Handouts of Networking Essentials (083)

Evolution of networking : The first evolution of network was jointly designed by The Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and Department of Defence (DoD) in 1969 and was called
ARPANET. It was an experimental project, which connected a few computers of some of the
reputed universities of USA and DoD. ARPANET allowed access and use of computer resource
sharing projects. Later Defence Data Network (DDN) was born in 1983.
A data channel is the medium used to carry information or data from one point to another.
Baud is the unit of measurement for the information carrying capacity of a communication
channel. It is synonymous with bps (bits per second).
bps — bits per second. It refers to a thousand bits transmitted per second.
Bps — Bytes per second. It refers to a thousand bytes transmitted per second. It refers to the
difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of a transmission channel. This term is
also sometimes used to refer to the amount of information traveling through a single channel at
any one point of time.
Microwave signals are used to transmit data without the use of cables. The microwave signals
are similar to radio and television signals and are used for long distance communication. More
over, these signals prove cheaper than dragging trenches for laying cables and their
maintenance.
Internetworking is the connection of two or more networks.
A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks.
A backbone network is a network that is used as a backbone to connect several LANs together
to form a WAN.
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is such a network. FDDI is a high performance fiber optic
token ring LAN running at 100 Mbps over distances up to 200 kms with up to 1001] stations
connected
A bridge is a device that links two networks together.
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications. GSM is a technique that uses
narrowband Bridges are smart enough to know which computers are on which side of the
bridge, so they only allow those messages that need to get to the other side to cross the bridge.
This improves performance on both sides of the bridge. As a packet arrives at the bridge, the
bridge examines the physical destination address of the packet. The bridge then decides whether
or not to let the packet cross.
A router can work like a bridge and can also handle different protocols. A router can locate the
destination required by sending the traffic to another router, if the destination is unknown to
itself. For example, a router can link Ethernet with any other type of network.
A repeater is a device that amplifies a signal being transmitted on the network. It is used in long
network lines, which exceed the maximum rated distance for a single run.
Bridges differ from repeaters in their capability of deciding whether a particular message is to
be communicated on other side or not whereas a repeater just amplifies the signal and passes it
to the other side. Bridge is not a broadcast device, as it filters traffic depending upon the
receiver’s MAC address.
Router can filter network traffic and determine the most efficient route for a data packet to
travel. It does not broadcast data frames and keeps the traffic moving even in the case of a link
failure (through other connected routes). Thus when we want to keep the network traffic moving
through most efficient paths we shall go for routers. .
Over distance, the cables connecting a network lose the signal transmitted. If the signal degrades
too much, it fails to reach the destination. Or if it does arrive, the degradation of the message
makes it useless. Repeaters can be stalled along the way to ensure that data packets reach their
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destination. Repeaters are of two kinds’ amplifier and signal repeater. The first merely
amplifies all incoming signals over the network. However, it amplifies both the signal and any
concurrent noise. The second type collects the inbound packet and then retransmits the packet
as if it were starting from the source station

Modem is a computer peripheral that connects a work station to other work stations v telephone
lines and facilitates communications. It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. Modem converts
digital signals to A/F (Audio Frequency) tones which are in the frequency range that the
telephone lines can transmit and also it can convert transmitted tones back to digital information
It is of two types
1. Internal modems the modems that are fixed within the computer.
2. External modems the modems that are connected externally to a computer as other
peripherals are connected.
FM Frequency Modulation AM Amplitude Modulation
NFS Network File Server FTP File Transfer Protocol.
A repeater is a device that amplifies a signal being transmitted on the network. It is used in lor
network lines, which exceed the maximum rated distance for a single run.
RJ-45 is short for Registered Jack-45. It is an eight-wire connector, used to connect computer t
LANS especially Ethernet..
EDGE — Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution is a radio based high-speed mobile data
standard that allows data transmission speeds of 384 Kbps to be achieved when all eight
timeslots are used.
Hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers together.
Switch is a device used to segment networks into different sub networks called subnets.
Ethernet is a LAN architecture developed by Xerox Corp. in association with DEC and Intel
Ethernet uses bus or star topologies and can support data transfer rates of upto 10 Mbps.
Networks vary widely in their size, complexity and geographical spread. On the basis of
geographical spread, networks can be classified into three categories:
PAN (Private Area network)
LAN (Local Area Network) is confined to relatively small areas such as a building or a group of
buildings. For example university campus. LANs that are segmented through switches are called
switched LANs. In case of Ethernet LANs, they are called Switched Ethernet LANs.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) is a network spanning a small city or town.
Wide Area Networks (WANs). These are the networks spread over large distances, say across
countries or even c It can even include a group of LANs connected together.
LAN refers to Local Area Network, a network spread over an office or a building. However,
Internet is a world wide network. It is a network of networks..
A protocol means the rules that are applicable for a network. Protocol defines standardized
formats for data packets, techniques for detecting and correcting errors and so on.
To understand the concept of a communication protocol, let us assume that A and B need to talk
to one another. They want to exchange their ideas. But it turns out that, both, A and B are egoists.
They start talking again simultaneously, then pause for breath simultaneously, and then start
tells again. Now imagine the confusion and chaos. To avoid it, they must follow a set of rules
while talking. For instance, say first A must talk, then he/she must give B a chance to put forward
his/her ideas, and soon. This common set of rules would be known as communication protocol
for A an B. Thus for effective use of a network it must follow a standardized protocol. There are
various protocols that are used in various types of networks. For example, IBM LAN software,
DEC net (Digital’s family of communication protocols),
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) etc. TCP/IP is the native protocol of
internet. It is actually a collection of two protocols TCP and IP. The IP component :
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Envelops and addresses data
Enables network to read the envelop and forward data to destination
Defines how much data can fit in a single envelop

TCP component :
Breaks data into packets that can be handled by the network
Verifies that all the packets arrive at their destination
Re-assembles the data

Telnet, the most widely used remote logic program in the world, is used to extract the real
power of Internet. Using telnet a student in Delhi can access a server at America. A major chunk
of scientists on the internet are accessing and utilizing the power of super computer by telneting.
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a set of protocols that allow you to access any document on the
NET through a naming system based on URLs (URL means Uniform Resource Locator which is a
pointer to information on the WWW. It can include pointers to other types of resources such as
ftp servers and gopher server in addition to WWW servers) WWW also specifies a way the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to request and send a document over the internet. With
these standard protocols of WWW in place, one can set up a server and construct hypertext
documents with links in them that point to the document on the server.
GSM (Global System for Mobile) communications is a technique that uses narrowband TDMA,
which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio frequency. TDMA is short for Time
Division Multiple Access TDMA technology uses time-division multiplexing (TDM) and divides a
radio frequency into time slots and then allocates these slots to multiple calls thereby supporting
multiple, simultaneous data channels.
CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access) on the other hand, unlike GSM, does not assign a specific
frequency to each user. CDMA uses spread-spectrum technique where every channel uses full
available spectrum. With CDMA, data is sent in small pieces over number of discrete frequencies
available for use at any time in the specified range. All users transmit in the same wide-band
chunk of spectrum. Each user’s signal is spread over the entire bandwidth by a unique spreading
code, which is again used at the receiver end to recover the transmitted signal.
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) to allow eight simultaneous calls on same radio
frequency.
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access which is a digital cellular technology that uses
spread spectrum technique. Spread-spectrum is a technique in which data is sent in small pieces
over a number of discrete frequencies available for use. Each user’s signal is spread over the
entire bandwidth.
A WLL (Wireless in Local Loop) system serves a local area by deploying a multiplicity of
multichannel transmit/receive base stations (transceivers) that are within line-of-site of the
intended customers. Each customer is equipped with a mini-station of low power, into which the
telephone (or PBX) is connected. When calls are made from the telephone, it signals the base
station for a connection, which is subsequently established through a switch center, exactly as in
conventional telephony. An incoming call is identified at the switch center and routed to the base
station assigned to serve the telephone being called. The wireless connection is then made, and
the call is completed in a conventional manner. The infrastructure design of a Wit system
typically uses an advanced transmission technology such as CDMA, which permits support of
large subscriber bases through orderly expansion of the base station clusters.
The E-mail (Electronic mail) is sending and receiving messages by a computer. The major
advantages of E-mail are:
(i) Low cost. Electronic mail is an extremely cost-effective way to move information around,
especially when it must be moved quickly. A three page letter to U.S.A. can cost Rs. 400
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 through courier, or about Rs. 100 to fax. The same letter can be sent by e-mail for the cost of
one local call.
(ii) Speed. Electronic mail can be delivered almost as fast as the wire can carry it.
(iii) Waste reduction. E-mail goes a long way toward reducing the clutter of paper in the modern
office, not to mention saving many trees.
(iv) Ease of use. It is easy to send an e-mail. You don’t have to retype it three times, find an
envelope, go to the corner to buy a stamp, and then find a mail box.
(v) Record maintenance. Because all messages are files, you can automatically maintain a record
of communications with someone else.
(vi) Patience. E-mail waits until you read it. It doesn’t have the jangling urgency of a phone call.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) transfers files from one system to another. It defines rules for file
transfer that both systems. (In which file transfer is taking place) must adhere to.

A network is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers. that can share and

exchange information. Major reasons that emphasize on the need of networks are:
(1) Resource Sharing. Through a network, data, software and hardware resources can be shared
irrespective of the physical location of the resources and the user.
(ii) Reliability. A file can have its copies on. two or more computers of the network, so if one of
them is unavailable, the other copies could be used. That makes a network more reliable.
(iii) Reduced Costs. Since resources can be shared, it greatly reduces the costs.
(iv) Fast communication. With networks, it is possible to exchange information at very fast
speeds.
The 80 — 20 rule of network says that: 80% of the traffic on a given network segment should be
local and not more than 20% of the network traffic should need to move across a, backbone i.e.,
the spine connecting various sub networks.
Node. A computer that is attached to a network is known as node. Workstation. A node is also
called workstation.
Server. A computer that facilitates resource sharing on a network. NIU means Network Interface
Unit. It is an interpreter that helps establish communication between the server and the work
stations. TAP means Terminal Access Point. It is another name for NIU.
SC is a specification for third generation of mobile communications technology. 3G promises
bandwidth of upto 384Kbps when a device is stationary, 128 Kbps in a car and 2Mbps in fixed
applications.
Cookies are messages that a web server transmits to a web browser so that the web serve can
keep track of the user’s activity on a specific web site.
The telnet is an internet facility that facilitates remote login. Remote login is the process of
accessing a network from a remote place without actually being at the actual place of working.
When two or more participants are able to converse in real-time through video-phones, it is
called video conferencing. The sender and the recipients must be online at the same time
URL refers to Uniform Resource Locator. A URL stores the address of a web page on WWW.
A web browser is a www client that navigate through the world wide web and display web
pages.
A web server is a www server that responds to requests made by web browsers.
A location on a net saver is called a web site A document that uses HTTP is called a web page.
Web hosting is a means of hosting web-server applications on a computer system through
which electronic content on the Internet is readily available to any web browser client.
HTML - Hyper Text Markup Language - is a document layout and hyperlink specification
language, used for creating web pages.

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DHTML -Dynamic Hyper Text Markup Language - refers to web content that is dynamic i.e.,
chang each time it is viewed.
Web pages created through HTML are static i.e., the appear the same every time they are viewed
but web pages created through DHTML are dynamic i.e., their appearance may change upon
viewing.
XML is a markup language for creating documents containing structured information. In HTML
both tag semantics and tag set are fixed but XML specifies neither semantics nor tagset. Rather it
provides a facility to define tags and relationships among them.
The system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network is called a
firewall
The Crackers are the malicious programmers who break into secure systems whereas Hackers
are more interested in gaining knowledge about computer systems and possibly using this
knowledge for playful pranks.
Cyber Law is a generic term, which refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of Internet and
the World Wide Web.
A switch is responsible for filtering i.e., transforming data in a specific way and for forwarding
packets of message bring transmitted, between LAN segments. A switch can support any packet
protocol.
The phone network allocates 64kbps for every call, lithe two participants do not speak, then this
capacity remains unused. It uses circuit switch. In a circuit-switched network, switches allocate
Bandwidth means the capacity of a medium to transmit a signal. It i& the bandwidth that
determines the amount of information that can be transmitted for a distance. To carry digital
signals, baseband modulation is used that allows transmission at a single frequency at a time To
carry RF (radio frequency) signals, broadband modulation is used that allows multiple
transmission taking place at different frequencies.
Communication channels mean the connecting cables that link various workstations. There
are three basic types of cables:
(i) Twisted-Pair Cables consist of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other. These
are also used for short and medium range telephone communication. It is physical flexible, has a
low weight and can be easily connected. It has a Conductor, Insulator, Wire Mesh, Outer Shield.
As .a voice grade medium (VGM), it is the basis for most internal office telephone wiring. It
consists of two identical wires wrapped together in a double helix. The main advantages of
twisted pair cable are its simplicity and ease of installation.
(ii) Coaxial Cable. This type of cable consists of a solid wire core surrounded by one or more foil
or wire shields, each separated by some kind of plastic insulator. The inner core carries the
signal, and the shield provides the ground. While it is less popular than twisted pair, it is widely
used for television signals. In the form of (CATV) cable, it provides a cheap means of
transporting multi-channel television signals around metropolitan areas. it is also used by
large corporations in building security systems
(iii) Fiber-optic Cables. These cables are made of plastic or glass and are about as thick as human
hair. These cables are highly durable and offer excellent performance but are expensive. . The
light sources used are either light emitting diodes (LEDs) or laser diodes (LDs). The data to be
transmitted is modulated onto the light beam using modulation techniques. The signals can then
be picked up at the receiving end and demodulated. The band width of the medium is potentially
very high. For LEDs, this ranges between 20 and 150 mbps and higher rates are possible using
LDs.
The main advantages of optical fibres over other media are their complete immunity to noise,
because the information is traveling on a modulated light beam.
A computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software, and hardware resources on a network,
is called server. Since resource sharing is the key purpose of a network, a server plays this key
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role. There can be two types of servers: Non-dedicated Servers. It is a workstation on a small
network that can double up as a server. Dedicated Server. On bigger networks, a computer is
reserved for the cause of serving which is called a dedicated server.
Topology refers to the way in which the workstations attached to the network are
interconnected.
The most popular topologies are:
1. Bus Topology. In this topology, all devices on network are connected to a single continuous
cable called a bus. Transmission from any station travels the length of the bus in both directions
and can be received by all other stations. The destination device, on identifying the address on
data packet copies the data onto its disk. When the data packet reaches at either end the,
terminator on that end absorbs the signal, removing it from the [Link] topology can be used
for smaller networks.
Advantages
1. Short cable length and simple writing layout
2. Resilient Architecture.
3. Easy to extend.
Disadvantages
1. Fault diagnosis is difficult. -
2. Fault isolation is difficult.
3. Repeater configuration.
2. Ring Topology. A LAN using the ring topology is connected in the closed loop. The data
packets transmitted, circulate along the ring. The destination station copies the packet content
on recognizing its address on the packet. After a packet travels a full circle, it is removed at the
source station. Data is accepted from one of the neighboring nodes and is transmitted onwards
to another. Thus data travels in one direction only, from node to node around the ring. After
passing through each node, it returns to the sending node, which removes it. It is important to
note that data ‘passed through’ rather than ‘travels past’ each node which means that the signal
may be amplified before being ‘repeated’ on the out ward channel.
3. Star Topology. In this topology each workstation is directly linked to a central node. Devices
can be easily. plugged or unplugged to the central node.. Any communication between the
stations must pass through the central node.
Advantages
1 It has a number of concentration points (where connections are joined). These provide easy
access for service or reconfiguration of the network
2. One device per connection.
3. Simple access protocols.
Disadvantages
1. Long cable length.
2. Difficult to expand.
3. Central node dependency.
4. Tree Topology. In this topology the network is shaped as an inverted tree with the central
root branching and sub-branching to the eternities of the network. Transmission in this topology
takes place
Advantages:
(I) Simulates hierarchical flow of data.
(ii) Easy to extend.
Disadvantages:
(1) Long cable length.
(ii) Root dependency.

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Video Conferencing is talking to another person via the microphone ,camera and speakers
connected to the computer. For this we first connect to The ISP , start the conferencing
software,and log on to one of the conference servers. Each server has a directory showing a list
of those who are logged on to the [Link] the person you want to talk to ( a previously
logged on user) and when the person accepts your call your conference begins.
A hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers [Link] can be either
passive or active. Active hubs electrically amplify the signal as it moves front one connected
device to another. Active concentrators are used like repeaters to extend the length of a network.
Passive hubs allow the signal to pass from one computer to another without any change.
Hubs should be preferred over repeaters when more than two computers are to be networked.
Hubs can connect multiple computers simultaneously. Bridges are preferred over hubs when we
do not want to broadcast data frames. Bridges can filter network traffic based on MAC-addresses.
A switch can replace multiple bridges and offers dedicated bandwidth to each LAN segment.
Thus switches are preferred when we want to have dedicated bandwidth for each LAN segment.
Switch offers dedicated bandwidth.
The system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network is called
FIREWALL There are several types of firewall techniques:
* Packet filter. Looks as each packet entering or leaving the network and accepts or rejects it
based on user-defined rules. Packet filtering is fairly effective and transparent to users, but it
is difficult to configure. In addition, it is susceptible to IP spoofing.
* Application gateway. Applies security mechanisms to specific applications, such as FTP and
Telnet servers. This is very effective, but can impose a performance degradation.
* Circuit level gateway. Applies security mechanisms when a connection is established. Once the
connection has been made, packets can flow between the hosts without further checking.
* Proxy server. Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network. The proxy server
effectively hides the true network addresses.
Network security refers to making efforts to make sure that only legal or authorized users and
programs gain access to network or network resources.
Various protection methods that are used for network, security are
1. Authorization. Authorization determines whether the service provider has granted access to
the web service to the requestor. Basically, authorization confirms the service requestor’s
credentials.
2. Authentication. Authentication ensures that each entity involved in thing a web service the
requestor, the provider, and the broker (If there’s One) - is what it actually claims to be.
3. Encrypted Smart Cards. An encrypted smart card is a hand-held smart card that can generate a
token that a computer system can recognize. Every time a new and different token is
generated, which even-though cracked or hacked, can not be used later.
4. Biometric systems. The biometric systems form the most secure level of authorization. The
biometric systems involve some unique aspect of a person’s body such as finger-prints,
retinal patterns etc. to establish his/her identity.
5. Firewall. A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network is
called Firewall.
Cyber law is a generic term which refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of Internet and
the World Wide Web. Anything concerned with or related to or emanating from any legal
aspects or issues concerning any activity of netizens and others, in Cyberspace comes within the
ambit of Cyber law. The growth of Electronic Commerce has propelled the need for vibrant and
effective regulatory mechanisms which would further strengthen the legal infrastructure, so
crucial to the success of Electronic Commerce All these regulatory mechanisms and legal
infrastructures come within the domain of Cyberlaw.

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Ethernet is a LAN architecture developed by Xerox Corp in association with EC and Intel.
Ethernet uses bus or star topologies and can support data transfer rates of up to [Link]
computers that are part of Ethernet have to install a special card called Ethernet Card. An
Ethernet card contains connections for either coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both). If it is
designed for coaxial cable, the connection will be BNC. If it is designed for twisted pair, it will
have a RJ-45 connection. Some Ethernet cards also contain an AU connector. This can be used to
attach coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber optics cable to an Ethernet card. When this connection is
used, there is always an external transceiver attached to the workstation.
HTML is not a protocol, just a standardized data format to describe web content. A protocol
consists of two or more communicating entities, along with a definition of what messages they
can exchange.
Abbreviations
i)OSI ii) GSM iii) WLL iv) FTP v)Mbps (vi) URL (vii) ISP (viii)
DHTML (ix) CDMA x) TCP/IP xi) TDMA xii) WAN xiii) LAN xiv) MAN xv)SMS
xvi) E-MAIL xv) TDM xvi)XML xvii) HTML xviii)WWW xviii)SMTP xix)SIM xx)POP
xxi)HTTP xxii)FDM xxiii)IMAP xxiv)PPP xxv) FLOSS xxvi) GNU xxvii) FSF xxviii) OSI

Open source software : Open source software is software for which the underlying code has
been made available for users. Users are then able to read it or change it as they wish. Linux
is an example of open source software.

Freeware is computer software that is available for use at no cost or for an optional fee.
Shareware is software that is distributed free on a trial basis with the understanding that the
user may need or want to pay for it later. Some software developers offer a shareware
version of their program with a built-in expiration date
Proprietary software is computer software licensed under exclusive legal right of the
copyright holder. The licensee, is given the right to use the software under certain
conditions, but restricted from other uses, such as modification, further (re)distribution,
or reverse engineering.

Some examples of CBSE questions:

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