauses: A clause contains a subject and (individual people)
Adv.: He worked more diligently than I. predicate and is part of a sentence.
F   e a i e  deg ee,  add   est    most as above, None was chosen. (not one was chosen)
Independent Clause: (or main clause) makes a A Verb Must Agree With Its Subject Regardless
when more than two persons or things are involved. complete sentence by itself.
The fastest car in the world. The most of Modifiers
I ran to the bank so that I could make a The leader as well as his followers was
gorgeous woman. deposit.
arrested.
PREPOSITION, prep., connects one word Dependent Clause: (or subordinate clause) is
The woman with all the children is my aunt.
to another. incomplete and usually meaningless alone.
A Verb Must Agree With Its Subject Regardless
Precedes a noun or pronoun which is its object. I ran to the bank so that I could make a
of the Predicate Nominative
He went to Chicago. He took it from me. deposit.
A major problem is the thousands of cars on
Common prepositions: about, after, against, It depends on a main clause and usually modifies a
the roads.
among, around, at, before, behind, below, beside, word in the main clause. Therefore, dependent
Too many cars are the cause of traffic
between, beyond, by, down, for, from, in, inside, clauses function as single parts of speech.
congestion.
into, like, of, on, over, to, toward, under, up, upon, Noun Clause: A dependent clause functioning as a
An Introductory Expletive Does Not Affect The
within. noun.
Rule of Agreement
CONJUNCTION, conj., connects words, That nobody is perfect is an observable fact. There is one thing I insist on. (Subject: thing)
phrases, clauses (subject of verb is) There are several people in the room.
Coordinating Conjunctions: connect elements of Adjective Clause: A dependent clause functioning (Subject: people)
equal importance. as an adjective.
The Number of a Relative Pronoun Depends on
and, but, or, nor, for, so, whereas, yet He solved the problem which had baffled him.
its Antecedent
Correlative Conjunctions: pairs of words which (modifies noun problem) Nancy, who is my sister, is coming.
are coordinate. Adverbial Clause: A dependent clause functioning
(Antecedent: Nancy)
bo h and,  ei her or,  no  onl b  also as an adverb.
The men, who are present, are pleased.
Subordinating Conjunctions: join less important He painted whenever he could. (modifies verb
(Antecedent: men)
elements to more important ones. painted)
He went to work because he needed money. Sentence Types Agreement of Pronoun
Common subordinating conjunctions: Simple Sentence: Subject (simple or compound) and Antecedent
As, after, although, because, before, if, since, that, and Predicate (simple or compound). A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person,
though, unless, until, when, where, while. The trees covered the side of the mountain. number and gender.
Who, which, that frequently function as relative The cars and trucks slid down the hill. My uncle said that he would change his mind.
pronouns and subordinating conjunctions Compound Sentence: Two or more independent Two or More Antecedents Joined By And
simultaneously. clauses usually joined by a coordinating conjunction Require a Plural Pronoun
INTERJECTION, interj., word un- or by a semi-colon. The horse and pony were in their corral.
connected with sentence structure. Father liked golf, but mother preferred tennis. Singular Antecedents Joined by Or or Nor
Yes, I  d  i .    Oh, you really will? My father liked golf: my mother preferred Require a Singular Pronoun
tennis. Either Harry or Frank will bring his music.
THE SENTENCE Complex Sentence: One independent clause and Indefinite Singular Antecedents Require a
A sentence makes sense. It contains a subject and a one or more dependent clauses. Singular Pronoun
predicate. It ends with a period, question mark or John, who was ill, rested whenever he could. Each, every, everyone, everybody, any,
exclamation mark. When a noun clause is a dependent clause, it anybody, either, neither
SUBJECT: The word or words about which frequently acts as a necessary part of the main Every child will bring his lunch.
something is predicated or said or asked. clause: Masculine Pronouns are used When Both Sexes
Simple Subject: a single noun or pronoun (or group Wha   o  don  kno  h   .  ( b ec   are Antecedents
of words, like a book title, referring to one single of main clause) Every man and woman will submit his
item) Compound-complex Sentence: Two or more application.
The librarian, with his arms full of books, fell independent clauses and one or more dependent Case of Pronouns
down. clauses. Nominative Case for Subjects and Predicate
Gone with the Wind is a long book. Fred threw the ball, and Pete caught it when Nominatives
Compound Subject: two or more simple subjects nobody was looking. He will be looking into the matter.
joined by a coordinating or correlative conjunction. Agreement of Subject and Verb We girls are planning a picnic.
Management and labor agreed to arbitrate. A verb must agree with its subject in number and It was he who caused the commotion.
Neither the apples nor the peaches sold well. person. I, we, you, they work. He, she, it works. Those who can may join us.
Complete Subject: simple subject together with its A Singular Pronoun Requires a Singular Verb. Objective Case for Objects of Verbs and
modifiers. Each, every, anybody, anyone, nobody, no Prepositions
The house on the hill was for sale. one, someone. The object struck him on the head.
Predicate: The part of the sentence that makes Either, neither (alone or followed by a noun) A picnic was planned for us girls.
the statement or asks the question. Is The people whom we met had dinner with us.
Simple Predicate: the verb or verb phrase Singular Pronouns Or Nouns Joined by Or or Whom were you seeking?
The mayor was eating his dinner. Nor Require Singular Verbs. Whom were you looking for?
Compound Predicate: two or more verbs joined by She or her mother is Objective Case for Subjects and Objects of
a coordinating or correlative conjunction. When the Verb cannot agree with Both Subjects Infinitives
They ate, slept, fished, swam, and basked in Joined by Or or Nor, the verb should agree with the He expected him to be me.
the sun. subject closer to it.
Complete Predicate: the verb and all its modifiers Neither John nor I am going.
One option or several options are offered.

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 Basic English Grammar, cont.
In Elliptical Clauses, Case is Determined by the RESTRICTIVE: The men who sat at the counter (In typing, two unspaced hyphens represent a dash.)
Missing Word or Words were served quickly. THE HYPHEN
Fred is taller than I. (am) NON-RESTRICTIVE: My uncle, who sat at the To make compound words intended as a single
They paid me as generously as (they paid) counter, ordered a hamburger. thought unit.
him. RESTRICTIVE: The President was surrounded by A blue-green dress, a better-than-average
the kinds of people who often make trouble for him.
PUNCTUATION NON-RESTRICTIVE: The President was
shot
To break a word into syllables as at the end of a line.
The Period surrounded by reporters, who were asking the usual (Words may be broken only between syllables.)
To terminate declarative or imperative sentences. questions. It is the established policy of this organiza-
He asked if I would be willing to wait. NOTE: The intention of the writer usually tion to make refunds whenever customers
Do your work thoroughly. determines whether material is restrictive or non- return the defective merchandise.
To terminate most abbreviations. restrictive. To eliminate misreadings caused by adding a prefix.
Mr. Dr. Jr. Co. To separate contrasted sentence elements. re-estimate, re-allocation, bi-iliac
To demark units as in a list. He asked to see the judge, not a lawyer.
1. Spellman and Zinc. 2. Marco and Son. She lived in the city, but much preferred a
THE APOSTROPHE
Three periods to indicate an omission. To indicate possession.
countrified atmosphere.
L fe     ea a d   e   a e         a . To prevent misreading. GENERAL   RULE:     Add   apostrophe   and   to
(Four periods if a period occurs within the omission) He was waiting, for John had not yet put in an ords  not  ending  in   or   sound.
Lad ,   e ,  J ,  ca
The Question Mark appearance.
Add only apostrophe to words ending in or
To terminate a direct question. He looked forward to winter, daylight
activities being obnoxious to him. sound.
Will you be ready to go with us this Lad e ,  J e e ,  bea ,  S e e
afternoon? Conventional Comma Usages
To indicate missing letters in a contraction.
Why not? Salutation of a personal letter: Dear Frank,
I  d   .    I  a     .
In parentheses to indicate doubt. Complimentary close of a letter: Sincerely yours,
To form plurals of letters, figures, signs, etc.
Born in 1873 (?), he lived to a ripe old age. Separating dates of the month from the year:
August 22, 1773 F  7 ,    & ,  f e  
The Exclamation Mark Separating parts of an address: Miss. Mary Finch, PARENTHESES
To indicate an outburst of strong feeling. To enclose materials which intrude on the flow of
23 Elm St., Syracuse, New York
He !    I  ca   a d    a e   e! thought.
Separating numbered or lettered divisions:
Genesis 3, 12 or Section 1, b Books are written (1) to instruct, (2) to
THE COMMA Separating names from distinguishing titles: inspire, and (3) to amuse.
CORRECT COMMA USAGE: To separate James Smith, Jr. Mary Lester, M.D. John Bascomb (1817 - 1888) was born in
words, phrases, or clauses in a series. Comma Separating thousands in large figures: 3,479,765 Vermont.
before a concluding and or or is optional if the sense Placed before and after introductory words and BRACKETS
is clear. abbreviations: ,i.e., ,for example, To enclose editorial additions to quoted materials.
She bought beets, beans, sugar, and parsley. MISUSES OF COMMA. Do not interrupt the T e   e   efe ed      (Ne  B e )  
He bought green, black, blue and red pens. normal flow of thought by a comma. WRONG: He a  a   c d e.
(No comma if the pens last named write both blue believed, that he would be there in time. P e   e ,   a   e   according to his
and red; comma if they are separate items.) Do not place a single comma between subject and theory (?), were believed to be products of
Mother washed the dishes, Father dried them, verb. WRONG: The lieutenant, as well as his a .
and I put them away. subordinates was there. S a e ea e  Ha e  ( c)  def e  a a .
To separate independent clauses of a compound Do not separate words or phrases joined by and or When the material, as in an equation, already
sentence joined by a coordinating conjunction. (and, or. WRONG: He was asked to sing, and accepted includes parentheses.
but, or, nor, for, yet, so, whereas) with alacrity.
Beaumont and Fletcher were very successful QUOTATIONS & QUOTATION
Do not place a comma between a conjunction and
playwrights, and they usually collaborated in the word or words it introduces. WRONG: Nobody MARKS
their dramatic productions. is perfect but, villains are also scarce. To indicate titles of short works or parts of larger
Exception: Independent clauses of five words or Do not separate two independent clauses with a works.
less joined by and, or, nor, for, so do not require a comma. WRONG: She picked up her sewing, she SHORT POEM: T e  V a e  B ac
comma. had nothing else to do. SHORT STORY: T e  B ac  Ca
He did it and he was glad of it. SHORT MUSICAL COMPOSITION: A e ca
To separate interjections and words of direct
THE SEMICOLON. To separate
CHAPTER HEADING: Da d  Ha  a  Da e
independent clauses. MAGAZINE ARTICLE: I   U e e   a  
address.
Johnson was ill; he was not able to be Na a  Me ace?
Oh, I did   ee   .
present.
Yes, I  c e     e   ee . To enclose direct quotations.
To separate word groupings which contain (Indirect quotations, quoting the substance but not
I planned, for   goodness   sake,   to see you in
commas. the exact words, should not be enclosed by quotation
Vermont.
She bought carrots, beans, and peas at the marks.)
Arthur, a c   e e   e   .
vegetable counter; lamb chops at the meat DIRECT: P e   a d,   W a e e   ,     .
To set off sentence modifiers -- words and phrases
counter; and flour, olive oil, bread, and paper INDIRECT: Pope said that whatever was, was
which modify a whole sentence instead of a single
napkins in the grocery section.
word. right.
Nevertheless, the mail came through. THE COLON COMBINED: Coolidge stated that he did not
The passengers, on the other hand, were To introduce a list within a sentence. c e     .
delayed for hours. He named the members who planned to Use of comma with direct quotations.
To set off a long phrase or clause preceding the attend: Frank Hart, Morris Raskin, John Indications of the speaker or writer (John said,
subject. Altmeyer, Erika Johnson, Nelson MacFarlan, Boswell wrote) are set off from the quotation by a
After having suffered intense pain for many Dan Martin. comma, or by two commas if reference to the
months, the patient was finally cured. After the salutation of a business letter. speaker or writer is placed within a quoted sentence.
When the snow lies deep on the mountains, Gentlemen: Dear Sir: My dear Mr. Jones: Anthony said  f a ,   I   a e   .
the glare of the sun is almost blinding. To separate minutes from hours, verses from M   e     e  a   ed,   ed   e,   a d ed  
To indicate interruptions of normal word order. chapters. Burns.
The soprano, tall and willowy in appearance, 10:35 A.M. Genesis 12:6 A e     ead ,   e   a ed,         e  
was in fine voice. To anticipate a conclusion. fa ?
The place of his birth, Boston, was of There was only one thing he wanted: money. The comma is omitted if a question mark or an
important in his later life. To introduce a formal quotation. exclamation mark falls between the quotation and
To set off nonrestrictive elements. Patrick   Henr   declared:     Give   me   libert   or   the indication of the speaker or writer.
Note: Restrictive -- essential to the meaning. give  me  death! W      a e ?   e ed  F ed.
Nonrestrictive -- not essential to the meaning. THE DASH D  c e   ea   e!   e ed  A ce
RESTRICTIVE: My sister Nancy was the To indicate a sharp break in thought. In a quotation of more than one sentence, only one
youngest girl in the family. Tomorrow--when will it come?--will be my sentence is connected to the indication of speaker or
NON-RESTRICTIVE: Nancy, my sister, was the birthday. writer by a comma.
baby of our family. I d   e   ,  b  -- Oh, never mind.

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 Basic English Grammar, cont.
I am waiting f   ,   he   aid   a g i .     paragraphing without the necessity of Liable implies something unfortunate: He is liable
Wh  d    h ? identifying the speaker in each paragraph. to fail the course.
When the conventional indications of the speaker or Ba eb ,   aid  I,   he   h e   a e  a e   Likely expresses probability of any sort: He is as
writer (He said, they replied) are not used, internal a  c ied,  I   i  c a e   he   i h   . likely to succeed as to fail.
punctuation and capitalization of quoted material is I   d   efe     . As, like. Like is not a conjunction. It should not be
reproduced exactly as originally written. H ?    S e    d     ea     e i  i   used to introduce a clause. As is a correct
Pope summed up the optimism of the ha   i h   aga ? subordinating conjunction.
E igh e e   i   hi   fa   i e   Wha e e   --Herman  Mel ille,   Bar leb   he  Scri ener He did it as (NOT like) he should have.
i ,  i   igh . ELLIPSIS Omissions in quotations are indicated Assert, claim. Claim is an assertion of a right. It
In quotations longer than one paragraph, no end- by three spaced periods. If the ellipsis occurs at the should not be used when only a statement of truth is
quotation marks are placed at the end of the first end of a sentence, the period terminating the implied.
paragraph. All succeeding paragraphs are sentence is also retained. He asserted (NOT claimed) that he had been
introduced by quotation marks. Only the final G d  c ea ed he  ea h A d  G d   a   in the city all day.
paragraph is concluded by end-quotation marks. ha   he   igh   a  g d A d   he  e e i g  a d   Beside, besides. Beside means by the side of: She
Long quotations from writings are not usually he   i g   e e   he  fi  da . knelt beside the bed.
indicated by quotation marks. They are indented and COMMON MISTAKES IN Besides means in addition: He was rich. Besides,
single-spaced in typing. A smaller typeface is used he was handsome.
in printing.
GRAMMAR USAGE Bring, take. Bring implies action toward the
QUOTATIONS WITHIN QUOTATIONS A, an. Use   a before words beginning with a speaker or writer: Bring the pail to me.
Single quotation marks indicate a quotation within a consonant sound: Take implies action away from the speaker or writer:
quotation. A suit, a useful article, a B.C. date. Take those letters to the post office.
Use an before words beginning with a vowel sound:
The  b   aid,     aca i  f   .  J h   Can, may. Can implies ability: I can climb that
an egg, an usher, an S.O.S.
wailed. fence.
Accept, except. Accept means to receive. The verb
Double and single quotation marks are alternated if May implies permission: May I see you tonight?
except means to leave out:
a series of quotations within quotations must be Comma fault. Do not separate two independent
indicated. Please except the opening paragraph of my clauses with a comma.
essay.
The defendant said, Hi  e ac   d   e e   I   WRONG: He ran to the door, he thought he heard
d     b he ,   Y e     g i g     i e   Adjectives confused with adverbs. something outside.
Good and bad are adjectives. They must modify a
he e. CORRECT: He ran to the door; he thought he heard
noun or pronoun. something outside.
QUOTATION MARKS COINCIDING WITH
John feels good. I feel bad. Comma splice. Same as comma fault, above.
OTHER PUNCTUATION
Periods and commas are placed inside end-quotation Well as an adjective means in good health. Comparative form misused. Use comparative
In spite of being in the hospital, he looked
marks. Colons and semicolons placed outside end- when only two are involved.
well.
quotation marks. Other punctuation marks are He was the younger (NOT youngest) of the
Well as an adverb means satisfactorily.
placed according to logic: inside if they punctuate two brothers.
He typed well. They were well rid of him.
the quotation, outside if they punctuate a sentence of Compare to, compare with. Compare to indicates
which a quotation is a part. Fast, slow, late, very are adjectives or adverbs resemblance: He compared the football game to a
Na c   ai ed,   Wh       e   e? depending on what they modify. battle.
Adjectives following copulative verbs (is, feel, look,
Wh       a ,   I  d  i ? Compare with implies that likenesses and
seem, grow, get, become, smell, taste) are usually
ITALICS differences are being sought: He compared radio
predicate adjectives and modify the subject.
To indicate titles of books, magazines, and long with television.
The iron is (feels, looks, etc.) hot. Counsel, council. Counsel as a verb: to advise. As
works of any sort. I am hot.
The Scarlet Letter / Romeo and Juliet a noun: advice (or a lawyer).
Adverse, averse. Adverse means opposing; adverse Counselor: an advisor.
The Saturday Review conditions.
EXCEPTIONS: The Bible and books of the Bible Council: a group of individuals: town council
Averse means disinclined. It applies to people: He Councilor: a member of a council.
are neither italicized nor enclosed in quotation was averse to marriage.
marks. The place of publication of newspapers, Dangling modifiers. Avoid dependent phrases or
Advert, avert. Advert means refer: He adverted to
unless specifically indicated as part of the title, is clauses which are not clearly related to and
an incident in his past.
neither italicized nor enclosed in quotation marks. dependent on a definite word.
Avert means ward off: His quick thinking averted
Leviticus The New York Daily News DANGLING: After crossing the street, the shop
an accident. windows seemed less attractive.
The New York Times Affect, effect. Affect is a verb meaning to influence
To indicate words or letters used as such. CORRECT: After crossing the street, I found the
or to assume. His attitude affected his grades. She
There is only one the and one a on the page. shop windows less attractive. (Phrase modifies I)
affected a Southern accent.
For emphasis--but only when absolutely necessary Different from. Correct--NOT different than.
Effect as a verb means to accomplish: He effected a
(as  in  pla  dialog e).   Where  did  you sa  i   as? Differ from, differ with. Differ with is an idiom
change in the rules. meaning   o  ha e  a  difference  in  opinion:     I  differ
PUNCTUATION OF DIALOGUE Effect as a noun means result: The effect of his with m  bro her  in  poli ics.
A new paragraph is used for each change of speaker. action was highly praised. Don . A contraction of d   :    I  d ,    d ,  
Descriptive or narrative materials related to the Aggravate, aggravation. Do not use aggravate or e  d ,   he  d ;;  BUT  he, he,  i  d e .
speaker are placed in the same paragraph as the aggravation to mean irritate or irritation. Due to. Due is an adjective and must modify a
quotation. Aggravate means to make a bad situation worse.
specific noun or pronoun. The crop failure was due
The  de i !   c ea ed   he   i   d   ad . Alright. Illiterate for all right. to the prolonged drought. In the absence of such a
The   G d   C e   k   he   d   f ie d?   Alumnus, alumna, alumni, alumnae. A male specific noun (failure) or pronoun, use because of.
observed the traveller, confronting her and graduate is an alumnus; the plural is alumni. A The crop failed because of the drought.
leaning on his writhing stick. female graduate is an alumna; the plural is alumnae. Farther, further. Farther applies only to distance;
Ah,   f h,   a d   i   i     hi   The single word to denote all graduates of a co-ed
further means additional.
i deed?  c ied   he  g d  da e.     Yea,   uly is college is alumni. Store closed until further notice.
it, and in the very image of my old gossip, Among, between. Between for two persons or Fewer, less. Fewer is used to describe individual
Goodman Brown, the grandfather of the silly things; among for more than two. units: fewer people, fewer books. Less applies to
fellow that now is. But--would your worship EXCEPTIONS: When more than two are involved bulk: less wheat, less trouble.
believe it?--my broomstick hath strangely in a unified situation or when there is opposition, Fragments. Unless deliberately used for special
disappeared, stolen, as I suspect, by that between is correct. literary effect or in recording fragmentary
unhanged witch, Goody Cory, and that, too, Between the four of us, we won the prize. conversation, fragments constitute a form of
when I was all anointed with the juice of The contest was between the reds, the blues,
illiteracy. Always write in complete sentences.
a age,  a d  ci ef i ,  a d   f  ba e  -- and the greens.
Fused sentences. Do not write two sentences as if
Mi g ed   i h   fi e   hea   a d   he   fa   f   a   Amount, number. Amount describes bulk of any they were one.
new-b   babe,   aid   he   ha e   f   d   sort: amount of sugar, money, coal. Number refers FUSED: The class was dull I was bored.
Goodman Brown. to individual units: number of people, apples.
CORRECT: The class was dull. I was bored.
--Nathaniel Hawthorne, Apt, liable, likely. Apt implies a habitual
Had ought. Ought cannot be used with an
Yo ng  Goodman  Bro n disposition: With his constant good luck, he is apt auxiliary:
When only two speakers are involved, the to succeed. He ought (NOT had ought) to do it.
alternation of speakers can be indicated by

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 Basic English Grammar, cont.
Hanged, hung. Hanged is used only to describe lesson or relieve:    The  child s  sorrow  was  mitigated
executions:     hanged b  the  neck  until  he  died. by an ice cream cone.
Hardly. Do not use with a negative. Myself. Like yourself, himself, herself, itself, a
CORRECT: He could hardly raise his head. reflexive or intensive pronoun. Used in connection
Healthful, healthy. Healthful means health- with an appropriate noun or pronoun: I sang myself
producing: a healthful climate. Healthy means to sleep. I myself will do it.
possessing health: a healthy person. Principal, principle. As an adjective principal
Imply, infer. To imply is to suggest: He implied means first or primary. It becomes a noun when the
that he would go. To infer is to take in a suggestion: word it modifies is understood: principal (teacher)
He inferred from the conversation that the game had of the school, principal (amount) and interest,
been cancelled. principal (person) in the law suit. Principle is a
Incomplete comparisons. Do not omit than or as noun meaning a rule of conduct or action.
in a double comparison. Reason is because. Statements like The reason I
WRONG: She was as pretty, if not prettier than her was absent is because I was ill are illogical.
sister. CORRECT: The reason for my absence was illness.
CORRECT: She was as pretty as, if not prettier OR I was absent because of illness.
than, her sister. Same. Do not perpetuate a quaint old-fashioned
CORRECT: She was as pretty as her sister, if not business letter usage of employing same for an
prettier. obvious  pronoun:     We  have  received   our  request  
Do not omit other after than or as when comparing for the documents and will send same.
one person or thing to all other persons or things in CORRECT:     will  send  them.
the same class. Their,  there,  the re.    Careless spellers sometimes
WRONG: Susan was bigger than all the girls in the confuse the possessive case their with the adverb
club. there or the contraction they re.
CORRECT: Susan was bigger than all the other Therefor, therefore. Therefor means for that, for
girls in the club. it, for them: I registered the letter and have the
Use comparative form for two terms, superlative for receipt therefor. Therefore means for that reason: I
more than two. was late, therefore, I missed the overture.
CORRECT: He was the taller of the two boys. Unique. Nothing can be more unique or most
CORRECT: It was the tallest of the seven unique because unique means the only one of its
buildings. kind.
Indefinite antecedents. Avoid ambiguous Verbal, oral. Verbal means pertaining to words;
references. oral means pertaining to spoken words: She  
WRONG: The captain told the lieutenant that he nodded assent, but gave no verbal confirmation,
had unwittingly exceeded his authority. either written or oral.
CORRECT: The captain said to the lieutenant: Who, whom. Who is nominative case and must be
You  have  unwittingl  e ceeded   our  authorit . the subject of a verb: Who is there? My Uncle who
WRONG: Everyone could see that he was a patient is a tailor makes his own suits.
who looked closely. Whom is objective case and must be the object of a
CORRECT: Everyone who looked closely could verb or preposition: Whom did you send? The
see that he was a patient. cousin to whom we mailed the letter never received
WRONG: In the attic he found several textbooks it.
with illustrations which were old. Who s,  whose.    Who s is the contraction for who is
CORRECT: In the attic he found several old and who has: Who s  missing?
textbooks, each with many illustrations. Whose is the possessive form of who: Jones, whose
Its,  it s. Its is the possessive case of it. It s is the house was robbed, is in trouble.
contraction of it is. Woman, women. Singular: man, woman. Plural:
Kind, sort, type, variety. These singular nouns men, women.
require singular adjectives: this sort NOT these sort Your,   ou re. Your is the possessive case of you.
Kind of, sort of, type of, variety of. Do not use an I  have  seen  your portrait.
article after these expressions: a new kind of car
NOT a new kind of a car.
Lay, lie. Lay, laying, laid, --transitive verb: to put
down. Lie, lying, lay, lain--intransitive verb: to be
recumbent.
Lead, led. Led is past tense and past participle of to
lead. When pronounced the same way, lead is a
metal.
Learn, teach. To learn is to acquire knowledge; to
teach is to impart it.
Like. Never a conjunction. When used as a
preposition, it should be followed by a noun or a
pronoun in the objective case. Like Tom, like me.
Militate, mitigate. Militate means to have a strong
influence for or against: His poor grades militated
against his success in school. Mitigate means to

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