CONSERVATIOION OF NATURAL RESOURCES (BCV755B)

Module -4: Biodiversity

Introduction

Biodiversity describes the richness and variety of life on earth. It is the most complex and
important feature of our planet. Without biodiversity, life would not sustain. The term
biodiversity was coined in 1985. It is important in natural as well as artificial ecosystems. It
deals with nature’s variety, the biosphere. It refers to variabilities among plants, animals and
microorganism species.

Biodiversity includes the number of different organisms and their relative frequencies in an
ecosystem. It also reflects the organization of organisms at different levels. Biodiversity holds
ecological and economic significance. It provides us with nourishment, housing, fuel, clothing
and several other resources. It also extracts monetary benefits through tourism. Therefore, it is
very important to have a good knowledge of biodiversity for a sustainable livelihood.

Types of Biodiversity

There are the following three different types of biodiversity:

 Genetic Biodiversity
 Species Biodiversity
 Ecological Biodiversity

Genetic diversity: It refers to the variations among the genetic resources of the organisms.
Every individual of a particular species differs from each other in their genetic constitution.
That is why every human looks different from each other. Similarly, there are different varieties
in the same species of rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc.

Species diversity: Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of species found in
a particular area. It is the biodiversity at the most basic level. It includes all the species ranging
from plants to different microorganisms. No two individuals of the same species are exactly
similar. For example, humans show a lot of diversity among themselves.

Ecological diversity: An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their
interaction with each other. Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and
animal species living together and connected by food chains and food webs. It is the diversity
observed among the different ecosystems in a region. Diversity in different ecosystems like
deserts, rainforests, mangroves, etc., include ecological diversity.

Importance of Biodiversity

Biodiversity and its maintenance are very important for sustaining life on earth. A few of the
reasons explaining the importance of biodiversity are:

Ecological Stability

Every species has a specific role in an ecosystem. They capture and store energy and also
produce and decompose organic matter. The ecosystem supports the services without which
humans cannot survive. A diverse ecosystem is more productive and can withstand
environmental stress.

Economic Importance

Biodiversity is a reservoir of resources for the manufacture of food, cosmetic products and
pharmaceuticals. Crops livestock, fishery, and forests are a rich source of food. Wild plants
such as Cinchona and Foxglove plant are used for medicinal purposes. Wood, fibres, perfumes,
lubricants, rubber, resins, poison and cork are all derived from different plant species. The
national parks and sanctuaries are a source of tourism. They are a source of beauty and joy for
many people.

Ethical Importance

All species have a right to exist. Humans should not cause their voluntary extinction.
Biodiversity preserves different cultures and spiritual heritage. Therefore, it is very important
to conserve biodiversity.

Biodiversity in India

India is one of the most diverse nations in the world. It ranks ninth in terms of plant species
richness. Two of the world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots are found in India. It is the origin of
important crop species such as pigeon pea, eggplant, cucumber, cotton and sesame. India is
also a centre of various domesticated species such as millets, cereals, legumes, vegetables,
medicinal and aromatic crops, etc. India is equally diverse in its faunal wealth. There are about
91000 animal species found here. However, diversity is depleting at a drastic rate and various
programmes on biodiversity conservation are being launched to conserve nature.

Economic Values of Medicinal Plants

Medicinal plants have been used in healthcare since time immemorial. Studies have been
carried out globally to verify their efficacy and some of the findings have led to the production
of plant-based medicines. The global market value of medicinal plant products exceeds $100
billion per annum.

A medicinal plant is any plant which, in one or more of its organs, contains substances that can
be used for therapeutic purposes or which are precursors for the synthesis of useful drugs. This
description makes it possible to distinguish between medicinal plants whose therapeutic
properties and constituents have been established scientifically, and plants that are regarded as
medicinal but which have not yet been subjected to a thorough scientific study.

The emphasis on the use of medicinal plants had hitherto been placed on the treatment rather
than prevention of diseases. However, there exists in the literature considerable report in recent
times on research work on the use of medicinal plants and their constituents in disease
prevention. A World Health Organisation (WHO) Expert Group defined Traditional Medicine
as the sum total of all knowledge and practices, whether explicable or not, used in diagnosis,
prevention and elimination of physical, mental, or social imbalance and relying exclusively on
practical experience and observation handed down from generation to generation. Over 90%
of traditional medicine recipes/remedies contain medicinal plants but this paper will address,
specifically, the medicinal plants that have been implicated with preventive measures in disease
control strategies. However, it must be noted that only a very thin divide exists between
treatment and prevention in some cases. A quick example is the fact that by treating mild
elevation of blood pressure renal disease can be prevented.

 plants or plant parts used medicinally in galenical preparations (e.g. decoctions,

infusions, etc.) e.g. Cascara bark;
 plants used for extraction of pure substances either for direct medicinal use or for the
hemi-synthesis of medicinal compounds (e.g. hemi-synthesis of sex hormones from
diosgenin obtained from Dioscorea yams);
 food, spice, and perfumery plants used medicinally, e.g. ginger;
 microscopic plants, e.g. fungi, actinomycetes, used for isolation of drugs, especially
antibiotics. Examples are ergot (Claviceps purpurea growing on rye) or Streptomyces
griseus; and
 fibre plants, e.g. cotton, flax, jute, used for the preparation of surgical dressings.

The growing importance of medicinal plants can be appreciated from the economic stand point
when the following facts are considered:

 Global trade in herbs is over USD 100 Billion per annum

 India and China's medicinal plant trade is about two to five billion US dollars annually
 In Germany, it is over one billion US dollars annually
 Rose Periwinkle which is endemic to Madagascar fetches US$100 million per annum
 China trades in 7,000 species and 700,000 tons of medicinal plants per annum
 India trades in 7,000 species of medicinal plants
 Morocco exports 58.7 tons of medicinal plants annually
 In the last 5 years, sales of medicinal plants doubled in China, tripled in India and grew by
25% in Europe.

Economic Values of Medicinal Plants in India

The market for medical plants in India stood at Rs. 4.2 billion (US$ 56.6 million) in 2019 and
is expected to increase at a CAGR 38.5% to Rs. 14 billion (US$ 188.6 million) by 2026. The
total world herbal trade is currently assessed at US$ 120 billion. The industrial demand on
medicinal plant resources is poised to increase owing to the worldwide buoyancy in the herbal
sector engaged in production of herbal health care formulations; herbal based cosmetic
products and herbal nutritional supplements. In India, nearly 9,500 registered herbal industries
and a multitude of unregistered cottage-level herbal units depend upon the continuous supply
of medicinal plants for manufacture of herbal medical formulations based on Indian Systems
of Medicine. In addition to the industrial consumption, significant quantities of medicinal plant
resources are consumed in the country under its traditional health care practices at the
household level, by traditional healers and by practitioners of Indian Systems of Medicine. An
idea about the richness and diversity of these health care practices in India can be had from the
diversity of plant species used in these systems. It is estimated that more than 6,000 higher
plant species forming about 40% of the higher plant diversity of the country are used in its
codified and folk healthcare traditions.
The industrial demand for the medicinal plant resources has been on the rise due to the
worldwide buoyancy in the herbal sector engaged in production of herbal health care
formulations; herbal based cosmetic products and herbal nutritional supplements. In India,
nearly 9,500 registered herbal industries and a multitude of unregistered cottage-level herbal
units depend upon the continuous supply of medicinal plants for manufacture of herbal medical
formulations based on Indian Systems of Medicine.

In addition to the industrial consumption, significant quantities of medicinal plant resources

are consumed in the country under its traditional health care practices at the household level,
by traditional healers and by practitioners of Indian Systems of Medicine. Whereas, more than
6,000 higher plant species are estimated to be used in the codified and folk healthcare traditions
in the country, the quantum of their consumption has remained a matter of guestimate. The
fallout of the lack of reliable species-wise demand estimates - so very important for sustainable
management of medicinal plant resources - has been an inadequate focus on the management
of medicinal plants in the country. In fact, wild populations of many a medicinal plant species,
forming the major resource base for the herbal industry, are reported to be facing a serious
threat of extinction due to indiscriminate harvesting. It is in this context that the National
Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB), Department of AYUSH, Government of India, during 2006-
07, constituted a nation-wide study to assess the demand and supply of medicinal plants in
India. The Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore
undertook this study from August 2006 to February 2007.

Biogeochemical Cycling

The biogeochemical cycle, or more generally a cycle of matter, is the movement and
transformation of chemical elements and compounds between living organisms, the
atmosphere, and the Earth's crust. Major biogeochemical cycles include the carbon cycle
the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle. In each cycle, the chemical element or molecule is
transformed and cycled by living organisms and through various geological forms and
reservoirs, including the atmosphere, the soil and the oceans. It can be thought of as the
pathway by which a chemical substance cycles (is turned over or moves through) the biotic
compartment and the abiotic compartments of Earth. The biotic compartment is
the biosphere and the abiotic compartments are the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
For example, in the carbon cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants
through photosynthesis, which converts it into organic compounds that are used by organisms
for energy and growth. Carbon is then released back into the atmosphere
through respiration and decomposition. Additionally, carbon is stored in fossil fuels and is
released into the atmosphere through human activities such as burning fossil fuels. In the
nitrogen cycle, atmospheric nitrogen gas is converted by plants into usable forms such
as ammonia and nitrates through the process of nitrogen fixation. These compounds can be
used by other organisms, and nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere through denitrification and
other processes. In the water cycle, the universal solvent water evaporates from land and
oceans to form clouds in the atmosphere, and then precipitates back to different parts of the
planet. Precipitation can seep into the ground and become part of groundwater systems used
by plants and other organisms, or can runoff the surface to form lakes and rivers. Subterranean
 water can then seep into the ocean along with river discharges, rich
with dissolved and particulate organic matter and other nutrients.

Threat to Biodiversity

 Climate Change. Climate change refers to the long term and irreversible change that occurs
in the Earth’s climate. This increase in the atmosphere’s temperature has major effects on the
environment such as the seasons, rising sea levels, and glacial retreats.
 Habitat Loss and Degradation. Habitat loss refers to changes in the environment that
result to the rendering of a specific habitat to be functionally valuable.
 Pollution. Be it water, air, or land pollution, all forms of pollution appear to be a threat to all
life forms on Earth. However, it poses a major threat to biodiversity regarding the nutrient
loading of nitrogen and phosphorus elements.
 Invasive Species. An exotic or unnatural species can be any organism that has been
introduced

Extinction of Species: Extinction is the global loss of a species. Five mass extinctions have
occurred in geological history, and extinction rates were particular high during these events.
Earth is currently experiencing a sixth mass extinction, which is driven by human activities.
When mass extinctions are not occurring, extinction still occurs at a low rate, the background
extinction rate. The local elimination of a species (extirpation) is also of conservation concern.
Habitat loss: It includes habitat destruction, altering the physical environment such that a
species can no longer live there, and habitat fragmentation, which involves dividing a habitat
into discontinuous patches.

Pollution: It is the release of harmful chemicals or other materials into the environment. Some
types of air pollution results in acid deposition and climate change. Nutrient pollution of water
bodies due to fertilizer overuse results in eutrophication.

Climate Change: The release of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, when
burning fossil fuels for energy causes climate change. Not only does climate change involve
an increase in average global temperature, but it also results in unpredictable weather patterns.
Climate change threatens biodiversity through a variety of mechanisms and can cause species
range shifts, mismatched biotic interactions, sea level rise, and ocean acidification.

Overexploitation: It involves removing organisms at a faster rate than they can be replenished.
Examples include the poaching of elephants, unsustainable hunting for bush meat, overfishing,
and overcollection of slow-growing plants and fungi.

Invasive species: are those occurring outside of their historical distribution that cause
ecological and/or economic harm. Invasive species can overpredate or outcompete native
species, sometimes causing their extinction or extirpation. Examples of invasive species
include the Asian carp, zebra mussels, Bd (which causes a fungal disease in amphibians),
purple loosestrife, and the European starling.

Natural and Anthropogenic Disturbance to Biodiversity

Natural disturbances such as forest fire, wind throw, and insect and disease outbreaks can be
important drivers of ecosystem dynamics. Human impacts, such as the changes in climate with
industrialization, logging, accidental and intentional introduction of plants, and land use
changes, also greatly affect ecosystem dynamics.

Conservation of Biodiversity
Biodiversity conservation refers to the protection, preservation, and management of
ecosystems and natural habitats and ensuring that they are healthy and functional. The
variability of life on Earth is called Biodiversity. Biodiversity considers all the living organisms
present on Earth. Healthy and good biodiversity indicate a healthy and good ecosystem. Hence,
biodiversity is very important. A healthy ecosystem also includes the availability of pure water,
pure air, healthy land, a good climate, and the availability of nutrients on Earth. Therefore,
biodiversity conservation plays an important role in the quality of life of all living organisms.
The protection and management of biodiversity in obtaining sustainable development of
resources are called Biodiversity conservation.
There are three major objectives of Biodiversity conservation:
 Preservation of the diversity of species.
 Sustainability of species and ecosystem.
 Maintaining life-supporting and essential ecological processes.

A number of factors like pollution, erosion, evolution, urbanization, industrialization,

population, and depletion lead to the loss of biodiversity. Loss of biodiversity is very harmful
to the ecosystem as it indicates either loss of species, or reduction of species in a natural habitat,
or both of them on a global level. Loss of biodiversity has a poor impact on the ecosystem.
Loss of biodiversity directly impacts the ecosystem and food chains in it. It affects agriculture
and weakens the resistance to natural disasters like floods, drought, etc.

The three main objectives of Biodiversity Conservation are as follows-

 To protect and preserve species diversity.
 To ensure sustainable management of the species and ecosystems.
 Prevention and restoration of ecological processes and life support systems.

Biodiversity Conservation Methods

Two types of methods are employed to conserve biodiversity. They are- In situ conservation
and Ex-situ conservation.

Need for Biodiversity Conservation

Various types of conservation methods ensure a healthy ecosystem. A healthy ecosystem
means a clean and healthy environment, smooth running food chains, availability of resources,
and so on. Human beings are also majorly dependent on the environment for basic necessities
and wellbeing. We are interdependent on a variety of species of plants and animals for a living.
Hence it is very important to conserve these species and their ecosystems which are threatened
by many human activities. A threat to biodiversity poses a threat to humankind. It can be the
cause of various grave problems like pollution, habitat loss, resource exploitation, climate
change, species extinction, disease outbreak, and so on. For economic and various life support
reasons, it is very important to protect and preserve biodiversity.

Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation

Following are some of the important strategies for biodiversity conservation:
 Conservation of all food varieties, timber plants, livestock, microbes, and agricultural
animals should be done.
 Identification and conservation of all the economically important organisms should be
done.
 Preservation of unique ecosystems should be done.
 Efficient utilization of resources should be done.
 Prevention of poaching and hunting of wild animals should be done.
 Development of the reserves and protected areas should be done carefully.
 Reduction in the levels of pollutants should be done on the environment.
 Prohibition of deforestation should be followed.
 Strict environmental laws should be followed.
 Conservation of useful and endangered species of plants and animals should be done.

National Parks
These are limited reserves maintained by the government for the conservation of wildlife as
well as the environment. Human activities are prohibited in national parks and they are solely
dedicated to the protection of natural fauna of the area. They mostly occupy an area of 100-
500 square km. There are a total of 104 national parks in India, right now. The national parks
may even be within a biosphere reserve. These are small reserves that are protected and
maintained by the government. Its boundaries are well protected, where human activities such
as grazing, forestry, habitat, and cultivation are restricted.
Example- Kanha National Park, Gir National Park, Kaziranga National Park, and so on.

Wildlife Sanctuaries
Wildlife Sanctuaries are protected areas meant only for the conservation of wild animals. A
few human activities such as cultivation, wood collection, and other forest product collection
are allowed here, but they must not interfere with the conservation of the animals. Tourist visits
are also allowed in these areas. There are a total of 551 wildlife sanctuaries in India. These are
the places where only wild animals can be found. Certain human activities like timber
harvesting, cultivation, collection of woods, and other forest products are permitted unless they
interfere with the conservation project. Recreation tourism is also permitted.
Example- Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary, Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,
etc.
Biodiversity Hotspots
A biodiversity hotspot are the areas of conservation where there is strictly a minimum of 1500
species of vascular plants and a habitat that has lost its 70% cover. These are protected areas
for various purposes where the wildlife, inhabitant lifestyle, and domesticated plants and
animals are conserved. Tourist and research activities are allowed.
Example- The Himalayas, The Western Ghats, The North East, and The Nicobar Islands.

Gene Banks

People save money in banks, in case of an emergency. Genetic banks serve a similar purpose
for farmers and scientists who work to conserve rare plants and animals. Researchers or farmers
can withdraw samples from these “gene” banks to help rebuild populations of rare plant
varieties and animal breeds or to help increase genetic diversity within species.
Gene banks also preserve cells or organisms that host unusual gene variants — genes with
special traits. Those genes might later prove useful when some disease epidemic strikes, when
the climate changes or when other factors threaten the survival of plants or animals. Farmers
could use the banked deposits — stored cells or tissues — to restore genetic diversity or to
introduce traits from other breeds or varieties. Some gene banks house millions or even billions
of plant seeds. Gene sanctuary is a conservation area reserved only for plants. India has its only
gene sanctuary set up in Garo Hills of Meghalaya for the conservation of wild species of Citrus.
Plans to open more such sanctuaries are underway.

Zoological Gardens
The term zoological garden refers to zoology, the study of animals. The term is derived from
the Greek zoon, 'animal', and the suffix -logia, 'study of'. The abbreviation zoo was first used
of the London Zoological Gardens, which was opened for scientific study in 1828, and to the
public in 1847. The first modern zoo was the Tierpark Hagenbeck by Carl
Hagenbeck in Germany. In the United States alone, zoos are visited by over 181 million people
annually. In India good examples are: Mysore Zoological Park, Alipore Zoo etc

Pollen Culture

Microspore or the immature pollen can be used as the explant to get the haploid plants directly.
For pollen or microspore culture the flower buds are collected, surface sterilized and the anther
lobes are dissected out from the flower buds as before. Then the anther lobes are squeezed with
the help of a scalpel within a tube or small beaker to collect the microspore or pollen in nutrient
media. Then the anther tissue debris is removed by filtering the suspension through a nylon
sieve with a diameter slightly larger than the pollen size (40µ-100µ) allowing the microspore
only to pass through it.

Advantages of Pollen Culture:

The main disadvantage of pollen culture is that the plants or embryos or calli not only originate
from microspore or pollen but may also originate from various other parts of anther lobes
(anther wall, nucellus, tapetum) which are diploid tissues. Furthermore, anther wall or other
tissue may affect the way of androgenesis by inhibiting the penetrance of media or stimulating
effect of hormones supplied. This difficulty can be avoided by culturing the isolated
microspores or pollen.

Ecological Restoration
Ecological restoration, or ecosystem restoration, is the process of assisting the recovery of
an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.[1] It is distinct
from conservation in that it attempts to retroactively repair already damaged ecosystems rather
than take preventative measures. Ecological restoration can reverse biodiversity loss, combat
climate change, and support local economies. Habitat restoration involves the deliberate
rehabilitation of a specific area to re-establish a functional ecosystem. To achieve successful
habitat restoration, it's essential to understand the life cycles and interactions of species, as well
as the essential elements such as food, water, nutrients, space, and shelter needed to support
species populations. When it's not feasible to restore habitats to their original size or state,
designated areas known as wildlife corridors can be established. These corridors connect
different habitats and open spaces, facilitating the survival of species within human-dominated
landscapes. For instance, marshes serve as critical stopover sites for migratory birds, wildlife
overpasses enable animals to safely cross over highways, and protected riparian zones within
urban settings provide necessary refuges for flora and fauna. The United Nations named 2021-
2030 the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration.
Scientists estimate that the current species extinction rate, or the rate of the Holocene
extinction, is 1,000 to 10,000 times higher than the normal, background rate. Habitat loss is a
leading cause of species extinctions and ecosystem service decline.

There are many reasons to restore ecosystems. Some include:

 Restoring natural capital such as drinkable water or wildlife populations

 Restoring environmental degradation
 Helping human communities and the ecosystems upon which they depend adapt to the
impacts of climate change (through ecosystem-based adaptation).
 Mitigating climate change (e.g. through carbon sequestration).
 Helping threatened or endangered species..
 Aesthetic reasons.
 Moral reasons: human intervention has unnaturally destroyed many habitats, and there
exists an innate obligation to restore these destroyed habitats.
 Regulated use/harvest, particularly for subsistence.
 Cultural importance to indigenous people.
 The environmental health of nearby populations.
Social Forestry
Social Forestry means making use of unused and fallow lands so that deeper forests are
safeguarded from exploitation, by using fast-growing trees to meet the needs of fodder and
fuelwood. This article covers details on the 6 important benefits of social forestry and the 5
different types of social forestry. The National Commission on Forests used the term Social
Forestry in 1976. The main aim of the commission was to use land surrounding urban
settlements, deforested due to human activities.

Objectives of Social Forestry

Social forestry schemes have the main objectives to

 Improve the environment for protecting agriculture from adverse climatic factors
 Increase the supply of fuelwood for domestic use, small timber for rural housing,
fodder for livestock, and minor forest produce forlocal industries,
 Increase the natural beauty of the landscape; create recreational forests for the benefit
of rural and urban populations,
 Provide jobs for unskilled workers,
 Effect land rehabilitation
 Raise the standard of living and quality of life of rural and urban people.

Social Forestry – 6 Important Benefits

There are many benefits associated with Social Forestry. The 6 Important benefits are shared
below.

Fight Against Global Warming: Trees have a vital role in removing carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere. Areas having tree cover will be much cooler than the areas without it, thus
helping in reducing the energy use. Trees reduce carbon dioxide by acting as a carbon dioxide
sink.

Soil Conservation: Social forestry helps in soil conservation through the following ways.

1. Tree roots help in preventing soil erosion by holding the soil in its place.
2. Trees reduce soil erosion by reducing the impact of raindrops on the barren surface.
3. Decaying leaves makes the soil richer by forming an organic layer on top and
reducing the soil erosion.
4. It also helps in increasing the capacity of soil in storing water.
Biodiversity will be Increased: Well grown trees will offer habitation for various animals,
plants, shrubs, birds, insects etc. The trees become a source of food and shelter.

Health Benefits by Improving Air Quality: It helps people by removing various pollutants
present in the atmosphere and gives clean and fresh air to breath. Clean air is vital for the
health of human beings. Moreover, many types of trees have medicinal values.

Conservation of Energy: It provides a cooling effect to an area it has been planted. Thus it
helps in reduced consumption of air conditioners, which directly reduces energy
consumption. Lesser energy consumption means a lesser demand for power, which directly
leads to lesser power generation through power plants that consume fossil fuels.

Social Benefits: Social forestry helps in the creation of recreation parks, which will help
people destress due to busy schedules in their lives.

Ecosystem

An ecosystem is defined as a community of lifeforms in concurrence with non-living

components, interacting with each other. An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of
ecology where the living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding environment.
In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interactions between organisms and their
environment. The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by [Link], an English botanist, in
1935.

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.

The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:

 Biotic Components
 Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system
where the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

Biotic Components

Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic
components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or
decomposers).
  Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they
can produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other
organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers.
 Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
 Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can
either be carnivores or omnivores.
 Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for
food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.

 Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms

prey on tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top
of a food chain as they have no natural predators.
 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on
the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem
as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components

Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water,
soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.

Functions of Ecosystem

The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

 It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders
stability.
 It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
 It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
 It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
 The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involve the
exchange of energy.

So, the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together in an
ecosystem are:

 Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.

 Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one
trophic level to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to
consumers and then to decomposers and finally back to the environment.
  Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-
soil is the major site for decomposition.
 Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrient are consumed and recycled back in
various forms for the utilisation by various organisms.

Types of Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning

thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem: Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There

are different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They
are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Tundra Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem: A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals
and microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment.
Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.

Grassland Ecosystem: In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and

herbs. Temperate grasslands and tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of grassland
ecosystems.

Tundra Ecosystem: Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or
where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type of
ecosystem is found in the Arctic or mountain tops.

Desert Ecosystem: Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little
rainfall and scarce vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided
into two types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem
 2. Marine Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem: The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes

lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the
marine ecosystem.

Marine Ecosystem: The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more
substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.