Module 1: Cause and Effect - Observing

Question Answer
What is the role of observations in They are information obtained through the senses and are
science? the raw data that initiate scientific investigations.
Combining different observations allows a conclusion to
be reached.
What is the difference between an An observation is raw data from the senses, uninfluenced
observation and an inference? by prior knowledge. An inference is an assumption made
by combining observations with prior knowledge.
What is qualitative data? Data that is categorical and relies on the 5 senses (sight,
taste, hearing, smell, touch). It can be limited by personal
opinion.
What is quantitative data? Data based on numerical values collected with scientific
equipment. It is objective, given a unit of measurement,
and is more scientifically reliable.
Why is a combination of qualitative It provides both descriptive context and objective,
and quantitative data beneficial? numerical evidence, leading to more robust and reliable
conclusions (e.g., pH scale, Moh's hardness scale).
What did Archimedes observe and He observed that submerged objects displace water and
infer about buoyancy? different materials displace different amounts. He inferred
that buoyancy is related to mass vs. water displaced.

What did Alexander Fleming observe He observed that a petri dish contaminated with mold
that led to penicillin? (Penicillium notatum) was bacteria-free. He inferred that
the mold repelled bacteria.
What did Galileo observe about Using a telescope, he observed small "planets" (moons)
Jupiter, and what was his inference? around Jupiter on different days. He inferred this
supported a heliocentric model, not a geocentric one.
What evidence did Alfred Wegener He observed that continent edges lined up and that
use to infer continental drift? prehistoric flora and fauna were found on different
continents. He inferred the continents were once joined.
Provide an example of sustainable Back burning during colder months to reduce summer
observations by Aboriginal and fires and encourage new growth, based on observations of
Torres Strait Islander Peoples. fire and land management.

What are the properties of an acid? pH < 7, taste sour, are corrosive, break in water to form
H+ ions.
What are the properties of a base? pH > 7, taste bitter, are caustic, feel slippery, break in
water to form OH- ions.
What does Newton's Law of Every particle attracts every other particle with a force
Universal Gravitation state? proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
How can observing rock strata Older layers are at the bottom, and changes in flora and
provide evidence for change over fauna fossils in each layer show evolution. Quantitative
time? dating (e.g., radiometric dating) provides ages.

What is the first step in the scientific The observation is used to propose a scientific question
method after making an observation? and perform background research.
What are the three types of variables Independent Variable (IV): the one thing deliberately
in an experiment? changed. Dependent Variable (DV): what is measured for
an effect. Controlled Variables (CV): all other factors kept
constant.
What is a hypothesis? An educated guess that predicts the relationship between
the independent and dependent variables.
What must a good method include? An explicit, detailed description of the procedure, how to
change the IV, measure the DV, and control CVs. It must
include a risk assessment and specify data collection
processes.
Why must only one independent To ensure that any change in the dependent variable is
variable be tested at a time? conclusively caused by the IV and not by other,
uncontrolled factors.
Writing a aim “To (scientific verb”investigate”) how (independent
variable) affects (dependent variable).”

Writing a hypothesis If (independent variable[describe experiment]) then,

(dependent variable[your prediction]) because (educated
reason, why?)
Writing a conclusion In conclusion…..(summarise main findings and answer the
aim). It was hypothesised that (restate the hypothesis)...
therefore the hypothesis is rejected/supported.
Module 2: Cause and Effect - Inferences and Generalisations
Question Answer
What are the four factors that Past experience, preconceived assumptions, available
subconsciously influence all evidence (limited by technology/time), and the collective
scientific research? understanding of other scientists.
How did Aboriginal and Torres They observed plant properties and inferred methods like
Strait Islander Peoples use leaching (soaking in moving water) and cooking to remove
observation and inference for toxins from plants like cunjevoi, bracken fern, and nardoo.
toxin removal in food?
What are Wonky Holes and what They are submarine freshwater springs on the Great Barrier
was the inference made about Reef. The observation of an abundance of fish life led to the
them? inference of their great cultural and ecological significance
as nurseries.
Why is using secondary sources To avoid unnecessary repetition, learn from others' methods,
and conducting background make informed inferences, determine strong inquiry
research vital before an questions, and construct a better hypothesis.
investigation?

Why is repeating investigations It validates, disproves, or corrects previous research and adds
important? new primary data and evidence to the scientific record.
How are patterns used in To support conclusions, build theories, laws, and models, and
science? advance technology and society.
What is a Type II error? A failure to recognise a pattern that exists; when a true
hypothesis is incorrectly rejected.
How was the pattern of Halley's Edmond Halley searched historical records, combined them
Comet confirmed? with Newton's gravitational theory to predict its elliptical
orbit, and other scientists confirmed past sightings, proving the
pattern.
How did Dmitri Mendeleev use He grouped elements with like properties and used the
patterns to create the Periodic resulting periodicity to predict the properties of elements that
Table? had not yet been discovered.
What is an example of an The Aurora Australis, as its intensity and appearance are only
irregular pattern? predictable hours in advance due to solar wind disturbances.
What are fractals? Patterns in nature that repeat at every scale, having an infinite
surface area but a finite volume (e.g., lightning, snowflakes,
tree branches).
What is a Type I error? The misinterpretation of a pattern; seeing a connection that
doesn't exist. It occurs when a false hypothesis is incorrectly
accepted.
What is pareidolia and what is its The tendency to see faces in random objects. It was
evolutionary purpose? evolutionarily beneficial for human survival due to our
dependency on social interaction.
What is the role of data outliers? Data points that don't match the pattern. They may indicate an
error or reduce confidence in a correlation. They are often
removed if they resulted from random error.
How is the strength of a Measured by the correlation coefficient, r. 0 = no correlation,
correlation measured and what 0.1-0.3 = weak, 0.3-0.5 = medium, 0.5-1.0 = high correlation.
do the values mean?
Why must scientists be cautious Because the decision can be influenced by internal biases to
when removing outliers? make the data fit a desired pattern. The reason for removal
must always be stated.
Why is it important to test Because untested assumptions create bias in an investigation's
common assumptions? interpretation. Testing them with the scientific method leads to
new insights.
What was the historical The assumption that life arose from non-living matter. It was
assumption of Spontaneous disproved by the germ theory of disease.
Generation and how was it
disproved?
What was the assumption about The assumption that a fire-like element called phlogiston was
Phlogiston? released during burning and rusting. It was disproved by the
oxygen theory of combustion.
What was the historical That Earth's systems were too large to be affected by human
assumption about Human activity. This was disproved by theories of ozone depletion and
Influences on the atmosphere? climate change.
What is a generalisation in A broad statement or concept drawn from specific experiences.
science? It can be overcome through peer review and collaboration.a .
What are the benefits of Increased efficiency, cross-disciplinary research, a more
collaborative teams in science? complete international perspective, mentorships, and
cross-checking of ideas.
How do alternative perspectives Diverse and culturally different perspectives force scientists
improve scientific investigations? to evaluate and defend their stances, reducing error and bias.

Module 3: Scientific Models | Study Table

Question Answer
What is a scientific model? Something used to explain a scientific concept, aid in predicting
outcomes, or simplify complex processes.
What is a diagram model A drawing or visual representation. Advantages: Can be simple to
and what are its complex, easy to draw, and highlights specific ideas (e.g., basic
advantages? electron structures for understanding chemical reactions).
What is a physical replica A scaled up or down version of something very large or small to
model? make it easy to manipulate and understand (e.g., a solar system
model, a model of a human organ).
What is a mathematical A model based on formulas that quantify the physical world. Used
representation model? for predictions and identifying trends (e.g., F=ma for Newton's
second law).
What is an analogy model? A comparison of a scientific concept to a familiar, everyday concept
to build understanding (e.g., a cell is like a factory).
What is a computer A program that solves complex math problems quickly. It can
simulation model? consider many variables and is used for realistic predictions and
deepening understanding.
What is the germ theory of The accepted model that pathogens (disease-causing agents) are
disease? germs. This includes bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses.
How is the germ theory It successfully explains cause and spread of disease, pathogens are
model effective? observable with microscopes, they can be cultured, and computer
models (like the SIR model) can predict epidemics.
What was the Steady State The theory that the universe had always existed and that nothing
model of the universe? significant would change over time.
What is the Big Bang model The theory that the universe expanded from a singularity. Key
and what evidence supports evidence is redshift, which suggests all matter originated from a
it? central point.
What is the current atomic The quantum mechanical model. It features a dense nucleus of
model called? protons and neutrons with electrons that do not occupy a definite
region of space.
Why was the quantum To explain issues with previous theories, such as blackbody
mechanical model radiation and the behavior of electrons in shell levels.
developed?
What is the purpose of a To predict increases in greenhouse gases (like CO2) and the
climate model? resulting greenhouse effect, which traps heat and leads to global
warming.
How are climate models They have accurately predicted a steady increase in average
effective? global temperature, helping scientists prepare for impacts like
rising sea levels, severe storms, and species extinction.
What is a key limitation of Long-term predictions are less accurate due to the extremely
climate models? complex nature of Earth's climate systems.
What is the first step in Plan by considering the area of interest and your strengths in
constructing a model? presentation.
What is the second step in Choose the model type that best suits the scientific concept you are
constructing a model? investigating.
Why is background To gain a good understanding of the concept and to use previous
research a critical step in data from other scientists to inform your model.
model construction?
After building the model, Presenting the model by stating its aim, how it simplifies the
what is the final step? concept, its use for predictions, and submitting it for peer review.
Which areas of science are Primarily biology (cells, immune response), but also physics
involved in the germ theory (microscopes), computer science (modeling), and chemistry
model? (medicine/vaccines).
Which areas of science are Physics (light, optics, telescopes), chemistry (spectroscopes),
involved in models of the computer science (processing data), and exobiology (search for
universe? life).
Which areas of science are Physics and chemistry (atoms, molecules), complex math,
involved in atomic models? computer simulations, and biology (quantum effects in
photosynthesis).
Which areas of science are A combination of chemistry, physics, biology, earth sciences, and
involved in climate models? hydroscience.
Module 4: Theories and Laws | Study Table
Question Answer
What is the primary difference A theory explains why a phenomenon occurs. A law
between a scientific theory and a describes how a phenomenon occurs, typically as a
scientific law? mathematical relationship.
What is the Law of Conservation The law states that matter cannot be created or destroyed,
of Mass and who developed it? only rearranged. The mass of the products equals the mass
of the reactants. It was developed by Antoine Lavoisier.
What was the Theory of Plate The theory that Earth's lithosphere is divided into plates that
Tectonics and what evidence move over time. Evidence includes: geological (rock/fossil
supports it? matches across continents, seafloor spreading, magnetic
stripes), and biological (distribution of similar fossils and
species across now-separated continents).
What are the four stages of 1. Speculative Stage: Questions and hypotheses.
scientific development? 2. Descriptive Stage: Data and evidence collection.
3. Constructive Stage: Development of the theory/law.
4. Validation Stage: Evaluation and acceptance by the
scientific community.
How was the Germ Theory of Built by scientists like Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, it
Disease developed and what replaced the miasma theory. It changed disease examination,
impact did it have? accelerated research, and led to vaccines and cures. Koch's
Postulates were a key set of rules to prove a pathogen
causes a disease.
What was the Oxygen Theory of Developed by Lavoisier, it stated that combustion involves a
Combustione and what did it reaction with oxygen. It replaced the phlogiston theory.
replace?
How was the Geocentric Theory The theory (universe revolves around Earth) was disproved by
of the solar system disproved? evidence from Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, who
provided support for the heliocentric model (planets orbit the
Sun).
What was Lamarck's Theory of The theory that an organism can pass on characteristics
Inheritance of Acquired acquired during its lifetime to its offspring. It was disproved
Characteristics? and replaced by Darwin's and Wallace's theory of evolution by
natural selection.
How was Dalton's Atomic Theory Discoveries of subatomic particles (electrons by J.J.
disproved in parts? Thomson, neutrons by Chadwick) and the structure of the
atom (empty space discovered by Rutherford) showed his
model of a solid, indivisible atom was incorrect.
What evidence disproved the Evidence like the cosmic microwave background radiation
Steady State Theory of the (CMBR) and the redshift of galaxies (indicating an expanding
universe? universe) supported the Big Bang Theory instead.
What is Newton's Second Law of The law states that the force applied to an object equals its
Motion? mass multiplied by its acceleration (F=ma).
What does Avogadro's Law state? It states that equal volumes of all gases, at the same
temperature and pressure, contain the same number of
molecules (or moles).
What is the Law of In undisturbed rock layers (strata), the oldest layers are at
Superposition? the bottom and the youngest are at the top. This is used to
determine the relative age of fossils and rocks.
What is Mendel's Law of In genetics, one allele (version of a gene) can be dominant
Dominance? and mask the effect of a recessive allele in a hybrid individual.
How can Ohm's Law (V=IR) be It can predict voltage, current, or resistance in a circuit. It
used to make predictions? can be applied to empirical data or used with a graph where
the gradient represents resistance.
What does the Law of It states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
Conservation of Energy state? transformed from one form to another. The total energy in an
isolated system remains constant.
How is the Law of Conservation It is used to calculate energy transfers, e.g., kinetic energy to
of Energy applied in Physics? potential energy in a falling object or a pendulum.
How is the Law of Conservation It explains how chemical energy from food (calories) is
of Energy applied in Human transformed into thermal energy (to maintain body
Biology? temperature) and mechanical energy (for muscle movement).
How did investigations into nuclear Nuclear reactions showed that mass can be converted into
reactions change the interpretation energy (and vice versa), as described by Einstein's equation
of the laws of conservation of mass E=mc². This led to the fusion of the two conservation laws into
and energy? a single law of conservation of mass-energy.
How does the Atomic Theory unify It explains the structure of all matter, from the air we breathe to
diverse phenomena? the stars, and provides the basis for chemical reactions,
physics of materials, and nuclear processes.
How does the Theory of Evolution It explains the diversity of life on Earth, how species change
unify diverse phenomena? over time, and the relationships between all living organisms
through concepts like natural selection and common
descent.
These verbs are about conducting an experiment:
Classify – place into categories
Demonstrate – show by example
Determine/deduce – cause something to happen in a particular way so a conclusion can be made
Describe – provide characteristics and features
Distinguish/compare – show similarities and differences between
Identify – recognise and name
Investigate – plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about
These verbs are about making meaning from your results:
Assess/evaluate – make a judgment of about value, quality, results or size
Discuss – identify issues and provide points for and against
Explain – identify the relationship between two things
Justify – identify points to support one particular point of view
Propose – suggest a new understanding or argument based on results