SCHOOL OF PROFESSIONAL DRIVERS TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE "MAYOR PEDRO TRAVERSARI"

BUS MECHANICS

2019
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT I: Heavy vehicles
1.1 Folding Cabin ..................................................................................................................4
1.2 Tractor Heads ..............................................................................................................5
1.3 Fifth Wheel Mechanism.............................................................................................6
1.4 King-Pin
1.5 Tugboats

UNIT II: Diesel Engine.........................................................................................................9

2.1 Definitions
2.2 Historical review of the Diesel engine......................................................................................9
2.3 Basic Terms
2.4 Parts and details of the engine ..............................................................................................11
2.5 Four-Stroke Diesel Cycle .........................................................................................17
2.6 Comparison between gasoline and diesel engines .................................................................20
2.7 Applications of diesel engines ..................................................................................22

UNIT III: Diesel engine systems..................................................................................23

3.1 Cooling System
3.2 Lubrication System
3.3 Air Suction System ..............................................................................................24
3.4 Electrical System ..............................................................................................................25

UNIT IV: Diesel fuel systems.................................................................26

4.1 Bomba líneal ....................................................................................................................26
4.2 Rotary pump ................................................................................................................29
4.3 Injector pump................................................................................................................31
4.4 Engine Overfeeding (Turbochargers) ......................................................35
4.5 Common Rail System ......................................................................................................38

UNIT V: Automotive systems in industrial vehicles..............................................41

5.1 Air suspension
5.2 Pneumatic brakes...........................................................................................................44
5.3 Hydraulic steering..........................................................49
5.2 Gearboxes..............................................................................................................52

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 UNIT I
HEAVY VEHICLES

A motor vehicle is considered a car that is normally used for the transportation of people or things, or of
both at the same time, or for the towing of other vehicles for that purpose. The car can in turn be;
Tourism.
Truck.
Truck
Bus.
Mixed vehicle.

The automobile, according to its own definition, must have a system that provides propulsion energy (engine).
and a system that transmits it (transmission) to the wheels, which are the ones that provide the movement of the vehicle. The
The car must also have other qualities such as its stability (suspension), it must be able to be steered by the
desired trajectories (direction) and being able to be halted when necessary (brakes).

The load must be properly placed, in a substantially equal manner across the entire surface designated for it, in case
On the contrary, some wheel would be dangerously overloaded. It is advisable, once the vehicle is loaded, to check
that no wheel works more than is safe.

Systems that make up the Automobile

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The chassis is made up of a frame formed by beams and cross members to which all elements are attached.
automobile, such as: the engine, the transmission, the steering, the brakes, and the suspension, on which is mounted the
bodywork. There are different frame constructions, one of which is used in trucks and buses.
the one formed by two longitudinal beams arranged in the direction of the automobile, and a series of crossbars, on which
that the different elements of the vehicle rest, all wrapped by the bodywork.

The "self-supporting monocoque" body lacks a frame, being made up of parts that, suitably
together, they form a sturdy shell, to which a series of reinforcements are added for the securing of the different
elements of the automobile. It is generally used in passenger cars. Safety has led to the introduction of side panels.
monocoques and progressive and programmed deformation beams, resulting in the bodywork
self-supporting or monoblock with a rigid and undeformable structure in the cabin and with two deformable blocks,
front and rear, with the purpose of acting as a cushion to protect it.

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In trucks and vans of a certain tonnage, the fundamental elements of the structure are the chassis and the
cabin.
On the frame are located the engine, the gearbox, and the suspension.
The cabin also rests on the frame.

The cab in trucks is equivalent to the body of passenger cars, as it is where the seats are located.
instrument panel, etc.

Some vans have a self-supporting body like passenger cars, so that the body itself acts as
support of the engine group and the suspension.

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The truck chassis consists of two longitudinal beams to which are welded or bolted.
the crossbars and supports. It is strictly prohibited to make transformations that are not authorized by
the manufacturer.

1.1. Foldable Cabin

There are folding cabin models for the purpose of having direct access to observe and perform with
greater comfort the repairs corresponding to the elements that are located underneath it,
generally the engine and others.

Before proceeding to the lowering, the parking brake must be applied, placing the control lever of the
shifting gears in neutral, keeping the doors well closed.

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For its lowering, there is a tilting pump with two positions, one direction for raising and another direction for lowering.
to lower the cabin.

1.2. Tractors
It is a 4 x 2 vehicle with a very short wheelbase and that through a mechanism, called 'Fifth'
The "Fifth Wheel" transforms into an articulated vehicle by being able to tow a semi-trailer. The Fifth Wheel connects the head
tractor with the semi-trailer.

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1.3. Fifth Wheel Mechanism
The mechanism of the Fifth Wheel consists of a wavy plate in the shape of an 'omega', bolted and held with some
stops soldiers to the vehicle's own chassis, at a distance provided by the manufacturer on which it rests
semi-trailer, which can have different heights.

1.3. King-Pin
Semi-trailers have a piece called a king-pin that hooks onto the Fifth Wheel and serves as a connection point.
traction, pivot axis and support base of the semi-trailer.

Functioning of the King-Pin

First, it is necessary to check that the surface of

the support of the semitrailer is higher than the
surface of the plate of the Fifth Wheel (2 to 5 cm. is
sufficient). Then, drive in reverse with
be careful until the King-pin reaches the position of
hitch in the fifth wheel. In its open position,
the control lever is shifted forward. The
jaws are separated and the probe controls the
correct position of the king-pin.

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Kingpin Hook

During the coupling maneuver, the king-pin is

guided by the arms of the Fifth Wheel. If the position
The king-pin is correct, the probe releases the block of
security. At this moment the king-pin himself.
causes the automatic closure of the jaws. The
safety block, pushed by the spring, is
fits into the notches of the jaws ensuring the
close.

SAFETY: The locking of the control lever

sure, the spring pressure, the design of the
clamps and the king-pin block prevent the
involuntary disengagement of the semi-trailer.

DISENGAGEMENT OF THE TRACTOR HEAD

To perform the disengagement, it is necessary to block or
brake the wheels of the semi-trailer, lift it and
support the wheels of the support feet and thus relieve
the suspension of the tractor truck (tractor head).
Activate the safety lever and in this way
the king-pin is free to be able to exit. The Fifth
Wheel usually has a mechanism to compensate
automatically the game produced by wear
natural of the king-pin, in such a way that it maintains a
constant pressure of this against the jaws. The
necessary grease can be local or centralized. The
the fifth wheel is mounted at a distance (Y) from the axis
rear, which is provided by the manufacturer. Altering
this distance means changing the load on the rear axle
of the vehicle.

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MAINTENANCE

The dish of the Fifth Wheel should be regularly checked, removing any metallic debris that may be present.
to exist between the plate and the plate of the semi-trailer where the king-pin goes.
Periodically check the tightening of the screws.
Ensure that the channels leading to the fat storage are full.
Change the rubber mounts after prolonged use or when they are defective.
If a breakdown occurs while in use, immediately stop the vehicle and replace the parts in the workshop.
averaged.

THE FIFTH WHEEL IS A PIECE OF MAXIMUM SAFETY

1.4. Towboats

They are regular trucks (4 x 2) that have a hook device to be able to tow a trailer. The hook is located in
the rear of the truck, and the coupling is done automatically, although it can also be done manually.
manually.

The hooks normally have a plastic coating and grease to protect them from rain and salt.
thawing and humidity in general.

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 UNIT II
DIESEL ENGINE

2.1. Definitions

It is a thermal machine that transforms the heat energy from fuel into mechanical energy.
It is a machine whose function is to transform any type of energy into useful mechanical energy for man.
associated with the movement of a rigid body (rotation of an axis, displacement of a cylinder, movement
of the engine itself as a whole.
Set of pieces (mobile and non-mobile organs or elements) that, by the effect of their links, are capable
to transform chemical energy into mechanical energy.
Thermodynamic machines that use combustion energy, transforming it into motion.

2.2. Historical review of the Diesel engine

In the year 1893, the German engineer Rudolf Diesel published a paper titled Theory and Construction of an Engine.
rational thermal. Through thermodynamics, an attempt was made to understand the existing relationships between the
heat and work in order to apply them later in the construction of more efficient energy converters. The theory
The Diesel was based on two fundamental considerations.

The first was that the more a certain amount of gas was compressed, the more it increased.
its temperature and similarly the more it expanded the lower the temperature became. For example the temperature
The mixture is very high when compressed by the piston during its upward stroke and reaches its minimum volume.
and it cools down when the gas reaches its maximum volume.

The second consideration of Diesel was based on the greater the difference between the two temperatures of the
gas, before and after compression would better operate the engine. The relationship between the two gas volumes in the
The cylinder before and after compression is called the compression ratio.

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Diesel's rational idea was to increase the efficiency of Otto's internal combustion engine by increasing its
compression relationship, I was thinking of building an engine that could compress air up to 16 times its volume
in this state the air would reach a temperature of 538 °C.

Then the fuel would be injected directly into the cylinder which, due to the high temperature, would ignite.
spontaneously. In the early models of diesel engines, coal dust was burned.

2.3. Basic Terms

• Top Dead Center (TDC): The maximum displacement point of the piston when it has approached the limit.
superior to its displacement within the cylinder.
• Bottom dead center (BDC): Lowest position of the piston when it has reached its limit.
downward displacement.
• Stroke: The distance the piston moves from its extreme positions. It can be: Ascending from
PMI to PMS or Descending from PMS to PMI.
• Diameter: Refers to the internal diameter of the cylinder
• Cycle: Also called time; the series of stages of the engine: intake, compression, explosion, exhaust.
they are carried out in four races of the piston and two complete turns of the crankshaft. Each stage runs for
half turn of the crankshaft

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2.4. Parts and details of the engine

Cylinder Head

It is the cylinder head and is attached to the block by means of bolts and studs, it is almost always removable. The
the cylinder head can be made of aluminum or light alloys, and inside it has openings that communicate with the
water jackets in the cylinder block. The intake and exhaust valves, the elements of
carburation or injection.

Cylinder block

The engine block is the structure that supports all the components of the engine. It holds the crankshaft, the
pistons, the connecting rods and other components in precise alignment. The block also contains the coolant and the oil.
of the engine and provides space to hold external components such as the water pump and the oil filter.

The block has three main functions:

Cool - The water ducts inside the block supply a flow of coolant around each
cylinder drilling, through the flame front and inside the head.
2. Lubricate - The open oil ducts in mud the block supply oil to lubricate all the parts
of the engine.
3. Provide stability - The blocks maintain their shape and size under a variety of temperatures and loads
motor.

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Carter

It serves as an oil reservoir and houses the oil pump. The oil pan is the lower part of the engine where it rotates.
crankshaft. It is divided into two parts: The upper part of the crankcase constitutes the lower part of the block. The part
The lower part of the oil pan constitutes the oil reservoir.

Multiple of admission and exhaust

Secured by bolts or studs to the intake and exhaust openings or ports, there are two in the cylinder head.
conducts called intake and exhaust manifold. The intake manifold can be made of aluminum, but those of
escape is made of iron or steel.

Rims

Piston rings are generally made of fine-grained cast iron or some special alloy that is
elastic and allows it to contract when the piston is mounted and inserted into the cylinder. Additionally, the rings must
to be made of a material that is less hard than that of the cylinder, so that in the friction with the walls of the cylinders the rings are
those that wear out.

The main job of the piston rings is to seal the explosion and compression pressure and prevent it from reaching the crankcase.
additionally, they must control the amount of oil on the walls of the cylinder. There are two basic types of rings of
piston, compression rings and oil rings. The compression rings are installed in the two upper slots
of the piston and the oil rings in the lower groove.
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Flywheel or Damper

It is a heavy wheel fixed at one end of the crankshaft. When the crankshaft and the flywheel are put in
movement by the force of the piston applied through the connecting rod during the expansion time, the inertias of
The flywheel ensures that the crankshaft continues to turn during the exhaust, intake, and compression strokes.
next.

Engine Bearings

The bearings used for the crankshaft caps and the connecting rods are highly precise and interchangeable.
bearings are manufactured to exact tolerances, which indicates that they do not require grinding for assembly. The bearings
The crankshaft and connecting rod perform a difficult job due to the high speeds and loads they must withstand.

To provide adequate lubrication of the bearings between the surface and the shaft, there is a clearance or gap of
oil. They generally provide grooves on the bearing surfaces to help with the distribution of oil.
over the entire surface of the bearing. The flow is controlled by the design of the groove and in many cases by the clearance.
in the halves that separate the bearings
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Pistons

The main function of the piston is to transfer the energy of combustion to the crankshaft in the form of mechanical power.
It also acts as a pump in the admission and escape races to introduce air into the chamber.
combustion and exhaust gas removal.

The piston, generally made of an aluminum alloy, is cylindrical in shape for engine models.
Additionally, they must be made to precision and manufactured to very strict tolerances.

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White

The connecting rod is a forged steel piece that connects the piston to the crankshaft. It also serves to transmit to the crankshaft the
force received from the piston. Therefore, its construction must be strong in order to withstand the great tension and effort it is subjected to.
normally subjected. Although it is fundamentally a single piece, three parts can be distinguished in it: foot, body, and
head.

Crankshaft

The crankshaft or engine shaft is a cast piece made of a steel alloy with considerable mechanical strength.
Currently, some modern crankshafts are hollow; this way they can be thick and robust, but lightweight.
The crankshaft has been designed to change the reciprocating (linear) motion of the connecting rod into rotary motion.

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Valves

The exhaust valve must open to allow hot gases to pass through, according to this the valve of
Escape can have temperatures of more than 750 C. In the valve head, the temperature varies as one part
hotter than another.
The intake valve is not exposed to as much heat as the exhaust valve, as it is not subjected to the gases of
escape and the air-gasoline mixture helps to keep it cool.

Camshaft

The camshaft is driven by a gear from the crankshaft. As the camshaft rotates, the lobes rotate.
lift. The components of the valve train connected to the camshaft follow the motion upward and downwards.
down.

The function of the camshaft is to control the operation of the intake and exhaust valves.

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2.5. Diesel Cycle

It is called the Diesel thermodynamic cycle after its inventor, the German Rudolf Diesel, who first implemented it in 1892.

Four-Stroke Diesel Cycle

The Diesel cycle, due to its particular cycle, can only be adopted in very slow engines such as large engines.
naval or in the engines of fixed installations. In traction engines, the time available to complete the
combustion is lower when increasing the engine speed, so combustion must be advanced
injecting fuel before T.D.C. The phases of a Diesel cycle engine differ from those of a cycle engine
Otto exclusively by the admission of only air instead of the air-fuel mixture and by the injection of
combustible.

Admission

During the downward stroke of the piston, from TDC to BDC, the intake valve opens and air enters the cylinder.
filtering. The escape valve, at this stage, remains fully closed.

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Compression

The intake valve closes and the piston rises (from BDC to TDC); the air, introduced into the cylinder during the
first phase, it is compressed in the combustion chamber.

During this phase, the air significantly increases its temperature, reaching approximately 700 to 800º C;
this increase is mainly due to the high compression of air and, to a lesser extent, by the
the fact that the walls of the cylinder, at the average temperature of the cycle, transfer heat to the air in this phase.

Injection and combustion

Before the piston reaches TDC, the injector opens and atomized fuel enters the cylinder.
the fuel ignites spontaneously when it comes into contact with the compressed air it has.
a temperature higher than that of fuel ignition.

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The increase in temperature due to combustion, along with the strong turbulence, facilitates the combustion of the
remaining fuel that, arriving through the injector, burns upon contact with the air. The pressure is
remains almost constant throughout the combustion. The pressure gases generated by combustion expand
and push the piston down (from T.D.C. to B.D.C.), producing work; this is the active phase of the cycle.

Escape

Before the piston reaches the TDC, the exhaust valve opens and the burnt gases, with pressure greater than the
exterior, they quickly exit the cylinder until they reach a pressure similar to atmospheric.

In the next race of ascent (from P.M.I. to P.M.S.), the piston expels the burnt gases from the cylinder, through the
escape valve. At the end of the upward stroke, when the piston is near the top dead center, it opens.
new the intake valve, the exhaust valve closes and the entire operating cycle begins again identically
to which we have described.

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2.6. Comparison between gasoline and diesel engines

Most of the engines in vehicles belong to the Otto cycle engine category, part of the
engines for light industrial vehicles and all motorcycle engines.

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They are diesel cycle engines, the large slow engines for fixed or naval installations and the engines of trains.
In the field of traction, these engines are used in commercial vehicles, in almost all industrial vehicles.
medium and heavy in agricultural vehicles. The fundamental differences between these engines refer to:

Introduction of fuel.
Compression relationship.
On.
Weight.

Introduction of fuel

In the Otto engine, air and fuel are introduced into the combustion chamber through the ducts and the
intake valve, now in the form of a gaseous mixture. If the mixture is formed in the carburetor, the amount of mixture
is regulated by a butterfly valve. If the engine, on the other hand, is equipped with an injection system, the
Regulation of the intake air is done through the throttle valve and the fuel through a control unit.
electronics.

In the Diesel engine, air is introduced into the cylinder through the duct and the intake valve, while the
Fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber using a sprayer. Only the
amount of fuel injected, therefore there is no throttle valve and the engine operates with an excess
of air.

Compression relationship

The compression ratio in Otto engines varies from 7 to 11, with rare exceptions, while in the engines
Diesel has much higher values, ranging from 16 to 24. In Otto engines, the upper limit is
essentially determined by the anti-knock quality of the fuel used and, to a great extent, by the shape
from the combustion chamber.

On

The Otto cycle engine requires an ignition system to begin combustion, which is produced thanks to
an electric spark that jumps between the electrodes of a spark plug before the compression phase is complete. The spark
It triggers the combustion of the particles in the mixture near the spark plug and then the flame spreads rapidly.
to the nearby particles and to the entire mixture in the cylinder.
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In the Diesel cycle engine, on the other hand, there is no ignition system; the high temperature of the air from the
cylinder shirt, due to the strong compression, is what causes the spontaneous ignition of the particles of
injectable fuel when they come into contact with air.

Weight

The Diesel cycle engine operates with higher pressure values than an Otto cycle engine, so, when
having to withstand greater pressures requires a more resilient structure and therefore a heavier one.

2.7. Applications of Diesel Engines

Agricultural machinery (tractors, harvesters).

Propulsión ferroviaria.
Marine Propulsion.
Automobile.
Electric power generating groups (power plants and emergency generators).
Industrial drive (pumps, compressors, etc., especially for emergencies).

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 UNIT III
DIESEL ENGINE SYSTEMS

3.1 Cooling System

The primary function of the cooling system is to maintain the correct engine temperature by transferring the
unwanted heat generated by combustion and friction. The temperature of the fuel burned in engines
diesel can reach 3,500° Celsius (1,927° F).

Although diesel engines provide the most efficient and cost-effective thermal power, only about
40% of the heat energy produced during combustion is converted into useful power. 7% is radiated.
directly to the engine surfaces and 23% to the exhaust output. The remaining 30% is dissipated through the system of
cooling.

The coolant circulates through ducts in the engine called water or coolant jackets. The coolant absorbs
heat from the hot surfaces of the engine and carries it to the radiator, where it is dissipated into the atmosphere.

Most cars consist of a radiator and a water pump. The water that circulates through passages around the
cylinder and travels to the radiator to cool it.

The cooling system also helps to maintain the correct temperature of the engine oil, of the oil of the
transmission and hydraulic oil by using oil coolers. Finally, the cooling system
It also allows the aftercooler to cool the compressed air that comes out of the turbocharger in the manifold.
admission.

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3.2 Lubrication System

The lubrication system and the condition of the oil in the system are essential for the operation of the engine.
70% to 80% of all failures of the main bearings are due to oil contamination.

Clean
Cool
Seal and lubricate

The oil cleans the parts by keeping harmful metal particles in suspension that are formed during the
normal operations of the engine. The oil also cleans the walls of the cylinder and removes carbon deposits and
laca produced during combustion. The second function of the oil is to cool and seal the parts by absorbing
and removing the heat. Thirdly, the oil forms a film or thin layer between the surfaces of the parts in
movement to support and separate them. This prevents metal-to-metal contact that would cause excessive wear.

The oil pump works while the engine is running to provide continuous circulation.
through the engine. The coolant circulates through the oil cooler and transfers the heat from the oil to
refrigerant. This lowers the temperature of the oil and protects its properties. The oil filter cleans the oil when
retaining metal particles and other debris that can damage engine parts.

3.3 Air suction system

In most cars, air flows through a filter directly to the cylinders. High-performance machines
They are turbocharged or supercharged, making the air that reaches the machine pressurized first.
what more air/fuel mixture can be put into each cylinder) to increase efficiency. The amount
Depressurization is called "push". Turbochargers use a small turbine connected to the exhaust pipe.
that activates a compressor turbine in the incoming airflow. Superchargers are directly connected to the
motor to activate the compressor.
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3.4 Sistema Eléctrico

The primary function of the diesel engine electrical system is to start the engine. The secondary function is to provide power.
to the lights, the meters, and the electrical components of the vehicle.

The components of the electrical system include: the battery, the alternator, the starter, the glow plugs and the
Electronic Control Module (ECM). The battery generates 12 volts of power for everything that the car needs.
electricity (starting system, radio, lights, electric windows, electric seats, computers, etc.) through the
vehicle wiring.

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 UNIT IV
DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS
4.1 Linear pump

This type of pump designed by Robert Bosch in the early 20th century has been the most used, if not the only one.
which primarily operated on heavy vehicles, even used in passenger cars until the 1960s, but was seen
replaced by smaller and more suitable rotary pumps for fast engines. This type of pump is
of very robust constitution and proven mechanical reliability, its drawbacks are size, weight since
they are limited to a number of revolutions that make them suitable for heavy vehicles but not for cars.

The inline pump consists of as many pumping elements, arranged in line, as there are cylinders.
it has the engine. As a whole, it includes, in addition to the pumping elements, a speed regulator that
it can be centrifugal, pneumatic or hydraulic; an automatic advance injection variator coupled to the system
pump drag.

Fuel circuit

The injection pump is accompanied by a fuel supply circuit that provides it with fuel. This circuit
It has a fuel tank that consists of a filling mouth, a metal mesh strainer, that
prevents the entry of large impurities that the fuel may contain. The filling cap goes
provided with a vent hole for atmospheric pressure in the tank.

The fuel pump draws the fuel from the tank and pumps it to the injection pump at a
convenient pressure, which ranges between 1 and 2 bar. The surplus of this fuel exits through the valve.
of discharge located in the injection pump and may also be in the filter, returning to the tank. This
The discharge valve controls the fuel pressure in the circuit. In vehicles where the distance and the
The height of the tank in relation to the injection pump being very far apart, a pump is installed.
feeding, usually this pump is coupled to the injection pump. According to the
operating conditions of the engine and its construction characteristics, different systems are required
fuel supply of the injection pump.

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Feed pumps

Its function is to draw fuel from the tank and supply it under pressure to the intake chamber of the pump.
injection through a fuel filter. The fuel has to reach the intake chamber of the
injection pump with an approximate pressure of 1 bar to ensure the filling of the intake chamber.
The feed pump is a mechanical plunger pump generally fixed to the injection pump.
The feed pump is driven by the camshaft of the injection pump. In addition, the pump may come
equipped with a primer or manual pump that serves to fill and purge the intake side of the system
injection for commissioning or after performing maintenance operations.

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Main components

Operation

The piston is animated by a up and down movement inside the cylinder. The descent is controlled by the
spring, which comes into action when the cam's projection in its rotation stops acting on the piston. The rise of the
The piston is produced when the cam, in its rotation, acts to lift the piston, overcoming the push of the spring.

When the piston descends in the cylinder, it creates a vacuum that allows the entry of diesel when the piston has
uncovered the corresponding openings. Due to the prevailing pressure in the supply duct, caused by
Through the fuel pump, the cylinder is completely filled with diesel. The rise of the piston causes the injection.
of the fuel. At the beginning of this ascent, the skylights are not covered and therefore, the diesel is returned in
part towards the feeding duct.

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4.2 Rotary pump
The application field and design of the pump are determined by the number of rpm, the power, and the type of
construction of the diesel engine. Rotary injection pumps are mainly used in cars.
tourism, trucks, tractors and stationary engines. Unlike the inline injection pump, the rotary one does not
It has more than just one cylinder and one distributor piston, even though the engine has several cylinders.
The distribution manifold ensures the distribution among the different outlets corresponding to the number of cylinders of
engine, powered by the fuel fed by the pump piston.

Inside the closed body of the pump, the following components are assembled with their respective functions:
1. Vane feed pump: it draws fuel from the tank and introduces it into the pump.
injection.
2. High-pressure pump with distributor: generates injection pressure, transports and distributes the
flammable.
3. Mechanical speed regulator: regulates the speed, varies the injection flow through the device.
regulator in the regulation margin.
4. Electromagnetic shut-off valve: cuts off the fuel supply and the engine stops.
5. Advance adjuster: corrects the start of injection based on the speed (motor rpm).

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Fuel circuit

1. Tanque de combustible, 2. Filtro de combustible, 3. Bomba de inyección, 4. Inyector, 5. Circuito de retorno de

combustible, 6. Bujía de incandescencia, 7. Batería, 8. Llave de encendido, 9. Temporizador de precalentamiento

Components

1.- Pressure regulating valve inside the pump.

2.- Fuel injection flow regulating group.
3.- Overflow strangle (return to deposit).
4.- Hydraulic head and high-pressure pump.
5.- Vane feed pump.
6.- Advance controller for injection.
7.- Camshaft.
8.- Electromagnetic shut-off valve.

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4.3 Injector pump

Compared to the rotary distributor pump, the diesel engine with injector pump has the following
advantages:
Low sound from the combustion.
Low pollutant emissions.
Low fuel consumption.
Greater energy efficiency.

The advantages are achieved through:

A high injection pressure, of 2,050 bars at most.
An accurate management for the injection operation.
Just as through a pre-injection cycle.

What is a pump injector?

A pump injector, as its name suggests, is an injection pump and an injector, equipped with a solenoid valve.
grouped in a single component. Each engine cylinder has its own injector pump. In this way,
they eliminate the high-pressure pipes that are usually installed in the versions with distributor injection pump
rotary, allowing to achieve a high injection pressure. Just like in the case of an injection pump.
Distributor with injectors, the injector pump system performs the following functions:
Generate the high pressure for injection.
Inject the fuel in the correct amount and at the precise moment.

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The injector pump is mounted directly on the cylinder head using a tension block.

NOTE:

Al montar el inyector bomba se debe observar que adopte la posición correcta. Si el inyector bomba no queda
Perpendicular to the cylinder head, its fastening screw can be loosened. Due to this, damage may occur in the
injector pump and in the cylinder head. Observe in this regard the instructions provided in the Manual of
Repairs.

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Injector pump drive

The camshaft incorporates additional cams to drive the pump injectors (as many as the number of
cylinders). Through rocker arms with a central bearing and roller, they drive the plungers of the pump injectors.

The rocker with roller has an adjustment screw to regulate the existing play between it and the.
injection pump. The adjustment will need to be made whenever the injection pump is disassembled or a part is replaced.
element that participates in its actuation.

Cam geometry
The injection lever has a pronounced attack flank, due to this, the pump plunger is pressed with a
high speed downward, quickly reaching a high injection pressure.

The flattened descending flank produces a slow and steady movement of the piston upwards, allowing for that.
the fuel can flow back without bubbles into the high-pressure chamber of the injector pump, without producing bubbles.

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Injector pump architecture

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4.4 Engine Overcharging (Turbochargers)

The emergence of supercharging within the engine has managed to maintain power under adverse conditions.
where the pressure is lower and the amount of mixture that is introduced into the engine is less, as can occur in
mountain routes at high altitude or areas of high temperatures. Supercharging increases the torque
engine and the vehicle's power without changing the displacement or the engine speed, increasing the value of the mean pressure
effective of the engine cylinder.

A supercharged engine can achieve up to 40% more power than an engine with the same characteristics.
not overboosted. This increase in power must be taken into account when manufacturing the engines with the
the goal of avoiding engine overheating or excessive pressures and ignition temperatures in the chamber
of combustion caused by the high capacity for air delivery and pressure. In any case, they are used
devices that limit the maximum speed or power output to avoid harming the engine. To carry out
supercharging requires a machine capable of taking in air at atmospheric pressure and compressing it to
to achieve a pressure increase. This task is entrusted to the compressors.

The turbocharger

The turbocharger is an air pump designed to operate with the energy that is normally lost in the
engine exhaust gases. These gases drive the turbine wheel (exhaust side) that is coupled to the wheel of
compressor (intake side). When they rotate, they provide a large volume of pressurized air, increasing the pressure in the
combustion chambers of the engine. The turbocharger is the most used because it does not consume power from the engine and
it can spin at over 100,000 rpm. They can be classified into:

Fixed geometry turbochargers.

Variable geometry turbochargers.

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Fixed geometry turbocharger

The turbocharger assembly mainly consists of a turbine (2) and a compressor (1) that are located
introduced into their respective housings in opposite form and both joined by a common shaft (3). Both the turbine
as the compressor contains blades to increase the inlet pressure. In an annexed part to the
The turbo also has the wastegate valve (4), which is responsible for limiting the pressure.
turbo overfeeding diverting a quantity of exhaust gases directly to the exhaust without passing through the
turbine. The turbine casing is shaped like a snail to increase the speed of the gases making them impact
with greater force on its blades. The compressor casing looks the same as the turbine, but its
usage conditions are less extreme in terms of temperatures, but are the same in terms of pressure
what is produced in them.

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Heat exchanger or intercooler
It is a system composed of a heat exchanger in which the heated air that comes out of the rotor is introduced.
compressor to cool it before introducing it into the engine cylinders. The air that strikes this
The exchanger or radiator comes from the outside during the vehicle's operation and manages to lower the temperature.
of the air that passes through the interior of the intercoolero about 40 C (the intake air in turbocharged engines can
reach up to 100oC).

Therefore, it is an air/air heat exchanger. With it, power and torque are increased.
motor due to the increase in the mass of air that enters the cylinder as a consequence of the rise in density
of the air when it cools. Other positive effects resulting from the use of the intercooler are the decrease in
consumption and pollutant emissions. In certain engines, the exchanger is of the air/water type, that is,
Air is forced to pass through a radiator through which the water of the cooling system circulates.

Variable geometry turbocharger

Variable geometry turbochargers have the characteristic that at low engine revolutions it is noticeable
its effect, eliminating the major drawback of fixed geometry turbochargers. They are the most widely implemented in
modern vehicles. Their operation is similar to that of fixed geometry, but with the caveat that these do not
they need a discharge valve, as the system can cause the turbine speed to decrease and, therefore,
reduce the pressure to the preset values in certain operating modes of the engine.

Electronic management in this case is responsible for decreasing or increasing the force exerted by the gases of
escape on the turbine. This achieves very brief turbo response times, in addition to speed of
high gases and a progressive operation of the turbine from low regimes. To achieve the effects
previously exposed, a crown (3) with a number has been arranged in the exhaust turbine of the turbocharger
of movable blades (2) on its periphery. The crown, in turn, is connected to a rod (6) and is to a capsule.
pneumatic (8) divided into two chambers.
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 Turbine rotor
2. Blades
3. Plate or crown
4. Lever
5. Compressor impeller
6. Rod or threaded rod
Nut
8. Pneumatic capsule

4.5 Common rail system

The Common Rail electronic diesel injection system does not require an injector pump as we were
used to in diesel engines. This system incorporates a high-pressure pump controlled by the pulley of the
crankshaft through a belt, which sends diesel to a ramp (RAIL from English ramp) where it is distributed to each
injector through metal pipes (COMMON from common English). The injectors are electromagnetic and the computer
decide the ideal amount of fuel that they must inject directly into the cylinder by varying the time of
opening of the same and the injection pressure, this pressure will oscillate between 150 and 1350 bar.

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Engines equipped with these systems deliver very good performance in terms of speed and acceleration.
It refers, but what stands out is the way they deliver the power.

With high torque, they respond vigorously from very low regimes (1600 RPM) and the activation of the turbo.
the compressor is imperceptible. The revolutions rise progressively without abruptness with the feeling that it is
of atmospheric engines without turbo. The recoveries are their strength, ideal for driving without the need to be
repeatedly changing gears.

Main components

1 = Electric fuel pump

2 = Fuel filter
3 = Overflow valve
4 = Return Collector
5 = High pressure pump CP1
6 = High-pressure regulator valve
7 = Rail Pressure Sensor (RDS)
8 = Rail (distribution strip)
9 = Injectors
10 = EDC 15 C control device
11 = Temperature probe for fuel
12 = Other sensors

Operation
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The fuel stored in the low-pressure fuel tank is drawn by a pump.
electrically activated transfer and sent to a second pump, in this case, a high-pressure pump that injects the
combustible at pressures that can vary from about 300 bar to between 1500 and 2000 bar at the cylinder, depending on the
operating conditions.

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 UNIT V
AUTOMOTIVE SYSTEMS IN INDUSTRIAL VEHICLES
5.1 Air Suspension
The air suspension consists of interposing between the frame and the axle of the wheels or the suspension arms.
a pneumatic spring. This spring or cushion is formed by a reinforced synthetic rubber structure (bellows) that
its lower part is connected to a piston on the suspension axis or arm, and its upper part is connected to the
frame via a plate. The air suspension, which has been used in the sector for some time now.
industrial vehicles (especially trucks) are increasingly being implemented in the passenger car sector.
due to the inherent advantages of these systems.

In industrial vehicle applications, the bladders are made of synthetic rubber reinforced with nylon. Inside the bellows
There is usually a hollow rubber spring to ensure that the vehicle can still be driven even if the boot is perforated.
The inner covering layer has a special design to establish air tightness.

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Operation of the air suspension system
The pneumatic spring functions like a classic suspension spring. When the wheel moves up due to the effect of the
walking conditions, the spring is compressed decreasing its volume and consequently increasing the
internal pressure. This overpressure helps to recover the initial state once the obstacle is surpassed. In the case of
an expansion of the wheel, the pressure existing inside the spring maintains the force of contact with the
road. Classic pneumatic suspension systems have been primarily used in industrial vehicles (in the
axle or rear axles).

The compressed air required for the air suspension is supplied from a compressor powered by the engine.
of the vehicle that supplies the primary reservoir, in industrial vehicles, these elements are part of both
pneumatic suspension system similar to the compressed air brake system.

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Basic components

Air suspension kits

Air suspension kits enhance the original classic suspension as they help reduce body roll,
they improve stability in curves, allow leveling of the body, increase the lifespan of the elements of
suspension and the vehicle in general, and also significantly contribute to fuel and tire savings.
In some cases, these air suspension systems simply consist of inserting inside the
suspension springs that act as an air column; increasing and strengthening the
same time, the elastic element of the suspension. In cases of suspension by leaf spring, the valons are
They are positioned between the leaf springs and the frame.

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5.2 Pneumatic brakes

Los vehículos industriales y autobuses, normalmente disponen de un sistema neumático para accionar los elementos
braking and other types of auxiliary brakes that assist with braking and extend the maintenance of the
braking elements, the braking components are similar to those of conventional systems (discs-pads,
drums-shoes) although obviously, oversized to achieve effective braking in vehicles that
they bear a great weight.

In the pneumatic brake circuit, the circuit pressure is generated by a compressor and subsequently stored for
being able to use it when conditions demand. The use of a pneumatic system instead of a hydraulic one in
heavy trucks and buses are justified, among other reasons, by the long distances that exist in
these types of vehicles from the moment pressure is generated until the place of use.

Basic operation
The basic operation of the system consists of a compressor that takes movement from the engine, with its
the movement draws filtered air from the outside and in some cases from a turbocharger, the air under pressure is
sent to different accumulators that in turn supply the front, rear, and trailer brakes.
When the driver presses the brake pedal, it activates a valve that allows the passage of compressed air from the
accumulators that in turn activate the braking elements.

Components of the pneumatic circuit

Los sistemas de aire comprimido se pueden dividir en las siguientes áreas que a su vez están dotadas de una serie de
components associated with each of them:

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 Generation, conditioning, and pressure regulation

Compressors Pressure regulators

Air dryers or dehydrator filters Antifreeze devices

Accumulation and monitoring of pressure

Accumulators Valves to ensure pressure

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 Safety valves

Devices that intervene in the actuation of braking elements

Service brake valves Actuators

Adjustment tensors Pipes

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 Control devices

Manometers Pneumatic control valves

Parking brake system Anti-mixing system

General outline

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Braking elements
The braking elements are similar to those used in passenger vehicles, although sized up,
to say, drums-shoes, discs-pads.

Drum brake in an industrial vehicle

Disc brakes on an industrial vehicle

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5.3 Hydraulic steering
This type of direction is based on the use of an auxiliary force that multiplies the effort made by the
driver turning the steering wheel, in order to make driving more comfortable (especially to improve the
maneuverability in parking) and safer. Nowadays, almost all cars are equipped with
a power steering system. Hydraulic steering systems must allow the transmission of
vehicle contact information on the roadway so that the driver is aware of the level of grip
What the vehicle has at all times.

Components
The system is composed of:
A deposit
A pump. Mechanical or electric
Hydraulic cylinder. Usually located inside the steering box or outside connected to the
zipper
Hydraulic unit. Located in the steering box
A series of channels through which the liquid circulates
Sometimes a radiator to cool the steering fluid
Hydraulic fluid

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Deposit: It is a container where part of the hydraulic fluid is housed and its function is to serve as
circuit reservation. In some cases, it has markers that indicate the maximum and minimum levels.
recommended, in others, it is the cap itself that has a rod to check the level.
Hydraulic pump: It is responsible for generating the hydraulic pressure necessary to activate the system. The mechanism
it is similar to that of the engine oil pumps. It can be driven by the service belt of the thermal engine,
directly by the engine or by an electric motor.

Hydraulic cylinder: It can be located in the steering box itself or outside the box connected to it. In that
last provision, the ends of the cylinder are connected to the rack. In both cases, it is about a
double-acting hydraulic cylinder that has two chambers separated by a piston located in the position
central.

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Hydraulic control unit: It has the functions of distributing the fluid pressure to the service chamber.
same time to communicate the return with the camera that needs to discharge hydraulic pressure.

Hydraulic fluid:
The main functions that the hydraulic fluid must fulfill for the system to operate correctly are the
following:
• Transmit the pressure generated by the pump to the hydraulic cylinder.
• Lubricate the parts of the system to minimize wear and friction
• Protect against corrosion
• Refrigerar el calor que se genera durante el funcionamiento del sistema
• Be compatible with the components it circulates through.

For this, the fluids used in the steering system must have a series of characteristics that are
the following are detailed:
• High viscosity to support the loads it will be subjected to
• Create a sealing effect on certain components of the circuit and fluid enough to
to circulate through the ducts without difficulty over a wide range of temperatures.
• Compression and shear resistance
• Chemical stability and resisting degradation without producing solid deposits,
• Thermal stability to withstand temperature changes without degrading or forming sediments.
• Good demulsibility, the hydraulic fluid must have a high capacity to quickly separate from
water generated in the circuit by condensation
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5.4 Gearboxes
Scope mechanism
This type of gearbox is supported by a mechanism for bending speed ranges:
High gamma
Low range

The use of the range mechanism doubles the number of speeds of the basic gearbox, as required.
for modern trucks. The reach mechanism consists of a planetary gear that transmits
directly the motor torque from the main shaft to the driving gears:
Satellite
2. Crown
3. Coupling ring
Central pinion
5. Satellite port
A pneumatic cylinder (G) is used for the speed changes of the reach mechanism.

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High range (A)
When the crown (1) is locked to the satellite holder by means of a coupling ring (2), the entire
rear unit of satellites. The torque transmitted by the basic gearbox passes directly through the
planetary gear. In this way, the gearbox operates with the high range of speeds.

Low range (B)

The crown (3) is locked to the gearbox housing, causing the satellites located between the
crown (3) and the central pinion. The satellite holders (5) rotate in the same direction as the central pinion but at a
slower speed. In this way, the torque transmitted by the gearbox must pass through the satellites
activating the low range of speeds.

Operation of the reach mechanism A switch located on the lever handle is used to activate the
range mechanism. To select the low range, push the switch down (1). It acts on the first and
the third gear - To select the high range, lift the switch (1). It acts on the fourth and sixth gears.

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Reducer or 'splitter'

The purpose of the reducer is to section the speeds of the gearbox to provide a high range and
a low range associated with each of the sprockets.

CONCLUSION
The gearboxes that have both a reduction gear and a range mechanism like the SR and
VT presents 12 synchronized gear speeds, two ultra-slow gears, and four reverse gears without
synchronized changes.

Operation of the reduction gear

As in the reach mechanism, there is a switch located on the handle of the lever that activates or deactivates the
reducer.
Note: The switch for the reduction gear is not the same as the one for the reach mechanism. To select the high range
from the gears, set the switch to H [High]. To select the low range of the gears, set the
L switch [Low].

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Reducer: high range
When the switch of the knob on the lever is set to H (High), a relay valve (2) is activated. The relay valve (2) is
located in a way that allows compressed air to pass to the pneumatic cylinder (3).

Deactivated

Activated

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When pressing the clutch pedal, the control valve of the reducer (1) sends air to the pneumatic cylinder (2). The air
moves the cylinder piston to activate the high range of the gears. Next, the control valve of the
reducer (1) activates a switch and turns on a light on the instrument panel that indicates to the driver that it
you have selected the high-end range of the sprockets.

Deactivated

Activated

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