Hall effect

F A I T PA R :

HAB C H I C H I RAZ

H A LFA O U I H A M A D I

BE LAID FAT MA ZO HRA

B O U C H A R E B FATI M A

GROUP: 06
Theoretical Part
 Introduction
The "classical" Hall effect was discovered in 1879 by Edwin Herbert Hall, who stated it as follows: "a
electric current passing through a material immersed in a magnetic field generates a voltage
perpendicular to the latter.

Under certain conditions, this tension increases in steps, a characteristic effect of quantum physics.
it is the integer quantum Hall effect or the fractional quantum Hall effect.

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 History
Although none of his writings are known, the Presocratic Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus is attributed with
(verse - 625, verse - 547) the first description of the attraction of iron by a stone called magnetite,
because it was widespread in the region of Magnesia, in Thessaly. Democritus (c. — 460, c. — 390)
attempt an explanation of the phenomenon by arguing that the atoms of the magnet penetrate in between the
iron atoms to shake them. The Roman historian Pliny the Elder (23-79) reports that a certain Dinocares
proposal to King Ptolemy Philadelphus (– 309, – 246) to build a temple in Alexandria on whose vault
We would insert blocks of magnetite to support a statue of iron of Queen Arsinoë in the air. It seems
that the first compasses date back to the 3rd century and were commonly used on ships by the 11th century
century; fundamental experiments on magnets are reported and commented on in the Epistola of
magnet written around 1269 by Pierre de Maricourt, master of the English philosopher Roger Bacon,

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but we must wait until 1600 for the English physician William Gilbert (1544-1603) to develop in his De
magnet a first theory of magnets. The laws of action of magnetic charges will be written by
Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806) and Denis Poisson (1781-1840) before James Clerk Maxwell
(1831-1879) developed the classical theory of electromagnetism. In the 20th century, the theory of relativity
Albert Einstein allows us to understand that the distinction between an electric field and a field
Magnetic is the consequence of the choice of a reference frame. Moreover, quantum physics elucidates the
Nature discontinues electromagnetic interactions understood as exchanges of photons. It
reveals further the existence of spin, intrinsic angular momentum of elementary particles, source of a
magnetism buried in the heart of matter.

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 Definition

The Hall effect is a well-known phenomenon in the field of materials electromagnetism. It bears the
named after its discoverer in 1879, the American Edwin Hall, originally associated with physical effects.
classical, it has fascinating extensions in the quantum field, quantum Hall effects
whole and fractional. The latter two having led to the receipt of several Nobel prizes.

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 Prince
The Hall effect originates from the nature of the current that passes through a conductive material. This current is the result of
the movement of a large number of charge carriers (combination of electrons, holes, and ions).

In the presence of an electric field, directed along the x direction, charge carriers acquire a drift velocity.
stationary average that is limited by collisions with material impurities and/or phonons. In these
Under certain conditions, charge carriers have a generally straight trajectory. It is this principle that generates a current.
electric.

When a magnetic field with a component perpendicular to the movement of electrons is added, in this
For example, along the z-axis, the charge carriers are not only accelerated but also rotated around the axis of the field.
magnetic.

Under certain conditions, load carriers do not have time to describe a complete circle around the axis of the
magnetic field. Therefore, as soon as the magnetic field is applied, the charge carriers cannot escape from
solids will accumulate on one of the faces of the material.

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 This accumulation of charges results in the appearance of an electric field, in the y direction, called field
of Hall.

This electric field generates a new force on the charge carriers that tends to decrease the Lorentz force.
(responsible for rotating the load carriers). After a relatively short time, the Hall field is
sufficiently large to compensate for the deviation of the electrons. The steady state is reached, the carriers of
charges are no longer deflected by the magnetic field. A fixed voltage appeared on the faces of the solid, called
Hall voltage.

By its definition and origin, the Hall effect depends on the current. induced in the material by the electric field
magnetic field appliqué au matériau, mais également de la géométrie du matériau. En effet, plus ce dernier est «
narrow" the more the load carriers will struggle to make a full rotation around the axis of the magnetic field.
The Hall voltage in a rectangular conductive sample is equal to:

On a is the thickness of material in the direction of the magnetic field (here Z)

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 The Hall effect in a metal
In a metal, the carriers are predominantly electrons. As a result, the Hall constant has a value of
, where n represents the number of electrons per unit volume which is equal to 10^23 e/cm3

It is wise to note that the Hall voltage is proportional to the Hall coefficient. , himself
inversely proportional to n in the material.

The more a material has charge carriers, the higher the Hall voltage that can potentially appear.
is weak. That is why semiconductors are used in Hall effect applications.

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 The Hall effect in a semiconductor

Since the Hall effect depends on the number of charge carriers, it can be noted that this effect is more
important in a semiconductor than in a metal. Indeed, semiconductors also possess
carriers of negative charge (electrons), carriers of positive charge (holes).

We can therefore express the Hall voltage in a semiconductor in the same way as in a metal,
and thereby deduce certain intrinsic characteristics of the semiconductor material.

The equations below summarize some important quantifiable parameters related to the Hall effect.
(measurement of the Hall voltage).

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Electrons:

with the mobility of electrons in the material

with sigma the conductivity of the material

Trouser:

with the mobility of holes in the material

with sigma the conductivity of the material

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INTRODUCTION :

The Hall effect device is probably the most sensor.

familiar for measuring strong magnetic fields
it is also used as a position detector without
contacts, in brushless motors for example, in
detecting the variation of magnetic field during the
passage of the poles of the rotor or a magnetic piece
arranged in such a way that it represents the image of the
machine poles
ARTICLES :
They are also used mechanically for the detection of the
position or speed of a piece, for example a tree
turning. This is the case with internal combustion engines,
generalized on modern engines (injection, Hdi, etc.)
top dead center sensors and shaft position sensors
comes. The presence of a dirty environment makes
the less reliable optics
The keys, keyboards of quality electronic musical instruments
correct ones are equipped with Hall effect sensors to take into account the
dynamic support, replacing traditional contactors. They
also eliminates the wear of traditional electrical contacts
Many models of laptops, some smartphones and
some digital tablets have a Hall effect sensor for
detect the closing of the lid or a flap cover
Hall effect is intended for various applications. It allows determining the
motor control, battery management, or even the direction of
rotation of an element. It is thus very present in different sectors:
automotive, aerospace, precision mechanics
In addition to the great flexibility they offer and for requirements of
precise detection, digital Hall effect sensors can
also be programmed to activate at a tolerance
magnetic field data. For detection applications in
high speed, they are very popular in white goods such as
the dryers and washing machines

In automotive security applications, Hall effect sensors

digital tools are also particularly useful. They are reliable in the
detection of transmission gear speed and in the detection of
seat belt buckle tightening
SUMMARY:

Objectives. – To evaluate, in patients with a

myophosphorylase deficiency (McArdle's disease),
the effects of moderate aerobic training
weeks, 3 sessions of 45 minutes/week at 60–70%
of the maximum heart rate) on the response to
the exercise
 METHODS

The cardiorespiratory, electromyographic responses

(EMG) and metabolic are monitored in four patients before
and after training during a test (1 hour) on
ergocycle followed by 30 minutes of recovery
RESULTS :

Before training, the EMG activity is very high during the first ten.
minutes of effort while the oxygen consumption (VO2) is stable during
the entire duration of the effort. The heart rate (HR) and the perception of effort
increase excessively. Patients heavily use glucose
circulating and free fatty acids to oxidize them. The training of eight
weeks reduced, during effort, EMG activity, heart rate, time of onset of
second wind, the perception of effort but has no effect on VO2. At the end of
recovery, patients use more circulating glucose and produce
blood lactate; their respiratory quotient is also increased
CONCLUSION :
McArdle patients show an exacerbation of responses
cardiovascular, metabolic, and electromyographic to exercise.
Moderate aerobic training leads to an adaptation.
muscular, cardiac and metabolic effort and improves tolerance
patients in physical exercise
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