Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

Is concrete healing really efficient? A review

Amir Sidiq, Rebecca Gravina, Filippo Giustozzi ⇑
Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology – RMIT University, Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, 376-392 Swanston st., Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia

h i g h l i g h t s

The paper presents a literature review of healing agents for cementitious materials.

Strategies to deliver the healing agent into the concrete are discussed.

Mechanical and long-term performance of healing agents are analysed.

Evaluation of healing efficiency methodologies is presented.

Life cycle cost analysis of conventional vs. healed concrete is discussed.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Concrete is a widely used material in the construction industry due to its affordability and availability;
Received 16 July 2018 however, it is also sensitive to crack formation typically under tension stresses. Due to cracking, the dura-
Received in revised form 31 January 2019 bility of concrete is compromised via contaminant ingress such as rapid chloride penetration and atmo-
Accepted 1 February 2019
spheric water that infiltrate through these cracks and potentially lead to corrosion of steel in reinforced
concrete. Self-healing materials embedded in cementitious materials is emerging as an innovative
method to improve concrete durability.
Keywords:
This paper reviews available self-healing approaches considering various healing materials with
Self-healing
Improvement in strength
respect to performance and application. Attention to the efficiency of healing materials including biotech-
Efficiency nological, polymeric and chemical components for crack healing and improvement in strength is a major
Bacteria focus. Consideration is also placed on methods of testing, evaluation methods for calculating efficiency
Polymer and comparison of self-healing materials and their efficiency. Finally, a conceptual life-cycle cost for con-
Sodium silicate ventional and self-healing concrete structures is provided.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
1.1. Autogenous healing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
1.1.1. Hydration process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
1.1.2. Crack width reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
1.2. Autonomous self-healing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
1.2.1. Encapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
1.2.2. Vascular system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
1.2.3. Immobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
1.3. Efficiency of healing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
1.3.1. Bacterial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
1.3.2. Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
1.3.3. Sodium silicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
1.3.4. Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
1.3.5. Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
1.4. Mechanical performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (F. Giustozzi).

[Link]
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
258 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273

1.4.1. Bacterial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

1.4.2. Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1.4.3. Sodium silicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1.4.4. Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1.4.5. Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1.5. Long-term performance of healed concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1.5.1. Water permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1.5.2. Gas permeability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
1.6. Methodologies to measure concrete healing efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
1.6.1. Optical analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
1.6.2. Visual analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
2. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
2.1. Biotechnological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
2.2. Polymeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
2.3. Sodium silicates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
2.4. Life cycle cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
3. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Conflict of interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

1. Introduction 160

Number of publicaon 140

In 2017, statistics shows the cement production in major of
120
cement manufacturing countries was 4.6 billion metric tonnes
with 0.21% in Australia [1], 2.5% in America, 8.4% in India and 100
71.9% in China [2]. Concrete is in fact a favourable construction 80
material due its production process, raw material availability and
compression strength characteristics. Divergently, the tensile char- 60
acteristics of concrete can cause the cracking probability. Cracking 40
can occur at any stage of the concrete service life; this can be when 20
concrete is in plastic state or in hardened state due to thermal
stresses, plastic shrinkage, settlement, drying shrinkage, weather- 0
1970
1973
1976
1979
1982
1985
1988
1991
1994
1997
2000
2003
2006
2009
2012
2015
2018
ing and various loadings conditions or a combination of various
factors [3]. Early micro-cracks are extremely difficult to be
detected in the cementitious matrix due to their size; however,
Years
from external exposure to environmental condition and loadings Fig. 2. Number of publications per year for phrase search ‘‘concrete healing” [9].
(cyclic or static) the micro-size crack leads to the formation of
macro-size cracks [4] as shown in Fig. 1. One of the critical aspect which reduces the durability of concrete is permeability [5] that is
the process of undissolved particle of undesirable fluids and gasses
to pass through the cracks [6]. This exposes the reinforcing steel to
oxygen and moisture which causes steel corrosion [7] and poten-
tial structural failures. Traditionally, various methods of mainte-
nance and repairing are routinely performed to prevent this type
of degradation.
The phenomenon of concrete healing has been extensively
studied over the past decade, although Malinskii was the first to
examine the development of crack-healing via polymeric materials
in 1973 [8]. This phenomenon attracted further study by many
researchers as shown in Fig. 2; the number of publications on ‘‘con-
crete healing” rose from ten in 2002 to one hundred and forty
seven in 2017 [9].
Concrete self-healing is categorised into two groups; autoge-
nous and autonomous [10]. Autogenous is the process of self-
healing triggered without the need of any external operation, while
autonomous is developed by adding engineered admixture for
healing purposes [11]. Fig. 3 summarises the approach followed
by the present study to investigate different concrete healing
processes.

1.1. Autogenous healing

Autogenous healing is the phenomenon of crack healing intrin-

sically based on chemical reaction occurrence and involvement of
Fig. 1. Crack formation progress in cementitious matrix. water. Crack width narrowing is also considered under the
 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273 259

Fig. 3. Flow chart structure of the literature review in this study.

superior autogenous healing in mortar with low water cement

ratio and applying maximum stress loads. In 1998, Jacobsen et al.
[18] achieved 200 mm-crack to heal under autogenous method.
The critical autogenous crack healing efficiency is correlated to
time [19], in which the process considerably leads to the expansion
of concrete via the crack wings and further hydration of cementi-
tious particles and crystallization of calcium carbonates (CaCO3)
[20].
Researchers agree that hydration of un-hydrated particles in a
cementitious matrix is significantly related to water addition
[21]; when water is exposed to the cementitious particles, the pro-
cess involves the dissolution and deposition of soluble hydrates
such as Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) [10]. About 75% weight of
cement is dicalcium silicate (C2S) and tricalcium silicate (C3S)
[22]; when this is combined with the presence of water in a
cementitious matrix, the undissolved particles of calcium hydrox-
Fig. 4. Autogenous crack self-healing under hydration process. ide Ca(OH)2 react with the silica, and calcium carbonate precipita-
tion occurs, hence the crack healing progresses [23]. Fig. 4
demonstrates the progress of crack self-healing under the hydra-
autogenous healing category as it promotes autogenous healing to tion process however this process only occurs at a PH level above
proceed. 7.5 [24]. Neville [20] revealed that the hydration of un-hydrated
cement particles is primarily for early-age concrete and at later
1.1.1. Hydration process stage during the crack opening it is the calcium carbonate that pre-
Hydration process of self-healing is the occurrence of crack cedes the healing hence filling the crack.
healing on materials due to the hydration of un-hydrated cementi-
tious particles remained in the matrix [11]. In 1836, the French 1.1.2. Crack width reduction
Academy of Science was the first to investigate concrete self- Reducing crack width is considered to be an autogenous process
healing based on water retaining structures, as it was noticed that [25]. Li et al. [26] were the first to utilize Engineered Cementitious
white crystalline layers formed over the cracks due to carbonation Composite (ECC) to control the crack width and by using polyethy-
between calcium hydroxide from concrete and exposure to the lene as mechanical reinforcement for the matrix; a reduction in the
atmosphere or reactions between calcium hydrogen from water average crack width up to 50 lm and 30 lm was obtained for each
and calcium hydroxide from concrete [12]. In 1913, Abram of the two additives. Later, in one of the research studies by the
observed concrete crack healing during the pull-out test on rein- same authors [27], Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) was utilized and a crack
forced concrete [13]. In 1926, the phenomenon of concrete self- width of 60 lm was achieved due to the tensile strain capacity of
healing was studied by Soroker and Denson [14] and in 1937 by the polymer that ranged from 3 to 5%, which is hundred times that
Brandeis [15]. In 1956, Lauer and Slate observed crack healing as of concrete. Herbert and Li [28] used ECC under natural environ-
a results of formation of crystals from calcium carbonate and mental conditions for the period of 12 months in Ann Arbor
calcium hydroxide [16], while in 1973 Dhir et al. [17] developed (Michigan, USA) and cracks with an average width of 20 lm were
260 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273

healed. In the 19600 s, Super Absorbent Polymers (SAP) were devel- In 1994, Carolyn Dry [34] was first to propose a built-in capsule
oped and research studies started to use SAPs in concrete mixture in the concrete matrix. Dry used methyl-methacrylate as the heal-
as autogenous crack healing material [29]. SAPs are cross linked ing agent in a hollow porous polypropylene fibre capsule; this
polymeric materials which can absorb significant amount of liquid method provided an increased flexural strength of the mix [36].
in the surrounding environment [30], SAPs can enlarge up to 500 Joseph et al. and Li et al. [26,36] utilized cyanoacrylate for single
times of their size at PH level of 12 [31,32]. Kim and Schlangen hollowed capsule and an increase in stiffness was obtained. Van
[30] deployed SAPs with PVA-based ECC in mortar mixture for Tittelboom et al. [37] and Karaiskos et al. [38] utilized
crack width reduction and healing, with SAPs content of 0.5% and polyurethane-tabulated hollowed capsules. Van Tittelboom placed
1.0% to cement content in comparison to control samples. The long capsules in contact with steel reinforcement and short cap-
experiment was proceeded under laboratory air curing conditions sules embedded in the concrete while Karaiskos embedded cap-
and wet and dry cycle and at the age of 28 days, four-point bending sules in a grid and attached to the reinforcement bars. Other
test was utilized to develop cracks and an average of 17.3 mm and researchers used various healing agents via the encapsulation
15.7 mm width was obtained with respect to SAPs content whereas method for crack healing [38–41], such as White et al. [42] who
22.3 mm on the control mix. After 28 days, samples were tested investigated the microencapsulation technology consisting of dicy-
until failure by using four-point bending test and the Authors con- clopentadiene as healing agent and urea-formaldehydes as shell
cluded that healed samples exhibited extra flexural strength and material. Wang [43] encapsulated bacteria spores in a hydrogel
deflection compared to the control mix. Snoeck et al. [33] utilized and then mixed it with the concrete mixture. However, during
SAPs (cross-linked potassium salt polyacrylate) of 1%, 2% and 4% by the concrete mixing process significant amounts of microcapsules
weight of cement and 2% by volume of PVA for all mixes. After were broken. Mostavi et al. [44] developed microcapsules with
28 days, cracks were developed by applying four-point bending dual shell layers consisting of polyurethane and poly(urea-
test to the limit where the fibres reach their maximum strain formaldehyde) and sodium silicate as the healing material to pre-
and crack width of 100–150 mm was obtained. Samples were cured vent microcapsule rupture during concrete mixing.
under wet and dry cycles for another 28 days and four-point bend- In micro encapsulation, the thickness of the shell is significantly
ing and permeability tests were conducted. It was observed that related to the size of the micro-capsule due to the additional
crack width was greatly reduced (138 mm width reduction on aver- amount of the shell material needed. Dong et al. [45] fabricated
age) for all SAPs contents with healing of 100% for SAPs content of micro-capsules with three different shell thicknesses and average
2% and 4% although strength reduction of 50% for 4% SAPs and size of 415.3 mm and tested the shell resistance in a simulated con-
strength increment of 20% for 2% SAPs was observed. SAPs content crete solution; it was found that the release of the healing material
of 1% showed instead healing potential of 80% and 50% improve- increased with lower shell thickness and decreased in high PH
ment in strength. level. It was concluded that the desired shell thickness can be
obtained by maintaining a precise agitation rate, PH level and tem-
perature during fabrication. Kanellopoulos et al. [46] fabricated
1.2. Autonomous self-healing
microcapsules with sodium silicate as core and gelatine-acacia
gum as shell material using coacervation method and average
Autonomous self-healing involves designed additives to be
microcapsules size of 300–700 mm with shell thickness range of
mixed in cementitious matrix for healing purposes and also uses
5–20 mm were obtained. The microcapsules were tested in differ-
particular techniques to transport such additives.
ent PH levels to verify the survivability of the microcapsules in a
simulated concrete environment and it was observed that the mor-
1.2.1. Encapsulation phology of microcapsules changes to long and narrow at high alka-
Encapsulation is one of the most common techniques to deliver linity and round and brittle at high acidic PH, as illustrated in Fig. 5.
healing agents into the cementitious matrix. Several materials are Brown et al. [47], Blaiszik et al. [48], Li et al. [34] and Mostavi et al.
available to manufacture capsules and healing agents hence [44] utilized urea-formaldehyde as shell material via the emulsifi-
achieving different self-healing efficiencies [34]. For encapsulation, cation method with controlled PH level of 3.0–3.4, temperature of
the fundamental requirement is to have enough mechanical resis- 50–57 °C and agitation rate of 300–500 rpm; the final micro-
tance to withstand the internal forces in the cementitious matrix capsule diameter was between 125 and 297 mm.
or concrete mixing and the healing agent inside the capsule has
to be of low viscosity to be efficiently released inside the crack
[35]. The performance of the encapsulation healing process is also 1.2.2. Vascular system
a function of the capsule diameter, thickness of the shell and sur- Vascular approach for concrete self-healing is another method
face texture [36]. for delivering healing agents into the concrete specimen; this

Fig. 5. Efficiency of the release of healing agent in the micro-capsule with PH level.
 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273 261

Fig. 6. Vascular system approach for crack healing.

method mimics the vascular structure of the human body [3,49]. It 1.2.3. Immobilization
consists of individual or a network set of hollowed tubes placed Immobilization is one essential method for embedding organic
inside the concrete and the healing agent is supplied externally compounds into inorganic matrices since it can provide 1) good
(Fig. 6), therefore the system is practical for single or multiple heal- mechanical, thermal and photochemical stability, 2) high spectral
ing agents [3,50]. In 1993, Dry [50] first proposed the vascular sys- transparency in the deep ultraviolet region and 3) control degree
tem for crack healing and permeability reduction. By installing two of porosity [54]. There are various techniques that have been
fibre tubes using polypropylene in a concrete matrix and operating adopted for immobilization applications, such as: adsorption, cova-
a vacuum pump, methyl methacrylate as the healing agent was lent binding, entrapment and cross linking [55]. The adsorption
drawn through the fibre tubes into the concrete. Furthermore, technique involves a physio-chemical process which varies
Dry [51] utilized the vascular system for frame structures, by situ- depending on ions exchange, absorption and precipitation [56]
ating the pipettes throughout the beam and in beam-column while covalent binding is the process of bonding functionality
moment connections for healing cracks developed due to dynamic between the microorganism’s cell and the supported material.
loading. Joseph et al. [36,52] utilized cyanoacrylate – as healing For concrete self-healing applications, entrapment and crosslink-
agent – and a borosilicate glass tube to deliver it through the con- ing technique are used to immobilize the microorganisms. The
crete; the healing agent was supplied by using gravitational force. entrapment technique restricts the microorganism from moving
Nishiwaki et al. [53] proposed a vascular system that can repair and acts like a cage; however crosslinking involves a support-
cracks without human intervention, which involved installing elec- free mechanism where the microorganisms are joint and form a
tric current embedded into organic film pipes which contained the three dimensional complex structure [57]. Researchers have used
healing agent. As cracking occurs, the current conductive path various types of materials to immobilize microorganism. Polyur-
reduces and electric resistance increases so that the crack is ethane (PU) is one of the widely used materials for microorganism
heated. This melts the organic film pipe of the selected area and immobilization due its biochemically inert characteristics and
the healing agent is released. Sangadji and Schlangen [49] pro- mechanical strength [58], also the porous matrices of PU mini-
posed vascular concrete that consists of porous network concrete mizes the diffusion limitations [59]. Bachmeier et al. and Bang
at the centre of the concrete specimen. Micro controllers are et al. used PU foam for B. Pateurii immobilization [60,61] while
installed in the concrete and, during crack occurrence, send inputs Wang et al. used PU to immobilize B. Spaericus [62]. Khaliq and
to an actuator to activate a pump that releases the healing agent Ehsan [63] immobilized B. Subtilis with Light Weight Aggregate
into the porous concrete and into the cracks. (LWA) where LWA were soaked in bacteria solution for 24 h prior

Fig. 7. Crack healing as result of calcium carbonate precipitation from bacteria.

262 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273

to concrete mixing. Sierra-Beltran et al. [64] also used LWA as a sources of nitrogen pollution [77]. The production of ammonium
carrier to immobilize B. Cohnii by impregnating LWA with calcium could also lead to risk of ammonium salts hence possible reinforce-
lactate as food source followed by oven drying at 37 °C for 5 days ment corrosion or conversion of ammonium to nitric acid, which
and finally impregnating with bacteria solution. Researches have could damage the concrete structure [78]. Researchers proposed
also utilized expanded clay and perlite for microorganism immobi- metallic conversion of organic compound pathway as a results
lization due to the expansion characteristics and its distribution in from aerobic oxidation of organic acids for the existence of calcium
the cement mix matrices [65,66]. cations source, hence calcium carbonate production and produc-
tion of carbon dioxide that leads to autogenous self-sealing
1.3. Efficiency of healing [79,80] (Hydration Process) (Eqs. (6) and (7)).

CaC6 H10 O6 + 6O2 ! CaCO3 + 5CO2 + 5H2 O ð6Þ

Concrete self-healing materials are one of the regions in the
smart materials field which possesses the potential to partially or
fully recover the degraded performance of the structure and 5CO2 + Ca(OH)2 ! 5CaCO3 + 5H2 O ð7Þ
restore to the original conditions [67]. In biomimetic, self-healing
Another pathway of calcium carbonate production is through
is the regain of strength as a result of reconditioning [49,68].
the nitrate dissimilarity reduction, known as dinitrification. This
Therefore, depending on the regain requirement, researchers need
results in the reduction of nitrate (NO 
3 ) to Nitrite (NO2 ), nitric
to select the prospected healing material [12]. An effective self-
Oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen gas (N2) [81]. Organic
healing material needs to 1) seal the crack walls to reduce the per-
compounds oxides through the denitrifrying process as a results car-
meability, 2) be compatible with the concrete matrix, 3) have long-
bon dioxide, water and nitrogen gas are also produced. As a conse-
term potential activity, 4) process multiple events and 5) be eco-
quence, final product of calcium carbonate is produced (Eq. (8), (9)
nomically friendly [69].
and (10) [77].
For the purpose of autonomous self-healing, materials can be
classified as bacterial, polymers and chemical compounds (specif-
Dinitrification
Organic compound þ aðNO3 Þ þ b Hþ ! cðCO2 Þ
ically, sodium silicate and magnesium).
þ dðH2 OÞ þ eðN2 Þ ð8Þ
1.3.1. Bacterial
Bio-healing materials are based on the bacteriology field of CO2 + 2OH ! CO3 + H2 O ð9Þ
study, a branch of microbiology [70]. Biotechnological healing
technologies are categorised under the genus bacillius group of Ca2þ + CO3 2 ! CaCO3 ð10Þ
bacteria which are highly resistant to the alkaline environments
[71]. An approached pathway for bacterial healing consists of pro- In all pathways, electronegative charge of bacteria and its large
viding a source of nutrient for bacteria and obtaining precipitated surface area to volume ratio attract the calcium cations (Ca+2) from
calcium carbonate as a result of the metabolic process (Fig. 7), such the cementitious matrix and calcium carbonate precipitation can
as photosynthesis, sulphate reduction and urea hydrolysis produc- be obtained (Eqs. (5), (7) and (10)). It is exceptional that the precip-
tion [72,73]. It is hypothesized that bacteria are capable of forming itated amount is equal or exceeds the cellular weight; also, the
calcium carbonate precipitations [73,74] and biologically induce effectiveness of bacteria precipitation in different environment
chemical precipitations in which an organism creates an optimal conditions is different [70,82].
extracellular micro-environment of mineral phases, known as In comparison to ureolytic pathway, metallic conversion
bio-mineralization [75]. Hence the development of one of the organic compounds require high level of calcium source for calcite
methods of bio-healing concrete [70]. The pathway of induced pre- production [83]; however, high levels of calcium salts may pose a
cipitation involves the decomposition of urea by bacteria, which risk to concrete structures. Organic compound pathway is only
enzymes hydrolyse urea into ammonium and carbonate [72]. applied in soil improvement applications, which showed that ure-
During the initial stage of the microorganism activity, one mole olytic pathway has higher efficacy than dinitrification, since urea
urea is hydrolysed intracellular to one mole of ammonia and one hydrolysis occurs in much less period of time in comparison to
mole of carbamate and the carbamate spontaneously hydrolyses other pathways, therefore it is known as the fastest approach for
and forms one mole of ammonia and one mole of carbonic acid production of calcium carbonate and healing cracks [78,84,85].
(Eqs. (1) and (2)) [76].
1.3.2. Polymers
CO(NH2 )2 + H2 O ! NH2 COOH + NH3 ð1Þ
The interfacial interaction of polymer monomers and polymer
chain produces polymers as the result of chemical and physical
NH2 COOH + H2 O ! NH3 + H2 CO3 ð2Þ bonding. The theory of this interatomic and intermolecular
Thereafter, these products equilibrate in water to form bicar- involves: 1) ionic bonding which is the attraction of positive and
bonate, two moles of ammonium and two moles of hydroxide ions negative ions, 2) covalent bonding through accumulation of pair
are produced (Eqs. (3) and (4)) [71]. The PH level increases and in of electrons between two atoms and 3) metallic bonding involving
turn can shift bicarbonate equilibrium (Eq. (5)) [76]. the free electrons moving through the mass [86]. In concrete, ther-
moplastic polymers are essential since they can be re-processed
H2 CO3 ! HCO3 + Hþ ð3Þ after exposing them to external temperature above the glass tran-
sition temperature (Tg) and change their status to liquid, unlike
2NH3 + 2H2 O ! 2NH4 þ + 2OH (PH increase) ð4Þ thermoset polymers [87]. It is the adhesion interaction between
concrete and polymers which provides the efficiency in crack heal-
CO3 + Hþ + 2NH4 þ + 2OH $ CO3 2 + 2NH4 þ + 2H2 O ð5Þ ing [36]. A typical definition of adhesion proposed by ASTM 907-55
[86] states ‘‘two surfaces held together by interfacial forces which
However, through the ureolytic pathway, the production of may consist of valence forces or interlocking action or both”, there-
ammonium ions results in nitrogen oxide emission into the atmo- fore, for an efficient crack healing the adhesion of the polymer
sphere. Overall, this is low in comparison to the conventional must be stronger than of concrete.
 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273 263

In 1970, Malinskii et al. [8] for the first time utilized self-healing NASAHgel
polymers which was built-in a polymeric material. Later, research-
SiO2 + 4NaOH ! Na4 SiO4 + 2H2 O ð13Þ
ers applied different methodologies using thermosetting and ther-
moplastic polymers for polymeric self-healing [88,89]. In 2001,
White et al. [42] were the first to investigate the microencapsula- 1.3.4. Magnesium
tion technique, which consisted of a polymeric shell and polymer Utilizing minerals in cementitious matrix can generate poten-
core materials. The proposed technique was to supply the healing tial changes to the concrete properties due to the interaction
material without manual intervention, which involved a chemical between the minerals and un-hydrated cementitious particles
catalyst and encapsulated healing agent – dicyclopentadiene – [99]. Over the past five decades, magnesium oxide (MgO) has been
and urea-formaldehyde as shell material embedded within a utilized in concrete for autogenous healing purposes. The healing
matrix. During the rupture of the capsule the healing agent was occurs due to the volumetric changes as results of hydration and
released and in contact with the catalyst, polymerization pro- carbonation of MgO in cementitious matrix (Eqs. (9) and (10)),
ceeded and crack face bonded. which can potentially reduce crack width and heal the cracks. Mag-
Polymeric self-healing materials have attracted a lot of atten- nesium oxide is being used in many dams and reservoirs in China,
tion [25] and the microencapsulation approach for polymeric heal- for instance, due to its expansion and shrinkage reduction proper-
ing agents is one of the most successful and strategic approaches ties in concrete [100].
for the self-healing concrete [90,91]. Currently extensive research Chemical reactions that involves magnesium oxide in the
emphasises on encapsulation with polymers as both healing agent cementitious matrix are:
and shell material [40]. An important parameter for release effi-
ciency of healing agent is the viscosity of the polymer [92], which MgO + H2 O ! Mg(OH)2 ð14Þ
influences the adhesion between crack walls and the healing agent.
It is therefore predominant to identify the rheological properties – Mg(OH)2 + CO2 + 2H2 O ! MgCO3 3H2 O ð15Þ
viscosity and thixotropy, for instance – of the healing materials
[86]. During the release of the agent, very low viscous agents will The efficiency of the various healing materials technologies will
not be kept in the crack as they will be absorbed by the local pores; be discussed in the following section by means of mechanical and
on the contrary, very viscous agents will not be able to flow into durability performance after healing.
the cracks [93]. To achieve the desired viscosity for the polymer,
Van Tittelboom et al. [39,93] added polymer into methyl 1.3.5. Fungi
methacrylate (MMA) monomer in five different concentrations to Recently researchers have demonstrated that is possible to
increase the viscosity whereas Feiteira et al. [39] added accelera- replace bacteria with fungi for calcium carbonate production for
tors to reduce the reaction time and induce foaming to fill cracks. crack healing. This has advantages on the survivability of the
microorganism due to the extreme environments, extreme tem-
peratures, high salinity, high pressure, high radiation, intensive
1.3.3. Sodium silicate ultraviolet light and variable acidity [101–106] unlike bacteria
The presence of sodium silicate in the concrete matrix triggers which do not sufficiently survive under harsh conditions [107].
the chemical reaction with undissolved Ca(OH)2 to produce the ini- The promising type of fungus for concrete self-healing is the alka-
tial product of hydration of Calcium Silicates (C2S and C2S) [94]. liphilic fungi, typically the filamentous fungi. The filamentous
The induced product from sodium silicate and calcium hydroxide fungi growths are string-like tubules with individual nuclei and
is calcium silicate hydrate (CASAH) gel (Eqs. (6) and (7)) which cell walls, which are interconnected and hence forming a complex
is identical to the CASAH gel during the initial hydration of the three dimension network called mycelium [108]. Such a colony of
cementitious paste [95]. Everett [96] defines gel as ‘‘dispersion in filamentous fungi has been observed to have a high surface-
which the attractive interactions between the elements of the dis- volume ratio [109]. Also the fungal cell wall has a substance called
perse phase are so strong that the whole system develops a rigid chitin (N-acetyl-glucosamine) [110] which is a long carbohydrate
network structure and, under small stresses, behaves elastically”. polymer forming a substrate that prevents the fungi growth and
The induced CASAH gel resulting from the chemical reaction of favours the energies to attract the mineral ions on to their cell
sodium silicate and the calcium hydroxide increase the durability walls thus forming mineral deposition [111]. Similarly to bacteria,
and strength of concrete by filling cracks and pores. While this fungi need nutrients and during the crack occurrence, water and
physical reaction is simultaneous with crack occurrence however oxygen percolating through the cementitious materials help the
another reaction occurs between sodium and calcium hydroxide spores to germinate and grow hence calcium carbonate is obtained
in concrete, that is Sodium–Silicate-Hydroxide (NASAH) gel (Eq. [107].
(8)); this is produced in the long term (e.g., years) [97]. Kendrick
et al. [98] developed a theory which involves calcium hydroxide
1.4. Mechanical performance
to react with micro-silica and forming CASAH gel, known as
trimethylsilylate and producing polyorganosiloxanes. Since
Healing efficiency in the cementitious matrix predominantly
sodium hydroxide is present in Portland cement and also acts as
considers different types of materials adopted for the healing pur-
an alkaline activator with micro-silica (trimethylsilylated), it pro-
pose and the capability to recover the mechanical properties under
duces NASAH gel (polyorganosiloxanes). The Authors suggested
different conditions. Various test methods are utilized to inter-
that different phases of NASAH may exist in concrete (Eq. (8)).
relate the mechanical performance of various healing technologies.
Chemical reaction that involves forming Calcium-Silicate-
The mechanical performance of concrete is commonly obtained
Hydroxide and Sodium –Silicate-Hydroxide
by applying consistent and precise force to concrete and monitor-
CASAH gel
ing the response of concrete due to that force [46]. Various testing
Na2 O
SiO2 + Ca(OH)2 ! x(CaO
SiO2 )
H2 O + Na2 O ð11Þ methods are considered for monitoring concrete mechanical prop-
erties such as, flexural, split tensile, compression and Non-
x(CaO
SiO2 )
H2 O + Na2 O + CO2 ! CaCO3 + SiO2 + 2NaOH Destructive Tests (NDT) [44,86,93,112].
Several standards for testing flexural strength are available
ð12Þ
including AS1012.11 [113] and BS-EN12390-5:2009 [114] which
264 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273

Table 1
Improvement in strength of concrete from various types of bacteria.

Bacteria name Concentration Test method Efficiency References

5
Bacillus Megaterium 30  10 cell/ml Compression test 24% regain [130]
Sporoscarcina pasteurii 103 cell/ml Compression test 22 regain [131]
Bacillus sphaericus – Compression test 11.2% regain [132]
S. pasteurii 5.2  107 cell/ml Compression test 12% regain [127]
shewanella 105 cell/ml Compression test 25.3% regain [123]
Bacillus subtilis 0.33 mg/ml Compression test 14.8% regain [133]
Arthrobacter crystallopoietes Lysinibacillus fusiformi – Compression test 8.9% regain [124]
4.5% regain
Bacillus cereus 106 cell/ml Compression test 38% regain [134]
Bacillus pasteruii 105 cell/ml 29% regain
Bacillus Subtilus 105 cell/ml Compression test 19.2% regain [135]
S. pasteurii – Compression test 33% regain [136]
Bacillus sphaericus – Compression test 14.3% regain [112]
Bacillus sp. CT-5, Optical Density (OD600 of 1) Compression test 36.15% regain [137]
Bacillus subtilis 2.8  108 cell/ml Compression test 12% regain [63]

Note: the symbol ‘‘-” identifies a study where the concentration of bacteria was not explicitly stated.

Table 2
Improvement in strength from various types of polymers.

Polymer Method Test method Efficiency References

Polyurethane Encapsulation 3-point bending 54% improvement in strength [117]
Splitting test 52% stiffness
Epoxy resin Microcapsules Compression test 1.9 time normalised strength [115]
Flexural test 1.3 time normalised strength
SAP – 3-point bending 8% improvement in strength [119]
Methyl methacrylate monomer Micro-encapsulation Compression test 30.4% improvement in strength [4]
PMMA epoxy Injection 3-point bending 50% improvement in strength [139]
54% improvement in strength
Polyurethane Encapsulation 3-point bending 35% stiffness [39]

Note: the symbol ‘‘-” identifies a study where the method for delivering the polymer was not explicitly stated.

Table 3
Concrete improvement in strength from sodium silicate.

Method Test method Efficiency References

Stored in sponge and wax Three point bending 30% Stiffness regain [142]
30% Flexural regain
Encapsulated Three point bending 17% Load regain [141]
Micro-encapsulation Three point bending 26.2% Flexural regain [97]
Micro-encapsulation Ultrasonic wave transmission 12.3% Specific stiffness regain [44]

considers the loading rate for three-point bending and four-point also be performed to determine the strength of concrete hence the
bending flexural test to determine the flexural strength and elastic dynamic modulus of elasticity [126].
modulus of concrete. Testing under three-point bending configura-
tion, researchers fabricated a notch in the middle of the deflected 1.4.1. Bacterial
section [92,115–117] to localise the crack occurrence and generate The application of bacteria has become increasingly popular in
a controlled crack width [92,93]; other studies instead tested sam- concrete crack healing [80] to achieve concrete strength efficiency
ples without fabricating the notch to obtained the most practical and regain of the mechanical properties [63]. In 2001, Ramachan-
quantity of cracks and observe a more general efficiency of the dran et al. first investigated the use of bacteria in concrete self-
healing agent [46,118,119]. Another method to generate crack in healing [80] and experienced an increase in compressive strength
concrete is the split tensile test; AS 1012.10-2000 [120] applies a
diametrical force on the longitudinal plane of a cylindrical speci- Table 4
men until failure [40]. As defined by ASTM 496M-04 [121], ‘‘split Improvement in strength of concrete from Magnesium oxide.
tensile test consist of a diametral compressive force along the
Method Testing Efficiency References
length of a cylindrical concrete specimen at a rate that is within method
a prescribed range until failure occurs”. Compression test is the
Mixed with Three point 65% improvement in [100]
most common test researchers apply to determine the characteris- Bentonite clay bending strength
tics of concrete [63]. ASTM C39-03 [122] defines compressive test Encapsulated Three point 12% load regain [144]
as ‘‘applying a compressive axial load to mold cylinders or cores at bending
a rate which is within a prescribed range until failure occurs”. Mixed with Three point 5% compressive [143]
concrete bending improvement in strength
Researchers has used compressive test as a critical stage to study
Encapsulated Three point 6% load regain [141]
healing during their experiments by applying different load rates bending
[71,123–125]. In hardened concrete ultrasonic velocity pulse could
 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273 265

of 12% after 28 days [127]. While Gosh et al. [123] obtained 25% pores and improve healing efficiency and strength [97]. Kanel-
increase in compressive strength for concrete mortar with the lopoulos et al. [141] used sodium silicate in glass tubular capsules
same method. However, by providing bacteria spores less than placed in a concrete beam; they achieved a regain in load capacity
1 mm directly into the concrete mix, it decreased the life span of of 17% and crack healing of 100%. While Huang et al. [142] stored
the bacteria [25,80]. Therefore researchers have developed differ- sodium silicate in small sponges sealed with wax and mixed in
ent techniques to deliver bacteria into the cementitious matrix Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC); the capsule was 5%
prior to its activation [63]. Van Tittelboom et al. [71] utilized Leva- by volume of the sample and load and stiffness regain of 30%
sil sol gel as an approach for bacteria protection, while Wang et al. was obtained. It is widely demonstrated that efficiency in healing
and Bang et al. [62,128] used polyurethane as a technique for and mechanical properties is significantly obtained by utilizing
immobilizing bacteria, while in another experiment Wang et al. sodium silicate (Table 3).
[129] used microencapsulation for bacteria protection. Recently,
researchers used Light Weight Aggregate (LWA) and Graphite Nano 1.4.4. Magnesium
Platelets (GNP) as the carrier for bacteria [65]. Magnesium oxide (MgO) has been utilized for concrete healing
Researchers have utilized various types of bacteria for obtaining and improvement in strength efficiency by mixing it in the cemen-
efficiency and improvement in strength of crack healing. Table 1 titious matrix [141]. Researchers used different methods to include
shows the concentration of different bacterial with regard to the MgO into the concrete mix; Qureshi and Al-Tabba [100] mixed
improvement in strength ability as identified by different studies. MgO powder directly with Portland cement then mixed bentonite
clay to deploy the swelling properties of the clay. In another exper-
1.4.2. Polymers iment [143], the same Authors used different components of MgO
Polymers are effectively efficient in crack healing and many (M92-200 and N50) in different ratios and mixed them directly in
studies showed full or partial regain in mechanical strength the concrete mix. It was observed that the low ratio of MgO devel-
[118], which successfully extends the durability of the structure oped higher strength in both MgO components (M92-200 and
and reduces maintenance costs [138]. Researchers conferred that N50). Recently, Kanellopoulos et al. [141] utilized MgO powder in
cementitious materials have the ability to heal micro-cracks and a dual-wall capsule which consisted of an inner tube (diameter
by using polymeric materials as healing agents stored in microcap- of 6.15 mm) with water and an outer tube (diameter of 11.0 mm)
sule or in tubes a relatively good regain of mechanical properties is in which the MgO powder was located. The samples were cured
generally obtained [4,115]. Li et al. [115] encapsulated epoxy resin in ambient, high humidity and water immersed conditions. Table 4
as core in styrene-divinylbenzene (St-DVB) as the shell material. A shows the healing efficiency and improvement in strength of con-
hardener was added to the mortar mix at 1.3 times of the epoxy crete by utilizing magnesium as healing agent.
with the microcapsule content of 1% and 2% by weight of cement.
In compression, a strength increase of 90% from the normalised 1.4.5. Fungi
strength was achieved for 1% content microcapsule and in flexural Within the limited studies on the fungi functionalities to heal
strength an increase of 40% of the normalised strength was cementitious materials, it is already known that numerous lime-
achieved for 2% microcapsule content, both in standard curing con- stones near the Earth’s surface are hardened by calcium carbonate.
ditions. Gruyaert et al. [119] added the in-house made Whilst the phenomenon of calcification implies physical and
SAPs < 400 mm with 0.5% and 1% content to cement and achieved chemical processes, however the presence of the fungal filaments
an increment of flexural strength of 8% and 6%, respectively. may also play a predominant role in the calcium carbonate precip-
Various types of polymers are utilized for generating concrete itation [106]. Recently, researchers have utilized fungal filaments
healing; Table 2 shows several polymers that have been adopted for concrete crack healing. Luo et al. [107] used six various species
with proven efficiency in recovering concrete mechanical proper- of fungi as healing agent for crack-healing; potato dextrose agar
ties. Polymer-healing is further discussed in Section 3.4 for what (PDA) was also used as medium for the fungi growth as it is nutri-
relates to the specific efficiency. tionally rich in carbohydrates and has PH level of 6.1. Using 60 mm
petri dishes, 9 ml of cement paste was poured and cured for 7 days
at 100% relatively humidity and 22 Celsius degree. Then 10 ml of
1.4.3. Sodium silicate
PDA was poured into the petri dish together with 5 mm-
The use of sodium silicate has initially been applied as alkaline-
diameter fungi mycelial. Specimens were incubated at 25 °C and
activator in cementitious materials for durability and strength
30 °C for 21 days and diametrical measurements were recorded
improvements [140]. It is the CASAH gel formed from the reaction
to observe the fungi growth. Fig. 8 shows the growth of various
of sodium silicate that has capability to fill the micro-cracks and
fungi species onto PDA which are with and without the cement
past. Trichoderma reesei growth of 2.6 mm/day at 30 °C was
observed while there was no growth being found at 25 °C.
3
2.5 1.5. Long-term performance of healed concrete
(mm/day)

2
Growth

1.5 Under multiple cycles of loadings and diverse environmental

1 PDA25 conditions the mechanical properties and durability of concrete
0.5 PDA30 decreases due to the formation of micro-cracking and incremental
0 porosity [145]. One the fundamental aspects when considering an
CPDA25
Pseudophialophora
Aspergillus nidulans
Trichoderma reesei

Umbeliopsis
interclivum

Acidomelania
Cadophora

increase in durability of concrete is by reducing the porosity within

dimorpha

panicicola

magnispora

CPDA30 the cementitious network [72].

1.5.1. Water permeability

Water permeability is often utilized as a measure of the con-
crete durability since the transport of water through the concrete
cracks and pores can commonly cause multiple issues affecting
Fig. 8. Calcium carbonate production from various fungal filaments [107]. durability [43]. Other than water, researchers also utilised ethanol
266 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273

Table 5
Reduction in water permeability after cracking due to healing.

Healing material Methods K-value untreated K-value treated (healing agent) Factor of efficiency References
6 10
SAPs Water through healed crack 1  10 1  10 2 [33]
Polyurethane in ceramic capsule Water through healed crack 1  106 1  1012 2 [117]
B. sphaericus in sol gel + CaCl2 Water through healed crack 1  104 1  1012 3 [71]
B. sphaericus immobilized in polyurethane Water through healed crack 1  105 1  1010 2 [62]
Bacillus sphaericus with hydrogel Water through healed crack 1  104 to 1  105 1  105 to 1  106 1.25 [43]

[146] and glycol [147] for permeability tests. The coefficient of silica gel microcapsules were 50.2% and 66.8% for curing age of 3
water permeability is commonly calculated using Darcy’s law and 30 days, respectively. Kanellopoulos et al. [141] also used
[37,115,148]. The reduction of permeability is considered the methanol as medium but proposed different healing agents for
result of the efficiency of concrete healing; varying the healing gas permeability test, including sodium silica (SS), colloidal silica
agent, significant reduction in permeability was achieved (CS) and tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS). Cylindrical specimen of
[33,71,149]. Snoeck et al. [33] used two different types of SAPs con- 10 mm diameter and 50 mm height were fabricated; specimens
sisting of copolymer acrylamide and sodium acrylate with particle were cracked after seven days of curing using the compression test
size of 100 mm and cross-linked potassium salt polyacrylate with method and healing agents were injected in to the crack manually,
particle size of 476 mm respectively. Cylindrical samples of then cured for 28 days. Later of 48 h, specimens were tested and
78 mm in diameter and 20 mm height with SAPs/cement ratio reduction in gas permeability of 36% and 43% was obtained for
ranging from 0.5 to 4% with additional 1% of PVA were fabricated; sodium silicate and colloidal silica, respectively. Qureshi and Al-
the splitting test was deployed to obtain cracks in the specimen Tabbaa [143] performed the same curing process and medium as
with loading rate of 0.001 mm/s till a crack width of 300 mm was [141] using magnesium oxide as healing material and significant
reached and after unloading residual crack width of 150–200 mm improvement in gas permeability was obtained. Crack healing
was obtained. In their experiment, it was observed that with materials that improve sealing of cracks greatly affect durability
cross-linked potassium salt polyacrylate SAPs and SAPs/cement of concrete [140].
ratio of 1, the highest reduction in water permeability was
achieved. Wang et al. [62] utilized bacteria immobilized with silica
1.6. Methodologies to measure concrete healing efficiency
gel and polyurethane to obtain the highest reduction in water per-
meability and the split test was again used to obtain cracks in the
To evaluate the efficiency of concrete healing under multiple
specimen. After crack formation, specimens were submerged in
circumstances and healing agents, there is a need for clear evalua-
deionised water and vacuumed for 3 h; PVC was used to mount
tion methods thus including indices, optical and visual analysis,
the specimen as to prevent any leakage. The vacuum was stopped
and analytical judgment [155]. The assessment of concrete self-
and specimen was kept in water for additional 24 h. The specimen
healing potential has become attractive due to the availability of
was consequently placed into a chamber and the initial and final
several new evaluation methods [6].
water level was measured using low pressure reading. In their
Some study found that the appropriate method of evaluating
experiment the greatest reduction in water permeability was
concrete self-healing efficiency is by using measurement of
obtained by immobilizing bacteria with polyurethane. It was also
strength, stiffness and durability [23]. Maheswaran et al. [134]
observed that the permeability in concrete decreased with time
used bacillus cereus bacteria in their study and compression test
due to autogenous healing as the result of hydration and migration
was conducted to evaluate healing efficiency and improvement
of nanoparticles in concrete matrix [150]. Table 5 summarises the
in strength by comparing the control specimen and cracked speci-
efficiency of several healing methods according to water perme-
men with bacteria as healing agent. However, it is difficult to
ability reduction.
obtain the appropriate strength of concrete since the concrete
strength not only depends on the material structure but also on
mechanical reactions in concrete composites [23]. Formia et al.
1.5.2. Gas permeability
[156] fabricated two different cementitious tube Bucatini with
The performance of concrete durability is significantly related
external diameter of 5 mm and internal of 2 mm, Maccheroni with
to the diffusivity and permeability characteristics [150,151]. Gas
external diameter of 10 mm and internal of 7.5 mm both length of
permeability is critical during service life of concrete as formation
130 mm and stiffness was used as a method for evaluation of effi-
of macro-cracking from localized micro-cracking occurs together
ciency; a typical stiffness measurement is the Crack Mouth Open-
with transportation of unwanted gas particles through concrete.
ing Displacement (CMOD). Researchers approached different
The distribution of diffusivity throughout the concrete structure
methods to evaluate healing efficiency; Wang et al. [43] encapsu-
leads to damages of the structure [152]. Gas permeability signifi-
lated Bacillus sphaericus spores into hydrogels and mixed it with
cantly depends on the degree of saturation (Vwater/Vtotal), the size
mortar. Water Permeability was undertaken for this test to evalu-
of pores and the magnitude of molecules of percolated gas through
ate the healing efficiency as result of CaCo3 precipitation. Huang
the free path [153].
and Ye [157] performed gas permeability test to evaluate the effi-
In determining gas permeability to directly designate the dura-
ciency of the healing by utilizing 1% PVA fibres and 0.7% superplas-
bility performance of concrete, Yang et al. [154] used various mate-
ticizer by weight of cement while Jiang [158] performed
rials to test gas permeability; oil core/silica gel shell microcapsules
absorption test according to ASTM C-1585-04 to evaluate effi-
and sulphonated polystyrene mixed with mortar in comparison to
ciency for various healing agents.
control mortar  2% by volume of microfiber was added to all
mixes. Cylindrical specimens of 50 mm diameter and 100 mm
height and cracks were developed by applying 80% of the ultimate 1.6.1. Optical analysis
compressive strength. Gas permeability was performed by cutting Optical microscope and computed tomography are conven-
10 mm in the middle of each cylinder and vacuum-dried for 24 h to tional methods used to evaluate the efficiency and degree of self-
remove moisture in the specimen. Methanol was used as medium healing efficiency characterization of damages in concrete speci-
and results obtained for reduction in gas permeability for oil core/ mens [11]. Chahal et al. [131] adopted S. pasteurii bacteria as heal-
 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273 267

Table 6
Techniques to evaluate concrete healing efficiency.

Method Measurement of healing efficiency References

Water absorption Volume of permeable voids [39,131,144,160,161]
Water permeability Crack healing efficiency [33,37,43,62,71,92,93,117,119,129,162–164]
Gas permeability Crack healing efficiency [141,143]
Corrosion test Resistance against corrosion [40,97,131]
Scanning Electron Microscopy Deposited crystal visualisation [4,43,44,63,76,80,87,123,124,129–131,134,141,149,160,165–167]
Non-destructive testing (ultrasonic) Tightness measurement [38,44,71]
X-Ray tomography Healing visualisation [41,117,159,168]
X-ray diffraction Crystal materials determination [63,124,127,130,133,134,141,165]
Energy Dispersive Spectrum Element determination and visualization [87,130,133,159,165]
Thermo-gravimetric analysis Crystal materials determination [33,71,134,167]
Light microscopy Healed crack visualisation [43,129,159]
Optical microscopy and image Healed crack visualisation [65,71,143,144,162]
Compression test Improvement in strength [62,63,97,112,115,123,124,131,132,149,160]
Three point bending Improvement in strength [34,38,39,88,97,112,115,117,132,139,142,149,156]
Four point bending Improvement in strength [148]

ing agent for their specimens and by using Environmental Scan-

15 13.2
ning Electron Microscopy (ESEM) it appeared that significant 11.7

Compressive Strength (%)

amount of calcite was present in the specimen hence confirming 10 8.9
6.3
calcium carbonate was being formed due to the present of bacteria. 4.5
5 3.8
Kanellopoulos et al. [141] also adopted SEM to evaluate the healing
7 Days
efficiency of four different minerals, all minerals confirmed effi- 0

S. pasteurii
-0.3

Lysinibacillus
Sporosarcina soli
ciency of healing to an extent. By utilizing X-ray diffraction 28 Days

crystallopoietes

fusiformis
Control
-5

Bacillus massiliensis

Arthrobacter
(XRD), it was observed that the control mix had the lowest inten-
sity of all minerals although showed a strong peak due to the exis- -10
tence of ettringite, which also shows the efficiency of healing and -11.7
-15 -13.6
crack filling. Huang et al. [142] utilized encapsulated sodium sili-
cates and embedded in ECC and after 28 days, Energy Dispersive -20 -17.3

Spectroscopy (EDS) was performed to evaluate healing efficiency.

Fig. 9. Improvement in strength of various type of bacteria [124].
The amount of O, C, Si and Ca was high and the Na/Si ration was
decreased linearly with increase of Ca/Si ratio due to the formation
of CASAH and Sodium silicate.
2.1. Biotechnological

1.6.2. Visual analysis Wang et al. [159] used Bacillus Spaerius as the healing
Healing efficiency is also evaluated by visualising the cracks agent, in their experiment the final concentration of bacteria of
from light microscopy and high resolution digital images [11]. Qur- 109 cell/ml was obtained and by using cross-linking method the
eshi and Al-Tabbaa [143] obtained images of MgO (N50 and M92) spores were encapsulated with hydrogels. Mortar specimens of
and used GXCAM 1.3 type digital stereo macro-scope to take 30  30  360 mm were fabricated with 12.85 wt% (by cement
images for desired spots. The cracks healing were visualized and weight) including the nutrients. X-Ray mCT scan was performed
it was observed that the N50 is more efficient in healing than M- to characterize the crack closure performance which provides both
92. Giannaros et al. [140] tested encapsulated sodium silicate as direct visual and quantitative data of the crack healing. Their
core in gelatine-gum Arabic and poly-urea as separate capsules. results showed 70–100% of the cracks of size <300 mm were healed
After 28 days, images were obtained by microscopic image and and 2.2% of healing product to the total volume was obtained from
the healing efficiency was visually evaluated which resulted that the precipitation of calcium carbonate due to the bacteria activity.
by utilizing poly-urea as shell material was more efficient. Wang In another experiment Wang et al. [43] also used Bacillus Spaerius
et al. [159] analysed Bacillus sphaericus bacteria as healing mate- with same specimen size and dosage to cement weight ratio of
rial and the healing process was visually observed for 7–28 days. [159] but with bacteria concentration of 108 cell/ml. It was found
Various methods to measure healing efficiency are summarised that almost all the cracks of <300 mm were healed, 40–90% of
in Table 6. the cracks in the range of 300–400 mm and very few cracks over
500 mm. The study also found that through calcium carbonate pre-
2. Discussion cipitation and cracks filling, water permeability was significantly
decreased up to 68% less water absorption compared to control
In order to optimize concrete durability and strength, various specimens. Later, Wang et al. [129] encapsulated Bacillus Spaerius
concrete healing technologies are investigated namely biotechno- in melamine based microcapsules which also contained inert sub-
logical, polymeric and chemical compounds, and various tech- stance to protect the spores. The concentration of spores was 109 -
niques are utilized to deliver the healing agents into the concrete cell/g of microcapsules which sized 5 mm and the content of
matrix [49]. These methods can justify the improvement of microcapsules to cement weight was from 1 to 5%. After 28 days,
microstructure properties of self-healing concrete. In biotechno- reduction in compressive strength and tensile strength from 15
logical and chemical compounds the decomposition of the miner- to 34% and 6–20%, respectively, was observed for microcapsule
als acting as a barrier between the cracks walls provides content of 1–5%. The Authors concluded that microcapsule content
sufficient healing in deteriorated microstructure of cementitious to cement ration is not to exceed 3% to obtain optimal crack heal-
materials [169]. While in polymeric compounds, the adhesion ing efficiency. Immobilization technique was also performed by
between the crack walls due to the polymer filler limits the deteri- Wang et al. [62], they immobilized Bacillus Spaerius with silica
oration of cementitious material [115]. gel and polyurethane for crack healing efficiency and mechanical
268 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273

properties regain. Concentration of 109 cell/ml was obtained and It was observed that E. Coli did not perform well in the regain of
placed in glass tubes then in mortar specimen. It was noted that mechanical properties while Shewanella produced an increase of
an increase in strength of 5% and 60% was occurring when bacteria compressive strength for all concentrations (maximum of 25% at
was immobilized in silica gel and polyurethane, respectively. Also, 105 cell/ml). Andalib et al. [130] tested bacillus Megaterium with
water permeability reduction of 105–107m/s for silica gel and concentration of 10  105–50  105 cfu/ml and directly mixed it
1010–1011m/s for polyurethane was obtained. The content of in the concrete mixture. Regain for compressive and flexural
CaCO3 precipitation was 25% for silica gel and 11% for polyurethane strength was obtained for all concentrations with optimum at
hence it was suggested that polyurethane has better potential as 30  105 cfu/ml. Virginie and Henk [65] used bacillus Alkalinitri-
bacteria carrier in concrete. cus with concentration of 1.7  107 cell/ml and calcium lactate
Gandhimathi and Suji [112] also used Bacillus Spaerius as heal- as nutrient in mortar mix. Due to CaCO3, cracks with average width
ing agent to reduce cracks in concrete and in their experiment the of 460 mm were healed. Jonkers et al. [80] used bacillus Pseudofir-
concentration of the added bacteria to the mortar was based on the mus and bacilllus Cohnii with concentration of 2.4  108 cell/ml
volume ratio. An incremental concentration of 10–50 ml of bacte- and 6  108 cell/ml; significant reduction in compressive strength
ria was added to the mortar mix. At end of 28 days, an increase was obtained due to the short life of bacteria in cementitious
in compressive strength of 14.6% was obtained compared to con- matrices.
ventional concrete and significant crack closure. Gavimath et al.
[132] also evaluated bacillus Spaerius through compression and 2.2. Polymeric
split tensile tests. Results showed – at 3, 7 and 28 days – an
increase of compressive strength of 30.8%, 46.1% and 32.2%; an Gadea et al. [149] evaluated different methods to determine the
increase of 13.8%, 1.3% and 18.3% was instead measured for split crack healing efficiency and regain of mechanical properties; in
tensile testing. Van Tittelboom et al. [71] immobilized Bacillus their study, the Authors included recycled foamed polyurethane
Spaerius in combination with sol-gel, CaCl2 and Ca(CH3OO)2 in in the mortar paste by crushing and replacing it with LWA. A
concrete mixture. Optimum crack healing efficiency was obtained reduction of 50% and 55% for flexural and compressive strength,
when bacteria was immobilized with sol-gel and Ca(CH3OO)2 as respectively, was obtained. Maes et al. [40] used polyurethane in
they acted as coat to protect bacteria from high PH level. Achal liquid state and filled glass tubes with 10% of accelerator and dis-
et al. [160] utilized Bacillus [Link]-5 with ratio of 0.47 to cement tilled water for the reaction to take place and crack healing effi-
weight added directly to the mortar during mixing. After 28 days, ciency of 33% was obtained. Gilabert et al. [41] evaluated healing
increase in compressive strength of 36% and water absorption 6 adding polyurethane with water as accelerator to form a foam
times less than reference specimen was obtained. and fill the cracks as well as using polyurethane by itself. During
Chahal et al. [131] utilized S. pasteurii with different concentra- the test it was observed that, as polyurethane was by itself, bond-
tion and replacing cement to fly ash in different content for opti- ing did not occur between crack walls due to the solidification pro-
mum crack healing efficiency. Compressive strength for all cess of polymer however when polyurethane was combined with
combination of fly ash and bacteria concentration was obtained the accelerator, one of the components was absorbed by crack
with the highest value of 22% for 20% fly ash content and bacteria walls and foam was not formed. Van Tittelboom et al. [117] added
concentration of 105 cell/ml; water absorption was dramatically polyurethane in 2 mm and 3 mm inner diameter glass and ceramic
reduced by a factor of four. Maheswaran et al. [134] also used tubes and, after 7 days, cracks were developed using flexural test-
bacillus Pasteurii in combination with bacillus Cereus and different ing. After 1 day some improvement in strength was observed up to
concentrations. At the end of 28 days, increase in compressive 52% and 62% for 2 mm and 3 mm glass and ceramic, respectively;
strength of 13.3% and 29% for bacillus Pasteurii concentration of stiffness was also restored up to 40% and 64%. One day later, the
107 and 105 cell/ml was obtained whereas, for bacillus Cereus, specimens were loaded again and improvement in strength of
18.6%, 22.2% and 38% respectively with concentrations of 105, 106 23% and 17% for 2 mm and 3 mm glass and ceramic was observed;
and 107 cell/ml. A notable reduction in rapid chloride permeability additional stiffness of 34% and 32% was also achieved.
with Cereus and concentration of 106 cell/ml was observed. Park In another study, Van Tittelboom et al. [148] combined polyur-
et al. [124] deployed various types of the bacteria to demonstrate ethane and super absorbent polymers. Cross-linked copolymer
improvement in crack healing; Fig. 9 shows the outcome for each acrylamide and acrylate SAPs < 600 mm with 1 wt% content to
of the bacteria type with respect to 7 and 28 days. cement weight and glass tubes for polyurethane were added to
Tziviloglou et al. [162] used alkalliphilic bacteria which are the mixture, independently. After 28 days, a reduction in compres-
under bacillus genus for crack healing improvement. Concentra- sion strength by 18% was observed for SAPs and no effect for poly-
tion of spores of 108 cell/ml was prepared and incorporated to urethane compared to control. After 6 weeks, four-point bending
lightweight aggregate – LWA – (as sand replacement) by impreg- test was deployed for crack development and it was observed that
nating LWA with spores. After 3 days, mortar samples were tested crack width from 50 to 250 mm were healed due to the swelling
and average reductions of 54% and 63% for compressive and flexu- characteristics of SAPs and release of water that continued hydra-
ral strength were observed; in addition, no hardening in concrete tion process and production of CaCO3 precipitation. Snoeck et al.
was observed after 7 days. However, permeability to water was [33] tested concrete healing efficiency based on two different types
improved at the end of 28 and 56 days thus demonstrating the of SAPs; acrylamide with sodium acrylate and cross-linked potas-
healing potential of bacteria even if LWA reduced the mechanical sium salt with poly-acrylate. Between 1 and 4% of cement content
properties. Khaliq and Ehsan [63] also used LWA as well as Gra- was mixed in mortar cement paste with addition of 1% 6 mm-PVA
phite Nano Platelets (GNP) to immobilize bacillus Subtilis. With fibres. After 28 day and 56 day of testing, reduction in strength was
spores concentration of 2.8  108 and 1.7 wt% to cement content, observed and crack healing was achieved for 1% SAPs content only.
crack healing was significantly improved and increase of compres- Gruyaert et al. [119] introduced self-synthesized SAPs
sion strength was also achieved by 15% and 1% for LWA and GNP, (size < 400 mm, 400–600 mm and > 600 mm) and compared that
respectively. Pei et al. [133] also used bacillus Subtilis with concen- with commercial SAPs (cross-linked copolymer acrylamide and
tration of 108 cell/ml and an increase in compression strength of acrylate). For each of the SAPs, 0.5% and 1% by weight of cement
15% was achieved in the mortar mix. was added to the mortar mix with additional water (20 g water
Ghosh et al. [123] included Shewanella and E. Coli types of bac- per g of SAPs and 17 g water per g of SAPs for commercial and
teria in concrete with concentration range from 10 to 107 cell/ml. self-synthesized, respectively). It was noticed that SAPs of
 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273 269

400–600 mm size were most appropriate in promoting crack clo- and 100%; bonding disruptions were also detected between poly
sure and CaCO3 precipitation; 0.5% content generated flexural (propylene glycol) and concrete.
strength increases between 11% and 15% in comparison to the ref-
erence mix and 1% content produced an increase within 8% and 2.3. Sodium silicates
31%. However, both SAPs reduced the compressive strength by
21% at 0.5% content and 27% at 1% content compared to the control Huang et al. [142] experimented the replacement of Portland
mix to reference although the self-synthesised SAP performed bet- cement with ECC plus sodium silicate microcapsules. The capsules
ter than the commercial SAP. were fabricated by storing sodium silicate in concentration of 20%
Yang et al. [4] produced microcapsules which consisted of and 30% into sponges and sealing them with wax. Also water cap-
Methyl methacrylate as healing agent and silica gel as shell and sule were fabricated by using identical method and capsule con-
Sulphonated Polystyrenes-Modified particles (SPM). Microcapsules tent of 5% by volume of the mix was added with extra 2% by
were added to the mortar mix at 1.5% and SPM 0.15% to cement volume of PVA fibre. At the end of 14 days, 1.00 mm deflection
content with addition of 2% of carbon fibres for all mixes. After cur- was applied using the three-point bending test for crack develop-
ing for 28 days, specimens were subject to load at 80% of their ment. After additional 28 days (after damage), regain in flexural
maximum compressive strength in order to develop cracks; after strength and stiffness were evaluated; the maximum regain was
1 day from damage, compressive strength increased by 13% and obtained for sodium silicate at 20% concentration. Using EDS and
after 56 days by 22% for SPM and microcapsules. Calvo et al. SEM, it was observed that the regain in strength was due to cal-
[161] conducted an experiment to observe the efficiency of healing cium cations and silicate forming CASAH.
materials for ultra-high performance concrete by dispersing micro- Pelletier et al. [97] self-synthesized microcapsule with sodium
capsules (epoxy and silica gel as healing materials and function- silicate as healing agent and polyurethane as shell in size of
alised amine as shell) in the mix. The amine group and epoxy 400–800 mm. Microcapsules (2% by volume of the mix) were
reacted and sealed the crack. Microcapsule content of 5% and added and testing for strength and corrosion was undertaken
10% to cement content was added to the mortar. At 5% content, after 28 days of curing. It was observed that 26% flexural, 19%
reduction in compression strength of 6% and 15% was obtained compression and 85% regain for toughness were achieved. Also,
for 7 and 28 days, respectively, while at 10% content the reduction significant amount of corrosion was inhibited in comparison
was 30% at both curing times. Therefore they concluded the self- with the control mix due to the silica deposition onto the rein-
healing system does not provide any improvement for developed forcement. Tan et al. [170] self-synthesized microcapsules with
materials. Li et al. [34] also added microcapsule with epoxy resin silica sol as core and poly(urea-urethane) as shell evaluating
as core and urea-formaldehyde as shell. Microcapsule content of the size, shell surface texture and production methodologies of
1%, 2% and 4% (by weight of cement) were added to the mortar microcapsule in terms of emulsification speed, monomer ratio
mix. After 28 days, 30%, 60% and 80% of the maximum load was and polymerization process. Microcapsules were then added in
applied to damage the samples and develop cracks; shortly after to the concrete mix with size of 100–200 mm and an increase
2 h they were re-tested to failure using flexural test configuration. in flexural and compressive strength was obtained. Mostavi
The results were almost similar to the control mix at each content et al. [44] fabricated microcapsules using doubled-wall shell
of microcapsules with no evident benefit. from polyurethane and urea-formaldehyde and sodium silicate
Joseph et al. [52] selected an adhesive agent to heal cracks in as healing agent. Microcapsule content of 2.5% and 5% by volume
concrete. They included cyanoacrylate and epoxy resin in the con- was added to the concrete in addition to 1% glass fibres. On day
crete by using vascular systems to deliver the healing agent into 7, 50 kN load was applied to the middle span of the specimen
the concrete matrix. By inserting ink to visualise the crack healing for crack developing and after another 7 days specimens were
simultaneously with adhesive agent significant crack healing was re-tested. Crack closure efficiency of 23% and 34% with crack
observed in addition to an increment of compressive strength width reduction of 19 mm and 35 mm was obtained for 2.5%
and stiffness. Araújo et al. [92] conducted an experiment with var- and 5% microcapsules content, respectively. Giannaros et al.
ious acrylate-end-capped polymers to assess the strain capacity of [140] synthesized microcapsules with sodium silicate as core
the polymers which would lead to the efficiency in mechanical material and two different shell materials; gelatine gum Arabic
regain and crack healing of concrete. Four polymers were tested size of 500 mm and poly-urea size of 130 mm. For each type of
in cement mortar and flexural tests were conducted after 21 days microcapsules, content from1 to 4 % by volume of the mix was
for developing cracks. The specimens were again subject to load added. All mixes with poly-urea microcapsules showed
after 3 days by 50% and 100% of the initial loading. It was observed decreased compressive strength whereas gelatine gum Arabic
that mixes with polyester had strain capacity below 50% whereas provided a slight increase in compressive strength (+5%) after
poly(dimethysilxane) and epoxy based mixes ranged between 50 28 days but the positive effect was nil or negative after 56 days.

Fig. 10. Conceptual life-cycle of concrete with self-healing capabilities (dotted line B) compared to standard concrete (solid line A) [174].
270 A. Sidiq et al. / Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 257–273

However, sorptivity for gelatine gum Arabic was lower than attractive healing agent is bacterial materials, which are highly cap-
poly-urea compared to control mix. able of inducing calcium carbonate precipitation; typically, S. pas-
teurii appears to be a convenient biological technology for
concrete self-healing. However the biotechnological healing materi-
2.4. Life cycle cost
als are relatively efficient when it is utilized together with a carrier,
since the bacteria life span decreases when directly embedded in the
Crack healing efficiency and regain in mechanical properties is a
cementitious matrix. Thermoplastic polymers are found to be prac-
potential solution for obtaining durable concrete due to the reduc-
tical for vascular and encapsulation experiments due to the effective
tion of high costs of maintenance services and repairs of concrete
releasing of polymer in to the crack and enhanced adhesion with the
infrastructures [159]. In USA, it is estimated that $5.2 billion is
crack walls. Significant regain is obtained with the use of thermo-
annually spent on maintenance of bridges and a comprehensive
plastic polymers for crack sealing, regaining strength and reduction
life cycle analysis has considered that the indirect cost due traffic
in permeable voids volume. However, to more effectively use poly-
jams and loss of productivity is about 10 times than cost of main-
meric materials and foster healing phenomena, a second component
tenance and repair [171]. In 2006, a study reported that $18 to $21
is often required to react with the polymer and solidify; this aspect
billion/year is spent on repair, protection and strengthening by the
dramatically increases the difficulties (and costs) associated to the
concrete structure owners; the associated cost of $125 billion/year
healing process. Further research needs to investigate possible
was instead estimated for maintenance due to steel corrosion
harmful effects on environment and human health prior the use of
[172]. Additionally, the American Society of Civil Engineers has
fungi as healing agent for cementitious materials.
estimated an investment of $3.6 trillion over seven years to repair
Concrete healing efficiency using chemical compounds seems
and maintain the US infrastructure to the 1998 quality standard
promising due to the favourable results of the chemical reaction
[173]. In UK, 45% of annual expenditure on construction is related
between the un-hydrates cementitious materials and healing
to maintenance and repair costs while in the Netherlands one third
agents. For instance, substantial healing is obtained by using mag-
of the annual budget of civil engineering works is spent on inspec-
nesium oxide due to its swelling characteristics, hence promoting
tion, monitoring, maintenance, upgrading and repairs [174].
reduction of the crack width and healing. Equivalently, sodium sil-
Overall, in Europe, nearly 50% of the annual construction budget
icate reacts with un-hydrated cementitious materials to form cal-
is spent on maintenance and repair [118]. In China, the cost of
cium silica hydrate gel. Hence internal re-building of concrete is
maintenance due to the corrosion of concrete reinforcement and
obtained through concrete-like material with very good crack heal-
concrete degradation is nearly 250 billion RMB/year [35]. By
ing efficiency and improvement in strength.
providing concrete materials with self-healing capabilities, it will
The efficiency of the healing process in cementitious materials
reduce manufacturing of the raw materials for constructing new
within the present healing technologies depends on the interaction
infrastructures hence delivering more sustainable and cost-
between the matrix of healed material and chemical characteristics
effective structures [160,174].
of the healing agent. Mechanical test approaches – mainly based on
A conceptual life cycle analysis for concrete self-healing has
compressive and flexural strength – to prove the effectiveness of
being considered by Van Breugel [174] (Fig. 10) based on concrete
healing processes seem to lead to inconclusive results with multi-
mixes with and without healing properties. For normal concrete
ple and contrasting trends found by researchers. Literature refer-
structures, several repairs are needed at regular intervals after con-
ences using the same healing agent but obtaining significantly
struction to maintain the initial performance of the structure until
different results are numerous. Mechanical tests are generally
the moment of the first reconstruction. The dotted line (B) shows
not appropriate to detect chemical reaction happening within the
the improved durability of the structure when self-healing con-
crack, such as the lack of adhesion of polymeric materials between
crete is used; however, higher initial construction costs are
crack walls or silica materials forming gel. Microstructural
required but the economic benefit can be potentially greater over
approaches have shown good correlation instead.
the life-cycle.
Curing approaches also swayed results with some of the studies
The life-cycle cost of self-healing concrete is difficult to accu-
– for the same healing agent – recurring to wet curing while some
rately estimate since it is still in the state of ‘proof of concept’
others use dry curing. The distinction of the crack healing benefits
and few trials have been conducted on real structures. Wang
due to continuous hydration in wet curing conditions from the
et al. [62] determined an increase of construction costs of 7–28%
benefits provided by the healing agent itself is a common artefact
and 5–21% when bacteria are deployed with polyurethane and sil-
in healing investigations.
ica gel. Li [34] estimated the cost of the self-synthesized microcap-
Crack size and geometry have also been proven to affect results
sules in dry form about $15/kg consisting urea-formaldehyde as
of healing studies due to the mechanical approach used by most
shell and epoxy resin as core.
researchers to trigger the initial crack in the sample; healing micro
uniform cracks could be significantly different from healing macro
3. Conclusions variable-width cracks. More study is definitely needed in this area.
Ultimately, durability tests are more substantial when evaluat-
Based on the literature review on self-healing efficiency in ing the healing efficiency (i.e. gas permeability tests) since they
cementitious materials, the phenomenon of self-healing involves have minimum impact on the internal matrix of the cementitious
a combination of complicated chemical and physical process. In material during the testing period; better understanding and con-
general, healing occurs due to the reactions of un-hydrated parti- sistency of results could thus be obtained.
cles in cementitious matrix bonding between the crack walls and
the present chemicals. Self-healing of cementitious materials iden- Conflict of interest
tified under autonomous process can also involve autogenous pro-
cesses hence healing methods focus on un-hydrated cementitious The Authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
particles.
Common approaches of adding healing agents into the cementi-
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