Periodic variation of atomic radii

1. Variation in a period: In representative (s- and p- block) elements, there is a general decrease of atomic
radius in a period because the effective nuclear charge (Z) increases across a row. If all are van der
Waals radii, then
Li> BeB>C>N>O>F>Ne
For covalent radii

Ne >Li>Be>B>C>N>O>F
van der Covalent radius
Waals
radius

For d-block elements, the variation of atomic radi in a period is depicted in Figure 2.8. The atomic
radius initially decreases, then remains constant and finally increase again. The values of the radii of
d-block elements and trends in the sizes are discussed further in chapter 11.

Third series

Radius
Atomic

Second series

First series

Atomic Number

Figure 2.8 Variation of atomic radii of d-block elements in a period.

38 Chapter 2 IPeriodic Table and Periodic Properties

2. Variation in a group: For representative (s- and p- block) elements, the atomic radii increases down the
group. This is due to successive use of orbitals with principal quantum number (n) one higher than the
last. Some exceptions to this are:
a. The radius of gallium is expected to be greater than that of aluminium but r,, e: This behavior
can be explained on the basis of electronic configuration for the two elements and the poor shield
ing effect of d-electrons.

Al: [Ne<3s3p'
Ga: [Arl4s'3d°4p'
b. Similarly, the radius of thallium is expected to be greater than that of indium but I, The is
explained on the basis of electronic configuration and poor shielding of is d and felectrons
In: (Kr]5s4d"sp'
T: [Xel6s'4f"sa"sp'
For d-block elements, the trend in atomic rad1i is: sd series4d series sd series
This is because the radius increases as the shell number increases. The radius of elements of
4d- series is about the same as elements of 5d series. This is due to the lanthanoid contraction
that causes increase in Zeft Value due to poor shielding of fourteen f electrons. The exception
to this behaviour is :Sc <Y<La. This is because there is no 4f electron in the electronic con
figuration of La.
For f-block elements, in lanthanoids, the variation of atomic radii with increasing atomic number
is presented in the graph depicted in Figure 2.9. The effective nuclear charge increases along the
period so the atomic radius for the elements decreases. The exceptions to the trend are Eu and Yb
and the explanation for this is discussed in Chapter 12.

Radius
Atomic

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Atomic Number

Figure 2.9 Variation in atomic radiiwith increase in atomic number for lanthanoids.

For actinoids, there is a smooth decrease in atomic radius from Th to Lr.

lonic radius
When a positive ion is formed, the number of positive charges on the nucleus exceeds the number of elec
trons and effective nuclear charge is increased, resulting in the remaining electrons being attracted more
strongly by the nucleus. Thus a positive ion is always smaller than the corresponding atom and more the
electrons removed smaller is the ion.
When a negative ion is formed, one or more electrons are added to an atom and the effective nuclear
charge is reduced. The electron cloud expands and the size of negative ion is more than that of the atom
(Figure 2.10).
 2.3 I Periodic Trends in Properties 39

-p
A*(Cation)

+e A(Anion)

Figure 2.10 Formation of positive and negative ions from an atom.

Thus the order of radius is:

A >A>A*
Ionic radius depends upon following factors:
1. If the shell number increases the ionic radius increases. Therefore, in a group, the ionic radius increases.
For example,
F<Cl<Br<r
0<s< Se<Te
H<Li<Nat<K*<Rb*<Cs
Be<Mg*<Cat<Sr<Ba?t<Ra?*
2. The trend in the radius of ions is:
a. If the charge of cation increases, the ionic radius decreases. For example,
Fe? >Fe*;Ti2* >T> Ti;Mn* > Mn >Mn?:
The smallest cation is H+.
b. If the charge of anion increases, the ionic radius increases. For example,
O>0; S>s
3. For isoelectronic species, as the number of protons increases the radius of ion decreases.
C>N>0>F>Na'> Mg>AI*
Note: The smallest anion is F and not H(ionic radius 208 pm). The radius order of anions is
F<C<Br <H<I The exception in the size of His because this is the only anion with elp ratio =2.

lonization energy
Ionization energy (IE) is the energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom in it
ground state.
A(g)A(g) AH, =+ve
It is measured in eV atom or kJ mol.
Some characteristic features of ionization energy are listed as follows:
1. The ionization energy for an atom is always positive and for an ion may be negative.
-
Be -ve IE Be

2. Successive ionization energy always increases for any species because the efp ratio gradually decreases.
Thus,
AA* IE,
’A*’A*
IE,

IE, < IE, < IE, < IE, <...<IE,

Note that:

IE, of A' = IE,of A, IE, of A* = IE,of A* = IE,of A

40 Chapter 2 I Periodic Table and Periodic Properties

3. Observing the sudden jump of successive IE values we can predict the number of valence shell
electrons of the corresponding atom. For example,
Element IE, IE, IE IE4 No. of valence electrons
Na 5.139 47.28 71.68 98.91 1
Ge 11.26 26.38 47.44 77.41 392.07 4
Al 5.98 18.22 28.44 119.4 3
*Ionization energy is expressed in eV/atom.
Sodium achieves stable configuration of neon after losing one electron. Germanium achieves stable
configuration of [Ar]3d" after losing four electrons and aluminium loses three electrons to achieve
stable configuration of neon. Hence, they do not show tendency to lose any more electrons and sudden
jump in the values of IE are observed.
Ionization energy depends upon the following factors:
1. It decreases when shell number or the radius increases.
2. It increases when Z.r increases.
3. It decreases when o (shielding constant) increases.
4. It is more for half-filled and fully-filled electronic configurations.
5. It also depends upon the orbitals from which the electron is removed. If the principal quantum
number is the same, then the energy required for removal of electrons from different orbitals shows
the following order:s>p>d>f.

Periodic variations in ionization energy

The trends in ionization energy of elements in the periodic table are discussed as follows:
1. For representative (s- and p- block) elements:
a. In a period: The Za increases in a period, hence IE increases. The observed overall values for periods
show the following order:
Li <B< Be <C<0<N<F<Ne
Irregular trend Na<Al <Mg <Si < S <P<ClkAr
K<Ga <Ca < Ge < Se <As < Br < Kr
Rb < Sr< In<Sn< Sb <Te <I< Xe
Regular trend |Cs < Ba < TI< Pb< Bi< Po<At< Rn
Some exceptions to the trend are:
(i) Be>B Mg> Al Ca> Ga
Be, Mg and Ca have fully-filled ns' orbitals and hence higher IE values, while B, Al and Ga attain
fully-filled ns configuration on losing one electron.
(ii) N>0 P>S As> Se

N, P and As have half-filled electronic configuration and hence higher IE values, while O, S and Se
achieve half-filled configuration on loss of one electron.
(iii) a. IE, ofGroup IA> IE, of Group IIA elements
b. IE, of Group VA> IE, of Group VIA elements
b. In a group: The IE generally decreases down a group. Some exceptions to the trend are:
(i) 5.98
AleV 5.99Ga
cV
(due to poor shielding of ten d electrons in Ga)
(ii) In < TI
5.78 eV 6,01eV
(due to lanthanoid contraction)
Hence, the overall order for the group is
B>Tl> Ga > Al>In
 2.3 IPeriodic Trends in Properties 41

C. Sn < Pb (due to lanthanoid contraction in Pb)

7.344 eV 7.416 eV

The overall order for its group elements is:

C> Si> Ge> Pb> Sn
2. For d-block elements:
In a period: There is slight increase due to increase in Z values along the period but it is not promi
nent. But there is a sudden jump from copper to zinc, silver to cadmium and gold to mercury because
of full-filled configurations.
In a group: IE, of 3d series IE, of 4d series while IE,of 4d series < IE, of 5d series due to lanthanide
contraction. The exception to the trend is:
Sc > 6.38Y
6.54 eV
>La
eV 557 eV
Note that lanthanide contraction is not observed in case of lanthanum.

Applications of ionization energy

1. Low ionization energy of an element indicates that metallic or electropositive character is more.
2. High ionization energy of an element indicates that element is either an inert gas or halogen.
3. Low ionization energy of an element means reactivity of the element is more by means of loss of
electron.
4. Low ionization energy of an element means that its reducing power is high. For example, for alkali
metals the reducing power order is
Na<K< Rb< Cs < Li
The exception of lithium atom is due to its high hydration energy and this will be discussed on Chapter 9.
5. If the difference in ionization energy, that is, A (IE, - IE) is greater than 16 eV atom, then the (+1)
oxidation state is stable. For example, for Na, A (IE,- IE))= 41 eV atom Nat is more stable.
6. If value of A(IE,- IE,) is less than 11 eV atom then the (+2) oxidation state is stable. For example,
for Mg,value of A(IE,- IE,) =7eV atom’Mg is more stable.

Electron affinity
Electron affinity is the energy released when one mole of electron is added to one mole of an element in its
isolated gaseous state (ground state).
A(g) *’A AH=-x kJ mol
It is represented as EA and its unit is eV atom or kJ mol-' or kcal mol. It is also known as electron
gain enthalpy and represented as byA Ho:
According to the old convention, for an element A
A +e’A AH =(-)x kJ mol
The negative sign indicates that energy is released. For those cases in which energy is absorbed the EA
value considered as zero.
According to the new convention, AH, may be negative or positive depending upon the circumstance and
EA=-AH, (At absolute zero temperature)
While at any other temperature T,
AH, =-EA-RT
Hence, it is better to consider AH., -EA.
Note:
(i)) EA, > EA,, that is for an element, the electron affinity for the first electron is greater than that of the
second electron.
A*AA
n, n n+1 n+2
42 Chapter 2 IPeriodic Table and Periodic Properties

(i) Successive electron affinity always decreases. For example,

AH=(-)ve
t e 0- AH.(+)ve
+2e 0 AH,-(+)ve

(iiü) AH, for all elements is positive.

(iv) The electron affinity and ionization energy are related as
EAof A

A
EA of A

It is clear that

|EA of A<=||E of A
Accordingly,
EA ofA' ||Eof A|
EA of A*|=|IE of A' |
and so on

Periodic trends of electron affinity

For representative (s- and p- block) elements:
a. In agroup:There is decrease of electron affinity in general but for p-block elements only the EA, of
second period element is less than EA,of third period element.
Second period Third period
B V
< Al
C Si
V P
V

F CI
The third period elements have larger size and vacant 3d orbitals, which can accommodate incoming
electron easily.
b. In aperiod: The electron affinity increases from left to right as Zr increases (except inert gases) in a
period. Some exceptions to the trend are:
(i) EA of alkali metals > EA of alkaline earth metals, depicted as follows:
Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals

ns' + e ns nste ns'np'

Fully-filled electronic configuration is achieved Fully-filled electronic configuration is disturbed

AH, is (-)ve AH, is (+)ve

(i) EA of C > EA of N. Similarly, (ii) EA of Group IA> EA of Group IIIA

EA of Si > EA of P EA of Li > EA of B
EA of Ge > EA of As EA of Na > EA of Al
EA of Sn > EA of Sb EA of K EA of Ga
EA of Pb < EA of Bi EA of Rb > EA of In
EA of Cs > EA of Th
 2.3 | Periodic Trends in Properties 43

On addition of an electron, the elements C, Si, Ge and Sn achieve half-filled electronic configuration
while in case of N, P,As and Sb do not have the tendency to gain electron and thus lose their half-filled
configuration.
Electron affinity depends upon a number of factors, that include:
1. It decreases when radius increases.
2. It increases when Zo increases.
3. It decreases when oincreases.
4. EA of half-filled and full-filled electronic configuration is less.
5. EA order for addition of electron in different orbitals having the same principal quantum number
is s>p>d>f
Note: Some general observations are listed as follows.
1. AH is negative for most of the elements.
2. AH. is positive for:
a. inert gas elements.
b. alkaline earth metals (Be and Mg only).
c. for N only

Electronegativity
In 1931, Pauling defined electronegativity of an atom as the tendency of the atom to attract electrons (bond
pair) towards itself when combined in a compound. It is a unitless and dimensionless quantity.
Electronegativity depends upon the following factors:
1. Itdecreases when radius increases.
2. It increases when Z increases.
3. It decreases when o (shielding constant) increases.
4. It increases when the oxidation state of an element increases.
5. It increases as much the percentage of s character in hybrid orbital increases. For example,
Carbon compound Hybridization Electronegativity value
sp' 2.5
-C-C

sp' 2.75
C=C

sp 3.25
-C=C

If two atoms have similar electronegativities, that is similar tendencies to attract electrons, the
bond between them is largely covalent. But when the difference between the electronegativites is large,
the bond has high degree of polar character. Some important approaches for obtaining values of
electronegativity are discussed as follows:
1. Pauling scale: This scale is based upon energy calculation and the expression is

ZA-XB=0.102JA,- (when energies are expressed in kJ mol)

or XAXs = 0.208 A -B (when energies are expressed in kcal mol")
where za is electronegativity of A, Xg is electronegativity of B;
44 Chapter 2 l Periodic Table and Periodic Properties

A- is the resonance energy of bond A-B =|E- (observed) - EA-B (theoretical)|

Es (theoretical) = E,A XE
The values of electronegativity in Pauling scale for different elements are given as follows:

F Cl N Br C P H B Si
4 3.5 3.16 3.04 2.85 2.55 2.58 2.5 2.18 2.1 2.04 1.8

2. Mulliken scale: Mulliken suggested an alternate approach to electronegativity based on the ionization
energy and electron affinity of the element. In this scale, the electronegativity is given by the relation
IE + EA
2
where IE and EA are expressed in eV [Link] electronegativity is the average of ionization energy
and electron affinity. The values of electronegativity are about 2.8 times larger than the Pauling values.
Thus the relationship more in use is
2.8
More accurately
Xp= 0.3362y - 0.2
3. Allred Rochow scale: Allred defined electronegativity as the attractive force between nucleus and an
electron at a distance equal to covalent radius, In this scale, the electronegativity is given by

ZAR 0.359 Zet

where r is the covalent radius in Å and Z, is the effective nuclear charge on the incoming electron or
peripheral electron. The following equation gives the correlation of xAR with xp
Xp aR +0.744

Periodic variations of electronegativity

1. In aperiod, the electronegativity increases from left to right as Z., increases.
2. In a group, the electronegativity decreases in general.
Some important points related to electronegativity are listed as follows:
1. Fluorine has the highest electronegativity in the periodic table, that is, 4.
2. Caesium is having lowest electronegativity in the periodic table, that is, 0.7(excluding the radioactive
element Fr).
3. Alkali metals have the lowest electronegativity in their respective period.
4. Halogens have the highest electronegativity in their respective period.
5. Electronegativity of inert gases is zero.

Applications of Electronegativity
Some applications of electronegativity are listed as follows:
1. Percentage ionic character in a bond can be calculated using Haney-Smith equation:
%ionic character = 16|Az +3.5(Az)'
where Ay is the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms.
2. The acidic and basic properties of metal oxides can be predicted. As Az increases, the acidic strength
of oxides of different elements decreases. For example,
 Table 10.1 Atomic and Physical Properties of the Alkali Metals
Property Lithium Sodium Potassium Rubidium Caesium Francium
Li Na K Rb Cs Fr

Atomic number 3 11 19 37 55 87
Atomic mass (g mol) 6.94 22.99 39. 10 85.47 132.91 (223)
Electronic [He] 2s! [Ne] 3s [Ar] 4s' [Kr] 5s' (Xel 6s (Rn] 7s'
configuration
Ionization 520 496 419 403 376 ~375
enthalpy /kJ mol!
Hydration -506 -406 -330 -310 -276
enthalpy/kJ mol
Metallic 152 186 227 248 265
radius /pm
Ionic radius 76 102 138 152 167 (180)
M/pm
m.p. / K 454 371 336 312 302

b.p / K 1615 1156 1032 961 944

Density /g cn 0.53 0.97 0.86 1.53 1.90

Standard potentials -3.04 -2.714 -2.925 -2.930 -2.927

E°/Vfor (M /M)
Occurrence in 18* 2.27** 1.84** 78-12* 2-6*

lithosphere
*ppm (part per millior), ** percentage by uweight; Lithosphere: The Earth's outer layer: its crust
and part of the upper mantle
 Table 10.2 Atomic and Physical Properties of the Alkaline Earth Metals

Property Berylium Magnesium Calcium Strontium Barium Radium

Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra

Atomic number 4 12 20 38 56 88

Atomic mass (g mol ) 9.01 24.31 40.08 87.62 137.33 226.03

Electronic [He] 2s² [Ne] 3s2 [Ar] 4s? (Kr] 5s? (Xe) 6s2 [Rn] 7s²
configuration
Ionization 899 737 590 549 503 509
enthalpy () /kJ mol!
Ionization 1757 1450 1145 1064 965 979
enthalpy (I) /kJ mol
Hydration enthalpy 2494 - 1921 -1577 1443 1305
(kJ /mol)
Metallic 111 160 197 215 222
radius /pm
Ionic radius 31 72 100 118 135 148
M* /pm
m.p. / K 1560 924 1124 1062 1002 973
b.p / K 2745 1363 1767 1655 2078 (1973)
Density /g cm 1.84 1.74 1.55 2.63 3.59 (5.5)
Standard potential -1.97 -2.36 2.84 -2.89 2.92 -2.92
E" / V for (M2*/ M)
Occurrence in 2* 2.76** 4.6** 384* 390 * 10-6*
lithosphere
ppm (part per million): * percentage by uweight
 Table 11.2 Atomic and Physical Properties of Group 13 Elements
Element
Property Boron Aluminium Gallium Indium Thallium
B Al Ga In T
Atomic number 5 13 31 49 81

Atomic masslg mol 10.81 26.98 69.72 114.82 204.38

Electronic [He]2s?2p! [Ne]3s3p'Ar)3d°4s°4p' (Krl4d°5s5p' [Xel4f45d°6s6p'
Configuration
Atomic radius/pm (88) 143 135 167 170
Ionic radius (27) 53.5 62.0 80.0 88.5
M/pm
Ionic radius 120 140 150
M/pm
Ionization 801 577 579 558 589
AH,
enthalpy AH, 2427 1816 1979 1820 1971
(kJ mol-) 3659 2744 2962 2704 2877
Electronegativity 2.0 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
Density /g cm3 2.35 2.70 5.90 7.31 11.85
at 298 K
Melting point / K 2453 933 303 430 576
Boiling point / K 3923 2740 2676 2353 1730
E°/V for (M*/M) -1.66 -0.56 -0.34 +1.26

E° /V for (M/M) +0.55 -0.79(acid) -0.18 -0.34

-1.39(alkali)
b
"Metallic radius, 6-coordination, Pauling scale,
 Table 11.3 Atomic and Physical Properties of Group 14 Elements
Element

Property Carbon Silicon Germanium Tin Lead

C Si Ge Sn Pb
Atomic Number 6 14 32 50 82
Atomic mass (g mo>') 12.01 28.09 72.60 118.71 207.2
Electronic |Hel2s'2p° [Nel3s3p [Ar|3d°4s'4p° [Krl4d"5s' 5p[Xel4f"5d"6s'6p
configuration
Covalent radius/pm" 77 118 122 140 146
| Ionic radius M"/pm 40 53 69 78
Ionic radius M"/pm 73 118 119
Ionization AH, 1086 786 761 708 715

enthalpy/ AH, 2352 1577 1537 1411 1450

kJ mol 4620 3228 3300 2942 3081

AH, 6220 4354 4409 3929 4082

Electronegativity
3
2.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9
Density'Ig cm 3.51° 2.34 5.32 7.26 11.34
Melting point/K 4373 1693 1218 505 600
|Boiling point/K 3550 3123 2896 2024

Electrical resistivity/ 10"-106 50 50 10 2 x 10

ohm cm (293 K)
for M" oxidation state: "6-coordination: 'Pauling scale:" 293 K: "for diamond: for graphite, density is
2.22: 'Bform (stable at room temperature)
 Table 7.1: Atomic and Physical Properties of Group 15 Elements

Property N P As Sb Bi

Atomic number 7 15 33 51 83
Atomic mass/g mol' 14.01 30.97 74.92 121.75 208.98
Electronic configuration (Hel2s2p(Nel3s'3pAr)3d"4s'4p' (Krj4d 5s5p Ke4f"5d6s'6p
Ionisation enthalpy I 1402 1012 947 834 703
(A,H/(kJ mol') 2856 1903 1798 1595 1610
4577 2910 2736 2443 2466

Electronegativity 3.0 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.9

Covalent radius/pm" 70 110 121 141 148
Ionic radius/pm 171b 212 222 76° 103°
Melting point/K 63* 317 1089 904 544
Boiling point/K 77.2* 554" 888 1860 1837
Density/ig cm(298 K)) 0.879* 1.823 5.778h 6.697 9.808

" E" single bond (E = element): E; E"; White phosphorus; Grey a-form at 38.6 atm; Sublimation temperature:
9At 63 K; "Grey a-form; * Molecular N,.
 Table 7.6: Some Physical Properties of Group 16 Elements
Property Se Te Po

Atomic number 16 34 52 84

Atomic mass/g mol 16.00 32.06 78.96 127.60 210.00

Electronic configuration [He|2s°2p INe<3s3p' |Ar}3d°4s4p Krl4d"5s5p Xel4f"5d°6s6p
Covalent radius/ (pm" 66 104 117 137 146
Ionic radius, E/pm 140 184 198 221 230
Electron gain enthalpy, -141 -200 -195 -190 -174
/AeH kJ mol
Ionisation enthalpy (AH) 1314 1000 941 869 813
/kJ mo1
Electronegativity 3.50 2.58 2.55 2.01 1.76

Density lg cm (298 K) 1.32° 2.064 4.19 6.25

Melting point/K 55 393 490 725 520

Boiling point/K 90 718 958 1260 1235
Oxidation states* -2,-1,1,2 -2,2,4,6 -2,2,4.6 -2,2,4,6 2,4

"Single bond: "Appraximate value; At the melting point; Rhombic sulphur: Hexagonal grey: 'Monoclinic forn, 673 K.
Oxygen shows oxidatiorn states of +2 and +1 in oxygen fluorides OF; and O,Fz respectively.
 Table 7.8: Atomic and Physical Properties of Halogens
Property F Cl Br I At*

Atomic number 17 35 53 85
Atomic mass/g mol' 19.00 35.45 79.90 126.90 210
Electronic configuration (Hel2s2p° (Nej3s'3p [Ar]3d°4s4p (Krl4d°5s'5p [Xel4f"5di'6s'6p³
Covalent radius/pm 64 99 114 133
Ionic radius X/pm 133 184 196 220
Ionisation enthalpy/kJ mol' 1680 1256 1142 1008
Electron gain enthalpy/kJ mol' -333 -349 -325 -296
Electronegativity 4 3.2 3.0 2.7 2.2
AHvaHX)/kJ mol 515 381 347 305

F Cl, Brz L

Melting point/K 54.4 172.0 265.8 386.6

Boiling point/K 84.9 239.0 332.5 458.2
Density/g cm 1.5 (85) 1.66 (203) 3.19(273) 4.94(293)4
Distance X - X/pm 143 199 228 266
Bond dissociation enthalpy 158.8 242.6 192.8 151.1
/(kJ mol')
E/V 2.87 1.36 1.09 0.54

Radioactive: Pauling scale: For the liquid at temperatures (K) given in the parentheses: solid: The
half-cell reaction is Xalg) + 2e ’ 2X (aq).
 Table 7.12: Atomic and Physical Properties of Group 18 Elements

Propery He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn*

Atomic number 2 10 18 36 54 86

Atomic mass/ g mol' 4.00 20.18 39.95 83.80 131.30 222.00

Electronic configuration ls² [Hel2s°2p Ne) 3s'3p° [Arl3d'"4st4p° (Krj4d°5s'5p Xel4fi"5d'"6s'6p°
Atomic radius/pm 120 160 190 200 220
Ionisation enthalpy 2372 2080 1520 1351 1170 1037
/kJmol!
Electron gain enthalpy 48 116 96 96 77 68
/kJmol
Density (at STP)/gcm 1.8x10+ 9.0x1o4 1.8x10-3 3.7×103 5.9x1o3 9.7x103
Melting point/K 24.6 83.8 115.9 161.3 202
Boiling point/K 4.2 27.1 87.2 119.7 165.0 211
Atmospheric content 5.24x10 1.82x10* 0.934 1.14x10-4 8.7x10-6
(% by volume)
* radioactive
 Table 8.2: Electronic Configurations and some other Properties of
the First Series of Transition Elements

Element Sc Ti Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

Atomic number 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Electronic configuration
M 3d'4s 3d'4s 3d'4s 3d 4s' 3d4s 3d4s 3d'4s 3d'4s² 3d'°4s' 3d'°4s
M* 3d'4s' 3d'4s' 3d°4s' 3d 3d°4s' 3d°4s' 3d'4s' 3d4s' 3d10 3d°4s
M2+ 3d' 3d 3d® 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d® 3d 3d'0
M* [Ar] 3d' 3d' 3d 3d 3d5 3d 3d?
Enthalpy of atomisation, A,H/kJ mol
326 473 515 397 281 416 425 430 339 126

Ionisation enthalpy/A,H°/kJ mol

A,H 631 656 650 653 717 762 758 736 745 906
A,H II 1235 1309 1414 1592 1509 1561 1644 1752 1958 1734
A,H III 2393 2657 2833 2990 3260 2962 3243 3402 3556 3837

Metallic/ionic 164 147 135 129 137 126 125 125 128 137
M2* 75
radii/pm 79 82 82 77 74 70 73
M 73 67 64 62 65 65 61 60

Standard
electrode M/M -1.63 -1.18 -0.90 -1.18 -0.44 -0.28 -0.25 +0.34 -0.76
potential E /V M/M2* -0.37 -0.26 -0.41 +1.57 +0.77 +1.97

Densitylg cm3 3.43 4.1 6.07 7.19 7.21 7.8 8.7 8.9 8.9 7.1
 19
18 Rad
17

16

15
****
**e****. H14
13

12
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
s La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
Fig. 8.3: Trends in atomic radii of
transition elements
 Table 8.9: Electronic Configurations and Radii of Lanthanum and Lanthanoids
Electronic configurations*
2+
Radii/pm
Atomic Name Symbol Ln Ln Ln Ln* Ln Ln+
Number
57 Lanthanum La 5d'6s 5d' 187 106
58 Ceriunm Ce 4f5d'6s 4f2 4f 4f° 183 103
59 Praseodymium Pr 4f°6s 4f3 4f? 4f 182 101
60 Neodymium Nd 4f*6s 4f* 4f 181 99
61 Promethium Pm 4f°6s 4f5 4f4 181 98
62 Samarium Sm 4f°6s? 4f6 4fs 180 96
63 Europium Eu 4f'6s 199 95
64 Gadolinium Gd 4f°5d'6s² 4f'5d' 180 94
65 Terbium Tb 4f°6s 4f 178 92
66 Dysprosium Dy 4f"6s 4f° 177 91
67 Holmium Ho 4f'6s 4f1 4flo 176 89
68 Erbiun Er 4f"6s 4f12 4fl1 175 88
69 Thulium Tm 4f"6s 174 87
70 Ytterbium Yb 4f"6s 4f4 173 86
71 Lutetium Lu 4f"5d'6s? 4f"5d' 4fl4
* Only electrons outside Xel core are indicated