Digital Signal Processing / 4th Class/ 2022-2023

Energy and Power of a Sequence:

Energy of a sequence is defined by
n 

2
E x (n)
n  
Power of a sequence is defined by

1 n

2
P x ( n)
N n  
 A signal is called energy signal if E < ∞.
 A signal is called power signal if 0 < P < ∞.
 A signal can be an energy signal, a power signal or neither type.
 An energy signal has zero power. E < ∞; P = 0
 A power signal has infinite energy. P < ∞; E = ∞

Discrete-Time Systems (Digital Processors):

A discrete-time system is a device or algorithm that operates on a discrete-time signal
called the input or excitation (e.g. x(n)), according to some rule (e.g. T[.]) to produce another
discrete-time signal called the output or response (e.g. y(n)). The transformation T[.], (also
called operator or mapping) or processing performed by the system on x(n) to produce y(n).

Interconnections of Systems:
1. Series or cascade interconnection. The output of System 1 is the input to System 2.

2. Parallel interconnection. The same input signal is applied to Systems 1 and 2.

20
Digital Signal Processing / 4th Class/ 2022-2023

3. Combination of both cascade and parallel interconnection.

4. Feedback interconnection. The output of System 2 is fed back and added to the external
input to produce the actual input to System 1.

Classification of Discrete-Time Systems:

 Static (Memoryless) and Dynamic (Memory) Systems.
 Linear and Nonlinear Systems.
 Time-Invariant (TI) and Time-Varying Systems.
 Causal and Non-Causal Systems.
 Stable and Unstable Systems.

Static (Memoryless) and Dynamic (Memory) systems:

A discrete-time system is called static or memoryless if its output at any time instant n
depends on the input sample at the same time, but not on the past or future samples of the input.
For example y(n) =αx(n), y(n) =nx(n)+bx3(n).
In the other case, the system is said to be dynamic or to have memory, if the output of a
system at time n depends not only on the value of input at the same instant n, but also on past or
future values of the input. For example
N 
y[n] =αx[n]+ βx[n−1], y (n)   h(k ) x(n  k ) , y (n)   h(k ) x(n  k ) .
k 0 k 0
Linear and Nonlinear Systems:
A discrete-time system is called linear if only if it satisfies the linear superposition
principle. In the other case, the system is called non-linear. If y1(n) and y2(n) are the responses to
the inputs x1(n) and x2(n) respectively, then the input x(n)=ax1(n)+bx2(n) gives the output
y(n)=ay1(n)+by2(n).

21
Digital Signal Processing / 4th Class/ 2022-2023

x1 T[.] y1 ax1(n)+bx2(n) T[.] y

x2 T[.] y2 a y1+by2 =? y

Example: Test the linearity of the system

y(n) = 1/3(x(n+1)+x(n)+x(n-1))
sol.
The input x1 then the output y1(n)= (1/3)a(x1(n+1)+x1(n)+x1(n-1))
The input x2 then the output y2(n)= (1/3)b(x2(n+1)+x2(n)+x2(n-1))
a y1(n)+b y2(n)= (1/3)a(x1(n+1)+x1(n)+x1(n-1))+ (1/3)b(x2(n+1)+x2(n)+x2(n-1))

The input: x(n)=ax1(n)+bx2(n), then the output

y(n)=1/3(ax1(n+1)+bx2(n+1)+ax1(n)+bx2(n)+ax1(n-1)+bx2(n-1))
= (1/3)a(x1(n+1)+x1(n)+x1(n-1))+(1/3)b(x2(n+1)+x2(n)+x2(n-1))
Then, y(n)= a y1(n)+b y2(n) → The system is linear.

Example: Test the linearity of the accumulator system

n
y (n)   x (k )
k  
sol.
The input x1 then the output y1(n)= (1/3)a(x1(n+1)+x1(n)+x1(n-1))
The input x2 then the output y2(n)= (1/3)b(x2(n+1)+x2(n)+x2(n-1))
a y1(n)+b y2(n)= (1/3)a(x1(n+1)+x1(n)+x1(n-1))+ (1/3)b(x2(n+1)+x2(n)+x2(n-1))

The input: x(n)=ax1(n)+bx2(n), then the output

y(n)=1/3(ax1(n+1)+bx2(n+1)+ax1(n)+bx2(n)+ax1(n-1)+bx2(n-1))
= (1/3)a(x1(n+1)+x1(n)+x1(n-1))+(1/3)b(x2(n+1)+x2(n)+x2(n-1))
Then, y(n)= a y1(n)+b y2(n) → The system is linear.

22
Digital Signal Processing / 4th Class/ 2022-2023

Let the input: x(n)=ax1(n)+bx2(n), then the output

n
y ( n)   ax1 (k )  bx2 (k )
k  
n n
a  x1 (k )  b  x2 (k )
k   k  
Then, y(n)= a y1(n)+b y2(n) The system is linear.

Example: Test the linearity of the system

y(n) = x2(n)
sol.
Let the input: x(n)=ax1(n)+bx2(n), then the output y(n)= [ax1(n)+bx2(n)]2
= a 2 x12 (n)  2a b x1 (n) x2 (n)  b 2 x22 (n)
Then, y(n) a y1(n)+b y2(n) The system is nonlinear.

Time-Invariant (TI) and Time-Varying Systems:

A Time-Invariant (TI) system is one in which if y(n) is the output when the input x(n) is
applied, then y(n-n0) is the output when x(n–n0) is applied. In the other case, the system is called
time-variable. Conceptually, a system is TI if the behavior and the input-output characteristics
do not change with time. For example the system y(n) =αx(n).

Example: Given the linear systems:

a. y(n) = 2x(n − 5)
b. y(n) = 2x(3n)
c. y(n) = n x(n)
Determine whether each of the following systems is time-invariant.
sol.
a. Let the input and output be x1(n) and y1(n), respectively; then the system output is y1(n) =
2x1(n − 5). Again, let x2(n) = x1(n − n0) be the shifted input and y2(n) be the output due to the
shifted input. We determine the system output using the shifted input as
23
Digital Signal Processing / 4th Class/ 2022-2023

y2(n) = 2x2(n −5) = 2x1(n −5− n0):

Meanwhile, shifting y1(n) = 2x1(n − 5) by n0 samples leads to
y1(n − n0) = 2x1(n − n0− 5)
We can verify that y2(n) = y1(n − n0). Thus the shifted input of n0 samples causes the system
output to be shifted by the same n0 samples, thus, the system is time-invariant.

b. Let the input and output be x1(n) and y1(n), respectively; then the system output is y1(n)
=2x1(3n). Again, let the input and output be x2(n) and y2(n), where x2(n) = x1(n − n0), a
shifted version, and the corresponding output is y2(n). We get the output due to the shifted
input x2(n) = x1(n − n0) and note that x2(3n) = x1(3n − n0):
y2(n) = 2x2(3n) = 2x1(3n − n0):
On the other hand, if we shift y1(n) by n0 samples, which replaces n in
y1(n) = 2x1(3n) by n − n0, it yield
y1(n − n0) = 2x1(3(n − n0)) = 2x1(3n − 3n0):
Clearly, we know that y2(n) ≠ y1(n − n0). Since the system output y2(n) using the input
shifted by n0 samples is not equal to the system output y1(n) shifted by the same n0 samples,
thus, the system is not time-invariant (time-varying system).

c. Let the input and output be x1(n) and y1(n), respectively; then the output is y1(n) =n x1(n).
Again, let the input and output be x2(n) and y2(n), where x2(n) = x1(n − n0), a shifted version,
and the corresponding output is y2(n). We get the output due to the shifted input x2(n) = x1(n
− n0) and note that x2(n) = n x1(n − n0):
y2(n) = n x2(n) = n x1(n − n0):
On the other hand, if we shift y1(n) by n0 samples, which replaces n in
y1(n) = n x1(n) by n − n0, it yield
y1(n − n0) = (n-n0) x1(n − n0):
Clearly, we know that y2(n) ≠ y1(n − n0). Since the system output y2(n) using the input
shifted by n0 samples is not equal to the system output y1(n) shifted by the same n0 samples,
thus, the system is not time-invariant (time-varying system).

Note: Linear Time Invariant System (LTI) is the system that satisfies both the linearity and the
time-invariance properties. Such systems are mathematically easy to analyze, and easy to
design.

Causal and Non-Causal Systems:

A causal system is one in which the output y(n) at time n depends only on the current
input x(n) at time n, its past input sample values such as x(n − 1), x(n− 2), . . . For example y[n]

24
Digital Signal Processing / 4th Class/ 2022-2023

= αx[n] + βx[n-1]. Otherwise, if a system output depends on the future input values, such as x(n
+ 1), x(n + 2), . . . , the system is noncausal. For example y[n] =αx[n]+ βx[n +1]. The noncausal
system cannot be realized in real time.

Example: Given the linear systems:

a. y(n) = 0.5x(n) + 2.5x(n − 2), for n ≥ 0
b. y(n) = 0.25x(n − 1) + 0.5x(n + 1) − 0.4y(n − 1), for n ≥ 0,
2
c. y (n)   h(k ) x(n  k )
k  2
Determine whether each is causal.
sol.
a. Since for n ≥ 0, the output y(n) depends on the current input x(n) and its past value x(n−2),
the system is causal.

b. Since for n ≥ 0, the output y(n) depends on the input’s future value x(n+1), the system is
noncausal.
c. Since for n ≥ 0, the output y(n) depends on the input’s future values x(n+1) and x(n+2),
the system is noncausal.
Stable and Unstable Systems:
A system is said to be bounded input-bounded output (BIBO) stable if and only if
every bounded input produces the bounded output. It means, that there exist some finite
numbers say Mx and My, such that

For all n, If for some bounded input sequence x(n), the output y(n)is unbounded (infinite), the
system is classified as unstable.

Note: The system is stable, if its transfer function vanishes after a sufficiently long time. For a
stable system:

Where h(k) = unit impulse response.

Example: Given the systems:

a. y[n] = (x[n])2

25
Digital Signal Processing / 4th Class/ 2022-2023

n
b. Accumulator system y[n]   x[k ] ,
k  
c. y[n]  e x[ n]
Determine whether each is stable.
sol.

a. If |x[n]| ≤ Bx < ∞ for all n, then |y[n]| ≤ By= B x2 < ∞ for all n. Thus, the system is stable.

0 n  0
b. If x[n]  u[n]   : bounded
1 n  0
n n 0 n0
Then y[n]   x[k ]   u[k ]  n  1 n0
: not bounded
k   k   
Thus, the accumulator system is unstable.

c. If |x[n]| ≤ Bx < ∞ for all n, then |y[n]| ≤ By= e B x < ∞ for all n. i.e., it is guaranteed that if the

input is bounded by a positive number Bx, the output is bounded by a positive number e B x .
Thus, the system is stable.

n 0 n0
Note:  u[k ]  n  1 n0
k   

System Representation Using Its Impulse Response:

Any discrete-time can be characterized by one of the representations:
1) Difference Equation
2) Impulse Response h(n)
3) Transfer Function H(z)
4) Frequency Response H(W)
In this section, a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system will be represented by its impulse
response (h(n)).
A LTI system can be completely described by its unit-impulse response, which is
defined as the system response due to the impulse input δ(n) with zero initial conditions,
depicted in the following figure. Here x(n) = δ(n) and y(n) = h(n).

Note: The unit step function u[n] is the running sum of the unit impulse δ[n], so the step

26
Digital Signal Processing / 4th Class/ 2022-2023

response S[n] of a LTI processor is the running sum of its impulse response. Therefore, if we
denote the step response by S[n], we have
n
S[ n]  y[ n] x[ n]  u[ n]   h[m ]
m  

Alternatively, h[n] is the first order difference of S[n]

h[n]  y[n] x[ n]   [ n]  S[n]  S[n  1]

Example: For a LTI system described by the following difference equation:

y(n) = 0.8y(n-1) + x(n)
a. Find and sketch the first four sample values of the impulse and step responses.
b. Determine the final value of the step response as n ∞.
sol.
a. By setting x(n)=δ(n) in the system difference equation, then y(n)=h(n) so,
h(n)=0.8h(n-1)+δ(n)
for n=0, h(0)=(0.8)h(-1)+δ(0)=1
for n=1, h(1)=(0.8)h(0)+ δ(1)=0.8
for n=2, h(2)=(0.8)h(1)+δ(2)=(0.8)2=0.64
for n=3, h(3)=(0.8)h(2)+δ(3)=(0.8)3=0.512
b. By setting x(n)=u(n) in the system difference
equation, then y(n)=S(n) so,
S(n)=0.8S(n-1)+u(n)
for n=0, S(0)=(0.8)S(-1)+u(0)=1
for n=1, S(1)=(0.8)S(0)+u(1)=0.8+1=1.8
for n=2, S(2)=(0.8)S(1)+u(2)=0.8(0.8+1)+1=1+0.8+(0.8)2=2.44
for n=3, S(3)=(0.8)S(2)+u(3)=0.8(1+0.8+(0.8)2)+1=1+0.8+(0.8)2+(0.8)3=2.952
 1
Then, for n=∞, S(∞)=1+0.8+(0.8)2+(0.8)3+(0.8)4+ . . . +(0.8)∞=  (0.8) n  1  0.8  5
n 0

27
Digital Signal Processing / 4th Class/ 2022-2023

 1 N 1  x ( N 1)
Note:  ( x) n 
1 x
and  n
( x) 
1 x
n 0 n 0

Example: Given the linear time-invariant system

y(n) = 0.5x(n) + 0.25x(n − 1) with an initial condition x(−1) = 0
a. Determine the unit-impulse response h(n).
b. Draw the system block diagram.
c. Write the output using the obtained impulse response.
sol.
a. h(n) = 0.5 δ(n) + 0.25 δ(n − 1) , where h(0)= 0.5, h(1) = 0.25 and h(n) = 0 elsewhere.
b.

c. y(n) = h(0) x(n) + h(1) x(n − 1)

From this result, it is noted that if the difference equation without the past output terms, y(n
− 1), . . . , y(n − N), that is, the corresponding coefficients a , . . . , a , are zeros, the impulse
1 N

response h(n) has a finite number of terms. We call this a finite impulse response (FIR)
system.
In general, we can express the output sequence of a LTI system from its impulse response and
inputs as:
y(n) = . . .. + h(−1) x(n+ 1) + h(0) x(n) + h(1) x(n−1) + h(2) x(n−2) + . . . ..
This equation called the digital convolution sum.
Example: Given the difference equation
y(n)= 0.25 y(n − 1) + x(n) for n ≥ 0 and y(−1) = 0,
a. Determine the unit-impulse response h(n).
b. Draw the system block diagram.
c. For a step input x(n) = u(n), find the output responses for the first three samples using
the difference equation.
sol.
a. Let x(n) = δ(n), then h(n) = 0.25 h(n − 1) + δ(n)
To solve for h(n), we evaluate
h(0) = 0.25 h(−1) + δ(0) = 0.25 ( 0 ) + 1 = 1
h(1) = 0.25 h(0) + δ(1) = 0.25 ( 1 ) + 0 = 0.25
h(2) = 0.25 h(1) + δ(2) = 0.25 ( 0.5 ) + 0 = 0.0625
…
With the calculated results, we can predict the impulse response as:
n
h(n) =( 0.25) u(n) = δ(n) + 0.25 δ (n − 1) + 0.0625 δ (n − 2) + . . .

b. The system block diagram is given below

28
Digital Signal Processing / 4th Class/ 2022-2023

c. From the difference equation and using the zero-initial condition, we have

Notice that this impulse response h(n) contains an infinite number of terms in its duration due to
the past output term y(n − 1). Such a system as described in the preceding example is called an
infinite impulse response (IIR) system.

29