Hemendra

STUDY NOTES – IS684

by
HEMENDRA RAVAL
Industrial Health, Safety, Environment and Quality Management and Engineering Consultant
S-34, Second Floor, Yogeshwar Flat, High Tension Line Road, Subhanpura, Vadodara-390023
Mobile: +919825194168 email : hemendra_raval@[Link]

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

SAFETY IN TEXTILES INDUSTRY

The Industry :

A textile is a cloth, which is either woven by hand or machine. "Textile" has traditionally meant, "a woven fabric". The
term comes from the Latin word texere, meaning to weave.

Any filament, fibre, or yarn that can be made into fabric or cloth, and the resulting material itself. The word originally
referred only to woven fabrics but now includes knitted, bonded, felted, and tufted fabrics as well. The basic raw materials
used in textile production are fibres, either obtained from natural sources (e.g., wool) or produced from chemical
substances (e.g., nylon and polyester). Textiles are used for wearing apparel, household linens and bedding, upholstery,
draperies and curtains, wall coverings, rugs and carpets, and book bindings, in addition to being used widely in industry.

―Textile‖ as noun means __

1. any cloth or goods produced by weaving, knitting, or felting.

2. a material, as a fiber or yarn, used in or suitable for weaving: Glass can be used as a textile.

―Textile‖ as adjective means __

1. woven or capable of being woven: textile fabrics.

2. of or pertaining to weaving.
3. of or pertaining to textiles or the production of textiles: the textile industry.

The textile industry is primarily concerned with the production of yarn, and cloth and the subsequent design or
manufacture of clothing and their distribution. The raw material may be natural, or synthetic using products of the
chemical industry.

The different types of textiles:

Fibers are the raw materials for all fabrics. Fibres can be grouped as under.

1. Natural Fibers (small in length, in centimetres)

a. Vegetable (Plant) Fibers

i. Cotton
ii. Flax
iii. Sisal

b. Animal Fibers
i. Sheep
ii. Goat
iii. Rabbit
iv. Silk worm

c. Mineral Fibers
i. Asbestos

2. Artificial Fibers (length in metres and kilometres)

These fibers can be made by extruding a polymer, through a spinneret into a medium where it hardens.

a. Fibers produced by wet spinning ( coagulating medium)

i. Rayon

b. Fibers produced by dry spinning (contained in solvent that evaporates in the heated exit chamber)
i. Acetate

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 1 OF 83
Hemendra

ii. Triacetate

c. Fibers produced by melt spinning (cooled in gas or air then sets)

i. Nylons
ii. Polyesters
1. derived from coal
2. derived from air
3. derived from water
4. derived from petroleum
iii. Acrylics
iv. Olefins

3. Syntheric Fibers
Combination of natural and artificial fibers

Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants of the
genus Gossypium. The fibre is almost pure cellulose. Cotton fibers produce soft, absorbent fabrics that are widely used for
clothing, sheets, and towels. Fibers of the flax plant are made into linen. The strength and beauty of linen have made it a
popular fabric for fine tablecloths, napkins, and handkerchiefs.

The main animal fiber used for textiles is wool. Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and certain other animals,[1]
including cashmere from goats, mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, vicuña, alpaca, and camel from animals in the
camel family, and angora from rabbits. Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped, it is
elastic, and it grows in staples (clusters).[2] The term wool is usually restricted to describing the fibrous protein derived
from the specialized skin cells called follicles in sheep.

Another animal fiber, silk, produces one of the most luxurious fabrics. Sheep supply most of the wool, but members of the
camel family and some goats also furnish wool. Wool provides warm, comfortable fabrics for dresses, suits, and sweaters.
Silk comes from cocoons spun by silkworms. Workers unwind the cocoons to obtain long, natural filaments. Fabrics made
from silk fibers have great luster and softness and can be dyed brilliant colors. Silk is especially popular for scarfs and
neckties. Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is
obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity (sericulture). The
shimmering appearance of silk is due to the triangular prism-like structure of the silk fiber, which allows silk cloth to
refract incoming light at different angles, thus producing different colors. Silks are produced by several other insects, but
only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been some research into other silks,
which differ at the molecular level.[1] Silks are mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete
metamorphosis, but also by some adult insects such as webspinners. Silk production is especially common in the
Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants), and is sometimes used in nest construction. Other types of arthropod produce silk,
most notably various arachnids such as spiders (spider silk).

Petrochemicals are chemicals made from crude oil and natural [Link] chief fibers manufactured from petrochemicals
include nylon, polyester, acrylic, and olefin. Nylon has exceptional strength, wears well, and is easy to launder. It is
popular for hosiery and other clothing and for carpeting and upholstery. Such products as conveyor belts and fire hoses
are also made of nylon.

Polyester is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in their main chain. Although there are
many polyesters, the term "polyester" as a specific material most commonly refers to polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-
growth polymerization such as polycarbonate and polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are
biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not.

Depending on the chemical structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset; however, the most common
polyesters are thermoplastics.[1]

Fabrics woven or knitted from polyester thread or yarn are used extensively in apparel and home furnishings, from shirts
and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets, blankets, upholstered furniture and computer mouse mats. Industrial polyester
fibers, yarns and ropes are used in tyre reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic
reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows,
comforters and upholstery padding.

While synthetic clothing in general is perceived by many as having a less natural feel compared to fabrics woven from
natural fibres (such as cotton and wool), polyester fabrics can provide specific advantages over natural fabrics, such as
improved wrinkle resistance, durability and high color retention. As a result, polyester fibres are sometimes spun together
with natural fibres to produce a cloth with blended properties. Synthetic fibres also can create materials with superior
water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibres.

Polyesters are also used to make "plastic" bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters,
dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire and insulating tapes.

Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers. They are used for their
mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are also important in their application as an abradable seal in jet
engines.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 2 OF 83
Hemendra

Polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors.
Burns Guitars, Saab and Sunseeker are a few companies that use polyesters to finish their products. Thixotropic
properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood
grain, with a high-build film thickness per coat. Cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable
finish.

Most textiles are produced by twisting fibers into yarns and then knitting or weaving the yarns into a fabric. This method
of making cloth has been used for thousands of years. But throughout most of that time, workers did the twisting,
knitting, or weaving largely by hand. With today's modern machinery, textile mills can manufacture as much fabric in a
few seconds as it once took workers weeks to produce by hand.

Woven fabrics are made of two sets of yarns - a lengthwise set called the warp and a crosswise set called the filling or
weft. The warp yarns are threaded into a loom through a series of frames called harnesses. During the cloth-making
process, the harnesses raise some warp yarns and lower others. This action creates a space, or shed, between the yarns.
A device called a shuttle carries the filling through the shed and so forms the crosswise yarns of the fabric. The pattern in
which the harnesses are raised and lowered for each pass of the shuttle determines the kind of weave.

Knitted fabrics are made from a single yarn or a set of yarns. In making cloth, a knitting machine forms loops in the
yarn and links them to one another by means of needles. The finished fabric consists of crosswise rows of loops, called
courses, and lengthwise rows of loops, called wales. This looped structure makes knitted fabrics more elastic than woven
cloth. Garment manufacturers use knitted fabrics in producing comfortable, lightweight clothing that resists wrinkling.

Other fabrics include tufted fabrics, nets and laces, braids, and felt. None of these fabrics is woven or knitted. However,
the textile industry produces another class of fabrics specifically called nonwoven fabrics.

CLOTH MAKING IN THE COTTON MILL

Cotton is a fiber that grows in a seed pod. When the pod pops open, the cotton is ready for picking. Cotton is picked by
machines and then transported by trucks to cotton gins for removal of seeds. Once it is cleaned, it is then packed in bales
and delivered to the opening room of the textile mill.

Opening Rooms are large rooms where bale openers break the metal straps and cut the burlap cloth that contains the
cotton. The bale openers use a machine to break the straps and loosen the tightly packed cotton. The machines remove
most of the dirt found in the cotton so it is important for the machines to be well oiled and clean. Workers tending these
machines must be careful because the machines move very fast and can be dangerous.

Once the cotton is loosened, it moves on to a machine called a picker. The picker breaks the cotton apart into small
pieces. Workers feed cotton into the picker by manually throwing armfuls of cotton into it. The picker produces a product
consisting of a long continuous sheet of fiber called a lap. The lap is then rolled into large round packages that weigh forty
pounds. Workers in the opening and picker rooms must be strong because they are required to lift these heavy round
packages onto power lifts that move them into the Carding Room.

The Carding Room produces long, untwisted strands of cotton called slivers. Slivers are made by feeding cotton into the
rollers of the card machine. The rollers are covered with fine wires and metal teeth that pull the cotton into sheets. The
sheets are then fed into a narrow opening shaped like a funnel to give the sliver a round like shape that is similar to rope.
Slivers are automatically collected in empty cans, and cans are replaced by employees when they become full. Machine
operators in the carding room supervise sixty to eighty machines. They walk back and forth looking for machines that
have stopped because of broken slivers so they could repair the sliver and get the machine restarted as quickly as
possible. Work in the carding room is tedious because there are more machines then people. The rooms are noisy, dusty,
hot, and humid. At times, workers have a hard time staying awake.

Combing is the next step in the cloth making process. In the combing process, cotton is cleaned and blended. Cotton
carded slivers are put into machines running at high speeds. These machines stretch the sliver and combine it with other
slivers to give it a uniform texture. These slivers are then sent to machines called roving frames which make the slivers
thin so they could be spun into yarn. Once the sliver is thinned, it gets twisted, and wound on a bobbin. Slivers that have
been thinned, twisted, and wound are then called roving.

In the spinning process, roving becomes even thinner and receives more twists. In the spinning department, workers wind
roving on bobbins and mend broken roving ends. If broken roving is not connected, the roving will get tangled and cause
machines to stop running. Workers use rows of bobbins to wind roving which takes hours to fill. Bobbins contain either
warp yarn which is the thread that runs lengthwise through woven cloth or filling yarn which is the thread that runs at
right angles to the warp yarn. Once the bobbins are filled, workers called doffers remove the filled bobbins and replace
them with new ones. These filled bobbins are brought by workers to the slashing department for starching.

The slashing department applies a protective starch solution to warp yarn to make the yarn stiff and strong. Workers use
machines to apply the starch solution and also combine threads from several beams onto one loom beam. The loom beam
is usually made from wood or metal and is a cylinder shape that can hold large amounts of yarn. Once the yarn is on the
loom beam, workers then take it to the weaving department to be woven into cloth.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 3 OF 83
Hemendra

In the weaving department, workers known as weavers use a weaving machine called a loom to turn yarn into cloth. The
looms are high-speed running machines that lock two or more sets of thread together. One set called the warp runs
lengthwise while the other set runs across the width of the fabric. Weavers set-up the machines by guiding warp threads
through a set of pointed wires so that the weaving can begin. In addition, weavers carefully watch for breaks in the warp
thread. If a break occurs, the looms stop automatically and weavers repair breaks and fix any mistakes that are woven
into cloth. Weavers operate one hundred or more looming machines running at the same time which makes the weaving
room noisy and hot. Many weavers that have no skills or training, work in this department and get paid according to the
amount of fabric they produce. Since weaving is done on piece work, it becomes necessary for weavers to quickly locate
and mend broken threads, and restart the machines. The longer a machine stands idle, the less money a weaver makes.
Once the weavers finish weaving, the woven cloth goes to the cloth room.

In the Cloth Room, workers grade the quality of woven cloth and prepare the cloth for shipment to clothing or sheet
manufacturers. Sometimes the woven cloth is sent to other plants for design printing. To prepare cloth for shipment,
some workers sew rolls of materials together, remove stains from the cloth, or use machines to cut knots and loose ends
from thread in the material. Those workers using machines must be careful because the machines have large knives
which can cause injury. Cloth is inspected prior to shipment by inspectors who pass cloth over large tilted tables and
expose the cloth to good lighting to check for defects. If inspectors find that the cloth is free of defects, it is then graded
for quality, measured and folded into regular size lengths. The folded cloth is sent to workers who cover the cloth with
paper or burlap and compress it into a bale of cloth fastened with metal straps. At this point the work of the cotton mill is
finished, however because the woven cloth is naturally gray-like in color the cloth may be sent to other companies to be
bleached, finished or dyed.

Bleaching is the process of removing all natural gray-like color from the woven cloth and making it look white. Before the
cloth can be bleached, it must be singed so that the cloth gets a smooth surface. Singeing is the process in which woven
cloth passes over a gas flame or heated metal plate to remove fuzz or lint from the cloth. In addition, the singeing process
creates a lot of heat and makes the working environment extremely hot. After singeing, workers wash and boil cloth in
large tubs for several hours or they wash the cloth in a hot chemical solution made from salt called caustic soda. In either
bleaching method, the process is repeated several times until the cloth turns white and becomes ready for finishing or
dyeing.

Finishing is processing cloth to make it suitable for different uses. Companies called ―converters‖ finish cloth by either
chemical or mechanical finishing. In chemical finishing, workers treat cloth with chemicals to make it waterproof, or
wrinkle-free while mechanical finishing workers treat cloth with starch solutions to make it feel and look better. Cloth can
be preshrunk so it will not shrink anymore, or it can be made shiny and strong through the process of mercerizing. In the
finishing process workers are exposed to chemicals and heat from washing and drying.

Dyeing is the process of adding color to woven cloth. In the past, dyeing of cloth was done using natural color from roots,
flowers and berries. Today, dyeing is done using synthetic or man-made dyes because it is cheaper and the color lasts
longer than natural dyes. Synthetic dyes were invented by chemists as early as 1856. Since then, many new dyes have
been created. Workers in the dyeing department dip woven cloth into large vats of dye which is called piece dyeing. Cloth
is rolled on large perforated beams that are set on perforated spindles. Dye is pumped into the spindles to dye the cloth
from inside while at the same time, dye is added around the beams to dye cloth on the outside. When the cloth has
finished dyeing, workers feed the cloth into rollers that squeeze out the dye and remove excess liquid. In the dyeing
process, workers must constantly make sure that dyeing solutions are at proper strengths and temperatures. When
necessary, workers must supply hot steam to increase temperatures in the dyeing solution. By doing this, the steam
creates a hot and sticky working environment. In addition, the synthetic chemicals emit strong odors, but because the
workers are too busy tending to their work, they do not realize that they are breathing in those chemicals which may at a
later time create health problems for them.

The manufacture of cotton cloth is a complex process, involving many highly skilled workers, each performing a particular
critical step in the overall process. The many complex steps can be divided into three general categories - Preparation,
Spinning, and Weaving. In addition to this, there is the process of preparing the design that will be applied to the woven
cloth. Cotton cloth manufacturing was indeed a "high-tech" venture in the 1880s!

PREPARATION

1. Bales of cotton of various grades are moved from the WAREHOUSE to the BALE OPENING room.

2. Selected bales are opened and placed in position beside the BREAKING and OPENING machine. This is actually a line of
machines, working as a unit, that tear apart and partially clean matted, compressed, and baled cotton. The result is small
loose bunches of cotton.

3. The cotton is then placed into the BLENDING MACHINE. This is a group of devices that are synchronized to proportion
definite amounts of various grades of cotton which are to be blended together.

4. At this time, matted cotton and waste yarn salvaged from operations in the mill are placed into the WASTE MACHINE.
This machine beats, pulls apart, and fluffs up waste cotton to prepare it for re-use.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 4 OF 83
Hemendra

5. Cotton from both the BLENDING MACHINE and the WASTE MACHINE is fed into the BREAKER PICKER. In this unit the
raw cotton is partially cleaned by beating and fluffing and then fed into the FINISHER PICKER.

6. The FINISHER PICKER receives partially cleaned cotton in the form of LAP from the BREAKER PICKER and completes
the cleaning and fluffing process. LAP is a general term used to designate wide sheets of loosely matted cotton.

7. The cotton is next processed by a CARDING MACHINE, where dirt and short fibers are removed, other fibers are laid
parallel and formed into a ropelike strand called a SLIVER. The SLIVER is deposited in large cylindrical containers called
CANS.

8. Subsequent processing depends on whether better grade (combed) yarn, or lower grade (carded) yarn is desired. For
the lower grade, processing continues at the DRAWING FRAME

9. For better grade yarn, the SLIVER is first processed by the SLIVER LAPPING MACHINE, which draws and combines
several strands of SLIVER into a sheet of LAP and winds it on a spool ready for RIBBON LAPPING or COMBING.

10. The LAP is processed by a RIBBON LAPPING MACHINE which draws and combines several rolls of LAP into one roll of
RIBBON LAP, straightening the fibers slightly and making the lap more uniform in weight and texture, ready for feeding to
a COMBING MACHINE. RIBBON LAP is a roll of closely matted cotton fibers, about 10 inches wide.

11. COMBING is the process of extracting fibers below a predetermined length and removing any remaining dirt. Output of
the COMBING MACHINE is deposited in CANS.

12. The cotton is next processed by the DRAWING FRAME. It is a machine in which several strands of SLIVER are
combined into one strand and DRAWN OUT so that the combined strands approximate the weight and size of any one of
the original strands. The term DRAWN OUT means to stretch a strand of cotton, usually by running the strand between
several pairs of rollers, each pair turning faster than the pair before it.

13. The SLUBBING MACHINE then draws out strands of SLIVER and twists them together loosely in order to give the
strands (now called ROVING) sufficient strength to withstand subsequent operations.

14. The ROVING is processed by the FLY FRAME. This machine progressively combines two strands of partially processed
ROVING into one, draws out the combined strands until they are of prescribed weight, and twists them loosely in order to
give them sufficient strength to withstand subsequent operations.

SPINNING

1. The cotton is now ready for SPINNING. Spinning is the process of making YARN from cotton fibers by drawing out and
twisting the fibers into a thin strand. That is, one or more strands of slightly twisted ROVING are used to produce one
strand of spun YARN. The yarn is wound on bobbins.

2. The next step is to produce either WARP or FILLING. WARP is the set of yarn strands which run lengthwise in a piece of
cloth. FILLING, also called WOOF and WELT, is the yarn which is interlaced through the WARP to produce cloth.

Making FILLING:

a. FILLING may be single-ply or multiple-ply. For multiple-ply, steps (a) and (b) for making WARP below are completed
before the yarn is conditioned. For single-ply, the yarn is immediatly conditioned after spinning. Conditioning is the act of
exposing bobbins of FILLING YARN to steam or to a spray of conditioning solution in order to set the twist, to remove
kinks from the yarn, and to prevent its kinking in subsequent processes.

Making WARP:

a. The DOUBLING MACHINE winds two or more strands of yarn onto one PACKAGE without twisting them. PACKAGE is
simply a general term for any wound arrangement of YARN.

b. The yarn is then TWISTED. The TWISTING MACHINE twists two or more strands of spun yarn into a heavier, stronger,
single strand. This process may be repeated until the desired number of plys is produced.

c. The WINDING MACHINE winds yarn from several bobbins in a continuous length onto a spool. Output is CHEESES or
CONES of yarn to be used for WARP. The term CHEESE refers to a roll of yarn built up on a paper or wooden tube in a
form that resembles a bulk cheese. A CONE is a tapered cylinder of wood, metal, or cardboard around which yarn is
wound.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 5 OF 83
Hemendra

3. The WARP may, or may not, be dyed. If not, then it is next processed by the WARPING MACHINE. This machine takes
about 500 strands of yarn and winds them side by side onto one large spool called a SECTION BEAM. The SECTION BEAM
is about three feet in diameter. Processing continues at step 6 below.

4. If the WARP is to be dyed, it is processed by the BALL WARPING MACHINE. This machine takes about 500 strands of
yarn and gathers them together into a large, loose, rope-like strand, and winds it on a wooden core preparatory to
dyeing. The yarn is then dyed in a different location, producing rolls of dyed WARP YARN.

5. The dyed yarn is processed by the BEAMER MACHINE which separates the individual strands of dyed yarn and winds
them onto one large spool (BEAM). The result is the same as step 3 above.

6. The SLASHING MACHINE takes the yarns from several SECTION BEAMS and winds them side by side onto one wider
spool called a LOOM BEAM.

WEAVING

1. WEAVING is the interlacing of WARP and FILLING YARN to form a cloth.

1. The inputs to the weaving process, performed on a LOOM, are (1) the WARP YARN from the LOOM BEAM (2) the FILL
YARN from a bobbin, and (3) the mechanism that controls the design to be applied to the cloth (see Designing below).

2. If there is no LOOM BEAM currently in the LOOM, the new BEAM must be DRAWN-IN. DRAWING IN is the process of
threading the WARP filaments from the LOOM BEAM into the LOOM in the order indicated by the design to be applied to
the cloth (see Designing below). If the current LOOM BEAM has been exhausted, the yarn ends from the new BEAM are
twisted or knotted to the ends of the exhausted BEAM.

3. As the LOOM runs, the longitudinal strands of WARP YARN are positioned so that every other strand is raised. A pointed
block of wood called a SHUTTLE pulls the FILLING YARN through the strands. The position of the WARP YARN strands are
then reversed and the SHUTTLE pulls the FILLING YARN in the reverse direction. This process then repeats. Note that this
description is for a simple weave.

4. As bobbins are emptied, any remaining yarn is removed from them and returned to the waste machine for salvage. The
clean bobbins are then returned to the spinning operations.

5. Cloth produced by the loom is wound on a large roll and sent to the STITCHING MACHINE, where lengths of cloth are
stitched together.

6. The SHEARING MACHINE cuts away knots and loose yarn ends from the surface of the cloth to give it a smooth surface.

7. Finally, the cloth is inspected, graded for quality, and delivered to shipping.

DESIGNING

1. Designing is the process of deciding on the pattern that is to be woven into a cloth and also the basic weave (plain,
twill, or satin). The design is drawn on cross-section paper and called a DESIGN DRAFT.

2. There are two primary types of LOOMS - the DOBBY LOOM and the JACQUARD LOOM. The former is adequate for
simple weaves, while the latter is required for more complex weaves. The main difference in the two LOOMs lies in how
the individual WARP YARN threads are controlled, as explained below.

DOBBY LOOM

a. The HEDDLE is a fiber or metal strand, pierced with a hole (eye), through which a WARP YARN strand is threaded.

b. The HARNESS is an assemblage of HEDDLES attached to a HARNESS FRAME. A separate HARNESS is used for each
group of WARP YARN strands that must be moved independently to weave a desired pattern.

c. Each HARNESS FRAME is fastened to a mechanism that raises and lowers it in proper sequence to form the SHEDS
through which the SHUTTLE carries the FILLING YARN to produce cloth of a specified pattern. The SHED is the opening
made across the WARP by the raising of some threads and the depressing of others. It is through this opening that the
SHUTTLE passes and lays the cross of FILLING YARN of a fabric.

d. A two-harness LOOM (one with two sets of HEDDLES) can produce plain weaves. Three or more HARNESSES are
required to produce twill fabrics. Other types of fabrics may require a minimum of five HARNESSES.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 6 OF 83
Hemendra

e. The cloth designer converts the DESIGN DRAFT into a PATTERN CHAIN, an arrangement of wooden crossbars and metal
pegs which is used to control the WEAVING of cloth designs and patterns on the DOBBY LOOM. The metal pegs, about an
inch long, determine which HARNESSES are raised and when.

JACQUARD LOOM

a. Each strand of WARP YARN can be individually controlled. The HEDDLE HARNESS of the DOBBY LOOM is replaced by a
series of upright wires with hooks at their upper ends. The hooks are attached to a controlling head high above the loom.
The Jacquard head is controlled by a punch card system.

b. The cloth designer converts the DESIGN DRAFT into punched cards. The presence or absence of holes in each card
determines whether each WARP YARN strand is raised or lowered. The cards are fed through the Jacquard head at the
rate of one card for each pass of the SHUTTLE.

c. Since the cards are small, and each one can control only a few WARP YARN strands, a number of cards are laced
together to control the full width of the LOOM.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 7 OF 83
Hemendra

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF A COMPOSITE TEXTILE FACTORY :

FARMING

GINNING
ANIMAL BREEDING &
WOOL SHAVING PRESSING BALE BLOW ROOM BLENDING PICKING CARDING SLIVE MAKING
OPENING

SPIDER BREEDING &

SILK FORMMATION COMBING

MINERAL
SPINNING
(SLUBBING)

ARTIFICIAL FIBER
PRODUCTION WARPING

WEAVING

TEXTILES
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
SIGEING

WASHING &
BLEACHING

DYEING

DISPATCH PACKING FOLDING QC & INSPECTION PRINTING WASHIING

CUTTING

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 8 OF 83
Hemendra

Area / Activity Machine / Input Output Hazards Safety Features

Department Device
Cotton Farming Farm Machinery Seed Cotton Seed Pod - Snake/insect biting - Automation
Farming - Pesticides poisoning - Mask
- Ergonomic issues in seeding - Gumboots
and cutting - Antidotes for pesticides poisoning
- Byssinosis - Fire protection – hydrant & extinguisher
- Fire - Insurance
Animal Breeding -- Animal Wool/Silk - Epidemy - Mask and hand gloves
Breeding - Fibrosis - Personal hygiene
Wool shaving Wool shaving Wool shaver Animal Wool - Epidemy - Mask and hand gloves
- Fibrosis - Personal hygiene
- Cuts - Reinforced leather hand gloves
Mineral Mining Excavating -- Asbestos - Asbestosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Machinery - Silicosis medical examinations
- Pneumoconiosis - Dust Mask
- Dermatitis - Barrier cream
Gin Ginning Gin Cotton / Seed/impurities - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Wool removed cotton / - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
wool - Fire - Dust Mask
- Barrier cream
Pressing Pressing Power Press Cotton / Bale - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Wool / Silk - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
- Fire - Dust Mask
- Body trap - Barrier cream
- Distance guard / photoelectric guard,
two hand controls
Bale opening Bale opening by Bale Breaking Bale Raw cotton / wool / - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
breaking metal silk bunches - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
straps - Body trap - Dust Mask
- Bale handling - Automation
- Cuts & blunt injuries - Distance guard / photoelectric guard
- Sparking leading to fire - Ergonomic consideration- Mechanical
- Intermittent noise handling of bale
- Canal cap
- Fire protection & insurance
Opening of burlap Bale Opening Broken bale Opened bale and - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
cloth and Machine loosened tightly - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
loosening the packed cotton - Body trap - Dust Mask
tightly packed - Bale handling - Automation
cloth - High speed machine - Distance guard
- Fire - Mechanical handling of bale
- Good lubrication system

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 9 OF 83
Hemendra

- Fire protection & insurance

- Maintenance of temp & humidity
beating, pulling Waste machine Waste Re-usable cotton - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
apart, and fluffing cotton - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
up waste cotton to - Fire - Dust Mask
prepare it for re- - Trap in beater rollers - Nip guard
use. - Distance guard
- Fully enclosed machine
- Fire protection & insurance
Blending of fibres Blending Machine Different Blended fibres of - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
quality desired grade and - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
fibres quality - Fire - Dust Mask
- Trap in blending rollers - Nip guard
- Distance guard
- Fully enclosed machine
- Fire protection & insurance
Blow Room Picking Picker Loose fibres Lap - Manual handling of armful - Pre-employment, periodical and post
(breaking fibres cotton, ergonomic issue medical examinations
apart into small - Byssinosis - Dust Mask
pieces and producing - Pneumoconiosis - Nip guard
long continuous - Fire - Distance guard
sheet called lap) - Trap in blending rollers - Fully enclosed machine
- Fire protection & insurance
- Automated handling
Carding Carding Card Machine Cotton Card - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Room (rollers with fine - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
wires and metal - Fire - Dust Mask
teeth) - Trap in card rollers - Nip guard
- Distance guard
- Fully enclosed machine
- Fire protection & insurance
Slive making Sliver Card Slive - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
(funnel shape - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
reducer) - Fire - Dust Mask
- Trap in blending rollers noise - Nip guard
- heat - Distance guard
- humidity - Fully enclosed machine
- one operator has to look after - Fire protection & insurance
60 to 80 slivers - Good layout
Combing Cleaning & Comber Slives Combined slive with - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
blending of carded uniform texture - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
slives - Fire - Dust Mask
- Trap in combing rollers - Nip guard
- noise - Distance guard
- heat - Fully enclosed machine
- humidity - Fire protection & insurance
- Air conditioning

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 10 OF 83
Hemendra

Roving Frame or Combined Roving - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post

Drawing Frame thick slive (thinned, twisted & - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
(running the wound slive) - Fire - Dust Mask
strand between - Trap in rollers - Nip guard
several pairs of - noise - Distance guard
rollers, each pair - heat - Fully enclosed machine
turning faster - humidity - Fire protection & insurance
than the pair - Air conditioning
before it)
Spinning Slubbing Slubbing Machine Slive Roving - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
- Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
- Fire - Dust Mask
- heat - Distance guard
- humidity - Fire protection & insurance
- Air conditioning
Fly Frame Roving Spurn yarn (wound - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
on bobbins) - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
- Fire - Dust Mask
- heat - Distance guard
- - Fire protection & insurance
- Air conditioning
Slashing Starching Slasher Spun Yarn Stiff, strong & yarn - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
- Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
- Fire - Dust Mask
- heat - Distance guard
- Fire & explosion of starch - Fire protection & insurance
- Air conditioning
Warping Warping Warping Slashed Warp - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Yarn (a set of two or more - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
threads together) - Fire - Dust Mask
- heat - Distance guard
- Breaking of thread - Fire protection & insurance
- Air conditioning
Filling Filling Filling Slashed Fill - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
yarn - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
- Fire - Dust Mask
- heat - Distance guard
- Breaking of thread - Fire protection & insurance
- Air conditioning
Weaving Weaving Loom Warp & Cloth - Byssinosis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
(Dobby, Fill - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
Jacquard) - Fire - Dust Mask
- Heat - Distance guard
- High speed - Fire protection & insurance
- Noise - Air conditioning
- Loss due to idling machines - Ear plug
- Shuttle replacement with seam jet

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 11 OF 83
Hemendra

Cloth room - sewing rolls - Shearing cloth Sized cloth - cut by large knives - Distance guard, photoelectric guard
- Removal of machine - Fire - Fire protection & insurance
stains - Stitching - Air conditioning
- Cutting knots & machine
loose ends
- Inspection of
defects on
large table and
good lighting
Singeing Removal of fuzz & Singeing (Heated Cloth with Cloth without fuzz - Heat - Distance guard
lint plate, cutter, fuzz and and lints - Flammability - Fire protection & insurance
shaver and/or lints (fire & explosion) - Air conditioning
open flame - Cuts
- Burns
- Toxic exposure
Bleaching Removal of natural bleaching Gray cloth White cloth - Corrosion due to bleaching - Safety valve
gray like colour agents - Fire protection & insurance
and making look - Fire & explosion of bleaching
white agents
- Dermatitis
Washing Washing and Drum Washer Bleached Washed cloth - Explosion - Safety valve
boiling cloth (pressure plant) cloth - Burns - Fire protection & insurance
- Corrosion due to bleaching
agents
Finishing Chemical Converter Washed Waterproof, wrinkled - Mist – toxicity, fire, explosion - Fire protection and insurance
(chemical) treatment cloth free cloth - Dermatitis - LEV
- Barrier cream
Finishing Mechanical Converter Washed Cloth with better feel - Fire, explosion - Fire protection and insurance
(Mechanical) treatment, Ironing cloth and look, preshrunk - Electrical shock - Electrical circuit breakers
(starching)
Mercerizing Washed Shiny and strong -- --
cloth cloth
Dyeing Dyeing Kier Woven Dyed (coloured)cloth - Dermatitis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
(pressure plant) cloth - Bladder cancer with benzidine medical examinations
dyes - Dust Mask
- Burns - Safety valve
- Fire & explosion - Barrier cream
- Toxic exposure - Fire protection & insurance
- Air conditioning
Printing Printing Printing machine Dyed cloth Printed cloth - Dermatitis - Pre-employment, periodical and post
- Fire & explosion medical examinations
- Toxic exposure - Dust /gas Mask
- Barrier cream
- Fire protection & insurance
- Air conditioning
Inspection Quality check -- Printed Approved cloth Lighting --
cloth

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 12 OF 83
Hemendra

Folding Folding cloth Folder Unfolded Folded cloth Striking by folder Distance guard
cloth
Pressing & Press Pressing and Folded cloth Sized cloth Cut & traps Distance guard / photoelectric guard
Cutting cutting
Packing Packing cloth in Packer Sized cloth Packed finished Manual handling Mechanical handling
bales product

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 13 OF 83
Hemendra

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 14 OF 83
Hemendra

Hazard Recognition
Cotton Dust Cotton Dust. OSHA Fact Sheet 95-2, (1995, January). Covers the hazards of cotton dust during the
handling and processing of cotton. This dust may contain a mixture of many substances, including ground-up plant
matter, fiber, bacteria, fungi, soil, pesticides, non-cotton matter, and other contaminants. Exposure to cotton dust can
result in serious health problems.
Cotton is a natural fiber used in the production of cloth. When cotton is being processed, it emits fine cotton dust particles
into the air. These particles are breathed into the lungs by the person working with the fiber.
Sometimes the person can have an allergic reaction which is similar to an asthma attack. This allergic
reaction causes the small airways in the lungs to contract so air cannot quickly leave the lungs. Any air
that is already in the lungs at the time of the attack has to force its way out of the body through
narrowed lung passages which in turn produces wheezing sounds that are common during asthma
attacks. Even if a person working with cotton does not display any allergic reactions, there is scientific
evidence that people who are exposed to cotton dust may develop a permanent decrease in their
breathing ability. This cotton dust related disease is known as Brown Lung or byssinosis, and affects
thousands of people in the textile industry who are exposed to large quantity of dust.

In addition to lung problems caused by dust, textile workers who work with dyes or finishers can
develop skin allergies or rashes known as dermatitis. Finishing agents such as formaldehyde used in
permanent press materials can cause allergic reactions that affect the respiratory system. Also, textile
workers who are regular smokers working with dusts or finishing agents are at a higher risk of
developing lung and heart problems. The risk multiplies with the amount of exposure. The duty of the
employer becomes even greater in making sure that workers are not exposed to large quantities of
foreign substances such as cotton dust or chemicals.

The passing of the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OSHA) of 1970, was the means by which
industries were forced to adopt standards to ensure a safe and healthy environment for workers. OSHA
guarantees employees the right to a safe and healthy working environment and OSHA inspectors can
walk in and inspect workplaces at anytime. Workers who feel that their workplace is unsafe can file
complaints with OSHA. If upon inspection, OSHA finds violations of industry standards, then the
industry can be heavily fined. In addition, OSHA requires that industries keep records of work related
accidents, illnesses, injuries, and exposures to harmful materials. This information must be made
available to employees and government agencies and provided upon request. Lesson Plan 1

Dye Hazards Special Occupational Hazard Review For Benzidine-Based Dyes. US Department of Health and
HumanServices (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 80-109,
(1980, January).
Benzidine-, o-Tolidine-, and o-Dianisidine-Based Dyes. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS),
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 81-106, (1980, December). Review of
data concluding the potential of these dyes to cause cancer in humans.

Control of Dust From Powder Dye Handling Operations. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS),
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-107, (1997, June 26). Reduction of
worker exposure to powdered dye through ventilation, work practice controls and limiting bulk container height.

Toluene Diisocyanate (TDI) and Toluenediamine (TDA): Evidence of Carcinogenicity. US Department of Health and
Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Current Intelligence Bulletin
No. 53, (1989, December).

Direct Blue 6, Direct Black 38, and Direct Brown 95 Benzidine Derived Dyes. US Department of Health and Human
Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Current Intelligence Bulletin No. 24,
(1978, April 17).

Ergonomics

Ergonomics: Effective Workplace Practices and Programs. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS),
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), (1997, July 28). Concurrent conference session on
apparel.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 15 OF 83
Hemendra

Other

Acrylonitrile. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) Current Intelligence Bulletin No. 18, (1977, July 1).

NYLON msds :
General

Synonyms: poly(N,N'-hexamethyleneadipinediamide), poly(hexamethylene adipamide), Zytel 42 nylon resin

Use:
Molecular formula: (C12H26N2O4)n
CAS No: 32131-17-2
EINECS No:
Annex I Index No:

Physical data

Appearance: white pellets, powder or fibre

Melting point: ca. 255 C
Boiling point:
Vapour density:
Vapour pressure:
Density (g cm-3):
Flash point:
Explosion limits:
Autoignition temperature:
Water solubility:

Stability

Stable. Incompatible with strong oxidizing agents, strong bases.

Toxicology

Not hazardous according to Directive 67/548/EEC

Toxicity data
(The meaning of any toxicological abbreviations which appear in this section is given here.)

Risk phrases
(The meaning of any risk phrases which appear in this section is given here.)

Transport information

(The meaning of any UN hazard codes which appear in this section is given here.)
Non-hazardous for air, sea and road freight.

Personal protection

Minimize exposure.

Safety phrases
(The meaning of any safety phrases which appear in this section is given here.)

Composition

Nylon 6,6 is made of hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid, which give nylon 6,6 a total of 12 carbon atoms, and its
name.

Physical properties

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 16 OF 83
Hemendra

1. Nylon 6,6 has a melting point of 265°C, high for a synthetic fiber, though not a match for polyesters or aramids
such as Kevlar.[1] This fact makes it resistant to heat and friction and enables it to withstand heatsetting for twist
retention.
2. Its long molecular chain results in more sites for hydrogen bonds, creating chemical ―springs‖, making it very
resilient.
3. It has a dense structure with small, evenly spaced pores. This means that nylon 6,6 is difficult to dye, but once
dyed it has superior colorfastness and is less susceptible to fading from sunlight and ozone and to yellowing from
nitrous oxide.

Manufacture

1. Hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid are combined with water in a reactor. This produces nylon salt. The
nylon salt is then sent to an evaporator where excess water is removed.
2. The nylon salt goes into a reaction vessel where a continuous polymerization process takes place. This chemical
process makes molten nylon 6,6.
3. The molten nylon 6,6 undergoes a spinning process, where the nylon 6,6 is extruded and sent through a
spinneret, which is a small metal plate with fine holes. The nylon is then air-cooled to form filaments.
4. Nylon's chemical formula is nHOOC-(CH2)4-COOH+n H2N-(CH2)6-NH2---->[-OC-( CH2)4-CO-NH-(CH2)6-NH-]
n+2nH2O and the part -CO-NH- will stick together becoming Nylon 6,6.

Applications

1. Carpet fiber
2. Apparel
3. Airbags
4. Tires
5. Ropes
6. Conveyor Belts
7. Hoses
8. Tube
9. construction

Nylon 6,6's longer molecular chain and denser structure qualifies it as a premium nylon fiber, specified most often by
professional architects and designers for use in commercial settings like offices, airports, and other places that get a lot of
wear and tear. It is also an excellent choice for residential carpet applications.

SOME CLIPPINGS :

COTTON COTTON BALES SLIVE

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 17 OF 83
Hemendra

CARD GIN BLOW ROOM

SLIVER WARPING WEAVING

SHUTTLE KIER DRUM WASHER

SINGEING SINGEING DYING

CUTTER

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 18 OF 83
Hemendra

DYING PRINTING PRINTING

POLYETSER :

In 1926, United States-based E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co. began research into very large
molecules and synthetic fibers. This early research, headed by W.H. Carothers, centered on what
became nylon, the first synthetic fiber. Soon after, in the years 1939-41, British research chemists
took interest in the du Pont studies and conducted their own research in the laboratories of Calico
Printers Association, Ltd. This work resulted in the creation of the polyester fiber known in England as
Terylene.
In 1946, du Pont purchased the right to produce this polyester fiber in the United States. The company
conducted some further developmental work, and in 1951, began to market the fiber under the name
Dacron. During the ensuing years, several companies became interested in polyester fibers and
produced their own versions of the product for different uses. Today, there are two primary types of
polyester, PET (polyethylene terephthalate) and PCDT (poly-1, 4-cyclohexylene-dimethylene
terephthalate). PET, the more popular type, is applicable to a wider variety of uses. It is stronger than
PCDT, though PCDT is more elastic and resilient. PCDT is suited to the heavier consumer uses, such as
draperies and furniture coverings. PET can be used alone or blended with other fabrics to make
clothing that is wrinkle and stain resistant and retains its shape.

Raw Materials
Polyester is a chemical term which can be broken into poly, meaning many, and ester, a basic organic
chemical compound. The principle ingredient used in the manufacture of polyester is ethylene, which is
derived from petroleum. In this process, ethylene is the polymer, the chemical building block of
polyester, and the chemical process that produces the finished polyester is called polymerization.

The Manufacturing
Process
Polyester is manufactured by one of several methods. The one used depends on the form the finished
polyester will take. The four basic forms are filament, staple, tow, and fiberfill. In the filament form,
each individual strand of polyester fiber is continuous in length, producing smooth-surfaced fabrics. In

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 19 OF 83
Hemendra

staple form, filaments are cut to short, predetermined lengths. In this form polyester is easier to blend
with other fibers. Tow is a form in which continuous filaments are drawn loosely together. Fiberfill is
the voluminous form used in the manufacture of quilts, pillows, and outerwear. The two forms used
most frequently are filament and staple.
Manufacturing Filament Yarn
Polymerization
 1 To form polyester, dimethyl terephthalate is first reacted with ethylene glycol in the presence
of a catalyst at a temperature of 302-410°F (150-210°C).
 2 The resulting chemical, a monomer (single, non-repeating molecule) alcohol, is combined
with terephthalic acid and raised to a temperature of 472°F (280°C). Newly-formed polyester,
which is clear and molten, is extruded through a slot to form long ribbons.
Drying
 3 After the polyester emerges from polymerization, the long molten ribbons are allowed to cool
until they become brittle. The material is cut into tiny chips and completely dried to prevent
irregularities in consistency.
Melt spinning
 4 Polymer chips are melted at 500-518°F (260-270°C) to form a syrup-like solution. The
solution is put in a metal container called a spinneret and forced through its tiny holes, which
are usually round, but may be pentagonal or any other shape to produce special fibers. The
number of holes in the spinneret determines the size of the yarn, as the emerging fibers are
brought together to form a single strand.
 5 At the spinning stage, other chemicals may be added to the solution to make the resulting
material flame retardant, antistatic, or easier to dye.

Drawing the fiber

 6 When polyester emerges from the spinneret, it is soft and easily elongated up to five times
its original length. The stretching forces the random polyester molecules to align in a parallel
formation. This increases the strength, tenacity, and resilience of the fiber. This time, when the
filaments dry, the fibers become solid and strong instead of brittle.
 7 Drawn fibers may vary greatly in diameter and length, depending on the characteristics
desired of the finished material. Also, as the fibers are drawn, they may be textured or twisted
to create softer or duller fabrics.
Winding
 8 After the polyester yarn is drawn, it is wound on large bobbins or flat-wound packages, ready
to be woven into material.
Manufacturing Staple Fiber
In making polyester staple fiber, polymerization, drying, and melt spinning (steps 1-4 above) are
much the same as in the manufacture of filament yarn. However, in the melt spinning process, the
spinneret has many more holes when the product is staple fiber. The rope-like bundles of polyester
that emerge are called tow.
Drawing tow
 1 Newly-formed tow is quickly cooled in cans that gather the thick fibers. Several lengths of
tow are gathered and then drawn on heated rollers to three or four times their original length.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 20 OF 83
Hemendra

Crimping
 2 Drawn tow is then fed into compression boxes, which force the fibers to fold like an
accordion, at a rate of 9-15 crimps per inch (3-6 per cm). This process helps the fiber hold
together during the later manufacturing stages.
Setting
 3 After the tow is crimped, it is heated at 212-302°F (100-150°C) to completely dry the fibers
and set the crimp. Some of the crimp will unavoidably be pulled out of the fibers during the
following processes.
Cutting
 4 Following heat setting, tow is cut into shorter lengths. Polyester that will be blended with
cotton is cut in 1.25-1.50 inch (3.2-3.8 cm) pieces; for rayon blends, 2 inch (5 cm) lengths are
cut. For heavier fabrics, such as carpet, polyester filaments are cut into 6 inch (15 cm)
lengths.
The Future
Following its introduction to the United States in 1951, polyester quickly became the country's fastest-
growing fiber. Easy care of the permanent press fabric made polyester doubleknits extremely popular
in the late 1960s. However, polyester has suffered an "image problem" since that time, and clothes
made out of polyester were often devalued and even ridiculed. Several new forms of polyester
introduced in the early 1990s may help revitalize the image of polyester. A new form of polyester fiber,
called microfiber, was introduced to the public in 1991. More luxurious and versatile than traditional
polyester, microfiber fabrics are difficult to tell apart from silk fabrics. Clothing designers such as Mary
McFadden have created a line of clothes using this new form of polyester. Textile researchers at North
Carolina State University are developing a form of polyester that may be as strong as Kevlar, a
superfiber material used to make bulletproof vests. This type of polyester may eventually be used as
composite materials for cars and airplanes.

In the textiles industries, the main causes of injury are:

 slips and trips (nearly a quarter of all injuries)
 manual handling/musculoskeletal injuries
 struck by moving or falling objects
 contact with moving machinery
These four causes alone account for nearly 80% of all reported injuries.
The main causes of ill health are:
 Musculoskeletal injuries
 Exposure to noise at work
 Occupational asthma, and respiratory irritation from exposure to textile process dust
The textile industry consists of a number of units engaged in spinning, weaving, dyeing, printing,
finishing and a number of other processes that are required to convert fibre into a finished fabric or
garment. There are several safety and health issues associated with the textile industry. This article
aims at studying each of these issues in relation to the US and Indian textile industries in detail, along
with the possible solutions for these problems.

The major safety and health issues in the textile industry can be stated as under:
1) Exposure to cotton dust
2) Exposure to chemicals
3) Exposure to noise
4) Ergonomic issues

Exposure to cotton dust: The workers engaged in the processing and spinning of cotton are exposed
to significant amounts of cotton dust. They are also exposed to particles of pesticides and soil.
Exposure to cotton dust and other particles leads to respiratory disorders among the textile workers.
The fatal disease of byssinosis, commonly known as brown lung, is caused among people working in
the textile industry on account of excessive exposure to cotton dust. The symptoms of this disease
include tightening of the chest, coughing, wheezing and shortness of breath.

In the year 1938 in USA, it was estimated that about 35000 people had already been affected by the
disease, while 100000 other people were at risk of contracting it. Hence the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration i.e. OSHA made it compulsory for employers in the textile industry to protect
their workers from over exposure to cotton dust and its evil effects. The OSHA determined certain
guidelines which are applicable to all private employers in the US textile industry.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 21 OF 83
Hemendra

OSHA has laid down a Cotton Dust Standard with a view to reducing the exposure of the workers to
cotton dust and protecting them from the risk of byssinosis. It has set up Permissible Exposure Limits
(PELs) for cotton dust for different operations in the textile industry. This standard has helped bring
down the rate of occurrence of byssinosis significantly. Different states might adopt different standards
for occupational safety and health; however, in those states where there are no standards fixed by the
State, the Federal standards are accepted.

For an eight-hour day, the OSHA Cotton standard has been determined at 200 micrograms of cotton
dust per cubic meter of air in case of yarn manufacturing, 500 micrograms in case of textile waste
houses, 750 micrograms in case of weaving operations, and 1000 micrograms in case of for waste
recycling. Employers are required to measure the quantity of respirable cotton dust once in 6 months
or whenever there is any change that might lead to a change in the level of dust. If the level of dust in
the atmosphere is higher than that as per OSHA guidelines, the management should take measures to
reduce the same. As per these guidelines, the employer is required to inform the employees in writing
of the dust level present in the atmosphere as well as the steps that the management is planning to
take for its reduction. If the dust level cannot be reduced, it is the duty of the management to provide
respirators to the employees.
The OSHA Cotton Dust Standard was amended in the year 2000, which exempted a method of washing
cotton from the rule.

A study conducted by R. Steinberg, J. Hannak and K. Balakrishnan regarding textile units in India
revealed that pulmonary function in textile workers decreased significantly with exposure to cotton
dust over a long period of time. Another study conducted on textile units in Mumbai, India indicated an
11-33% incidence of chronic bronchitis in textile workers. Another study revealed an increase in the
rate of occurrence with an increase in exposure to cotton dust.

Studies have revealed that acute respiratory diseases are more common among the children working
in carpet weaving units in Jaipur as compared to other children in the same city. The prevalence of
respiratory diseases among child textile workers was 26.4%, while it was 15.2% among other children.
Experts believe that this is on account of high exposure to cotton dust.

SOME TERMS :

(1) ―Belt shifter‖ means a device for mechanically shifting a belt from one pulley to another.
(2) ―Belt shifter lock‖ means a device for positively locking the belt shifter in position while the
machine is stopped and the belt is idling on the loose pulleys.
(3) ―Calendar‖ means a machine consisting of a set of heavy rollers mounted on vertical side frames
and arranged to pass cloth between them. Calendars may have two to ten rollers, or bowls, some of
which can be heated.
(4) ―Embossing calender‖ means a calender with two or more rolls, one of which is engraved for
producing figured effects of various kinds on a fabric.
(5) ―Cans (drying)‖ means hollow cylindrical drums mounted in a frame so they can rotate. They are
heated with steam and are used to dry fabrics or yarn as it passes around the perimeter of the can.
(6) ―Carbonizing‖ means the removing of vegetable matter such as burns, straws, etc., from wool by
treatment with acid, followed by heat. The undesired matter is reduced to a carbon-like form which
may be removed by dusting or shaking.
(7) ―Card‖ machine means a machine consisting of cylinders of various sizes-and in certain cases flats-
covered with card clothing and set in relation to each other so that fibers in staple form may be
separated into individual relationship. The speed of the cylinders and their direction of rotation varies.
The finished product is delivered as a sliver. Cards of different types are: The revolving flat card, the
roller-and-clearer card, etc.
(8) ―Card clothing‖ means the material with which many of the surfaces of a card are covered; e.g.,
the cylinder, doffer, etc. It consists of a thick foundation material, usually made of textile fabrics,
through which are pressed many fine, closely spaced, specially bent wires.
(9) ―Comber‖ means a machine for combing fibers of cotton, wool, etc. The essential parts are a
device for feeding forward a fringe of fibers at regular intervals and an arrangement of combs or pins
which, at the right time, pass through the fringe. All tangled fibers, short fibers, and neps are removed
and the long fibers are laid parallel.
(10) ―Combing machinery‖ means a general classification, including combers, sliver lap machines,
ribbon lap machines, and gill boxes, but excluding cards.
(11) ―Cutter (rotary staple)‖ means a machine consisting of one or more rotary blades used for the
purpose of cutting textile fibers into staple lengths.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 22 OF 83
Hemendra

(12) ―Exposed to contact‖ means that the location of an object, material, nip point, or point of
operation is such that a person is liable to come in contact with it in his normal course of employment.
(13) ―Garnett machine‖ means any of a number of types of machines for opening hard twisted waste
of wool, cotton, silk, etc. Essentially, such machines consist of a lickerin; one or more cylinders, each
having a complement worker and stripper rolls; and a fancy roll and doffer. The action of such
machines is somewhat like that of a wool card, but it is much more severe in that the various rolls are
covered with garnett wire instead of card clothing.
(14) ―Gill box‖ means a machine used in the worsted system of manufacturing yarns. Its function is to
arrange the fibers in parallel order. Essentially, it consists of a pair of feed rolls and a series of
followers where the followers move at a faster surface speed and perform a combing action.
(15) ―Interlock‖ means a device that operates to prevent the operation of machine while the cover or
door of the machine is open or unlocked, and which will also hold the cover or door closed and locked
while the machine is in motion.
(16) ―Jig (dye)‖ means a machine for dyeing piece goods. The cloth, at full width, passes from a roller
through the dye liquor in an open vat and is then wound on another roller. The operation is repeated
until the desired shade is obtained.
(17) ―Kier‖ means a large metal vat, usually a pressure type, in which fabrics may be boiled out,
bleached, etc.
(18) ―Lapper (ribbon)‖ means a machine used to prepare laps for feeding a cotton comb; its purpose
is to provide a uniform lap in which the fibers have been straightened as much as possible.
(19) ―Lapper (sliver)‖ means a machine in which a number of parallel card slivers are drafted
slightly, laid side by side in a compact sheet, and wound into a cylindrical package.
(20) ―Loom‖ means a machine for effecting the interlacing of two series of yarns crossing one another
at right angles. The warp yarns are wound on a warp beam and pass through heddles and reed. The
filling is shot across in a shuttle and settled in place by reed and lay, and the fabric is wound on a cloth
beam.
(21) ―Starch mangle‖ means a mangle that is used specifically for starching cotton goods. It
commonly consists of two large rolls and a shallow open vat with several immersion rolls. The vat
contains the starch solution.
(22) ―Water mangle‖ means a calender having two or more rolls used for squeezing water from
fabrics before drying. Water mangles also may be used in other ways during the finishing of various
fabrics.
(23) ―Mule‖ means a type of spinning frame having a head stock and a carriage as its two main
sections. The head stock is stationary. The carriage is movable and it carries the spindles which draft
and spin the roving into the yarn. The carriage extends over the whole width of the machine and
moves slowly toward and away from the head stock during the spinning operation.
(24) ―Nip‖ means the point of contact between two in-running rolls.
(25) ―Openers and pickers‖ means a general classification which includes breaker pickers,
intermediate pickers, finisher pickers, single process pickers, multiple process pickers, willow
machines, card and picker waste cleaners, thread extractors, shredding machines, roving waste
openers, shoddy pickers, bale breakers, feeders, vertical openers, lattice cleaners, horizontal cleaners,
and any similar machinery equipped with either cylinders, screen section, calender section, rolls, or
beaters used for the preparation of stock for further processing.
(26) ―Paddler‖ means equipment consisting of a trough for a solution and two or more squeeze rolls
between which cloth passes after being passed through a mordant or dye bath.
(27) ―Point of operation‖ means that part of the machine where the work of cutting, shearing,
squeezing, drawing, or manipulating the stock in any other way is done.
(28) ―Roller printing machine‖ means a machine consisting of a large central cylinder, or pressure
bowl, around the lower part of the perimeter of which is placed a series of engraved color rollers (each
having a color trough), a furnisher roller, doctor blades, etc. The machine is used for printing fabrics.
(29) ―Continuous bleaching ranges‖ means ranges of several types and may be made for cloth in
rope or open-width form. The goods, after wetting out, pass through a squeeze roll into a saturator
containing a solution of caustic soda and then to an enclosed J-box. A V-shaped arrangement is
attached to the front part of the J-box for uniform and rapid saturation of the cloth with steam before
it is packed down in the J-box. The cloth, in a single strand rope form, passes over a guide roll down
the first arm of the ―V‖ and up the second. Steam is injected into the ―V‖ at the upper end of the
second arm so that the cloth is rapidly saturated with steam at this point. The J-box capacity is such
that cloth will remain hot for a sufficient time to complete the scouring action. It then passes a series
of washers with a squeeze roll in between. The cloth then passes through a second set of saturator, J-
box, and washer, where it is treated with the peroxide solution. By slight modification of the form of
the unit, the same process can be applied to open-width cloth.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 23 OF 83
Hemendra

(30) ―Mercerizing range‖ generally means a 3-bowl mangle, a tenter frame, and a number of boxes
for washing and scouring. The whole setup is in a straight line and all parts operate continuously. The
combination is used to saturate the cloth with sodium hydroxide, stretch it while saturated, and
washing out most of the caustic before releasing tension.
(31) ―Sanforizing machine‖ means a machine consisting of a large steam-heated cylinder, an
endless, thick, woolen felt blanket which is in close contact with the cylinder for most of its perimeter,
and an electrically heated shoe which presses the cloth against the blanket while the latter is in a
stretched condition as it curves around feed-in roll.
(32) ―Shearing machine‖ means a machine used in shearing cloth. Cutting action is provided by a
number of steel blades spirally mounted on a roller. The roller rotates in close contact with a fixed
ledger blade. There may be from one to six such rollers on a machine.
(33) ―Singeing machine‖ means a machine used particularly with cotton, comprised of a heated
roller, plate, or an open gas flame. The material is rapidly passed over the roller or the plate or
through the open gas flame to remove fuzz or hairiness on yarn or cloth by burning.
(34) ―Slasher‖ means a machine used for applying a size mixture to warp yarns. Essentially, it
consists of a stand for holding section beams, a size box, one or more cylindrical dryers or an enclosed
hot air dryer, and a beaming end for finding the yarn on the loom beams.
(35) ―Industrial organic solvent‖ means any organic volatile liquid or compound, or any
combination of these substances which are used to dissolve or suspend a nonvolatile or slightly volatile
substance for industrial utilization. It shall also apply to such substances when used as detergents or
cleansing agents. It shall not apply to petroleum products when such products are used as fuel.
(36) ―Tenter frame‖ means a machine for drying cloth under tension. It essentially consists of a pair
of endless traveling chains fitted with clips of fine pins and carried on tracks. The cloth is firmly held at
the selvages by the two chains which diverge as they move forward so that the cloth is brought to the
desired width.
(37) ―Warper‖ means any machine for preparing and arranging the yarns intended for the warp of a
fabric, specifically, a beam warper.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-015, filed 5/6/74.]

WAC 296-301-020 General safety requirements.

(1) Means of stopping machines. Every textile machine shall be provided with individual mechanical or
electrical means for stopping such machines. On machines driven by belts and shafting a locking-type
shifter or an equivalent positive device shall be used. On operations where injury to the operator might
result if motors were to restart after power failures, provision shall be made to prevent machines from
automatically restarting upon restoration of power.
(2) Handles. Stopping and starting handles shall be designed to the proper length to prevent the
worker's hand or fingers from striking against any revolving part, gear guard, or any other part of the
machine.
(3) Machine guarding. An employer must ensure that power transmission parts are guarded according
to the requirements of chapter 296-806 WAC, Machine safety.
(4) Housekeeping. Aisles and working spaces shall be kept in good order in accordance with
requirements of WAC 296-24-735 through 296-24-73505 and WAC 296-800-220.
(5) Inspection and maintenance. All guards and other safety devices, including starting and stopping
devices, shall be properly maintained.
(6) Lighting and illumination. Lighting and illumination shall conform to the safety and health core rule
book, WAC 296-800-210.
(7) Identification of piping systems. Identification of piping systems shall conform to American National
Standard A13.1-1956.
(8) Steam pipes. All pipes carrying steam or hot water for process or servicing machinery, when
exposed to contact and located within seven feet of the floor or working platform shall be covered with
a heat-insulating material, or guarded with equivalent protection.
WAC 296-301-025 Openers and pickers.
(1) Beater guards. When any opening or picker machinery is equipped with a beater, such beater shall
be provided with metal covers which will prevent contact with the beater. Such covers shall be
provided with an interlock which will prevent the cover from being raised while the machine is in
motion and prevent the operation of the machine while the cover is open.
(2) Cleanout holes. Cleanout holes within reaching distance of the fan or picker beater shall have their
covers securely fastened and they shall not be opened while the machine is in motion.
(3) Feed rolls. The feed rolls on all opening and picking machinery shall be covered with a guard
designed to prevent the operator from reaching the nip while the machinery is in operation.
(4) Removal of foreign ferrous material. All textile opener lines shall be equipped with magnetic
separators, tramp iron separators, or other means for the removal of foreign ferrous material.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 24 OF 83
Hemendra

[Order 74-19, § 296-301-025, filed 5/6/74.]

WAC 296-301-030 Cotton cards.
(1) Enclosures. Cylinder and lickerins shall be equipped with guards and the doffers should be
enclosed.
(2) Enclosure fastenings. The enclosures or covers shall be kept in place while the machine is in
operation, except when stripping or grinding.
(3) Stripping rolls. On operations calling for flat strippings which are allowed to fall on the doffer cover,
where such strippings are removed by hand, the doffer cover shall be kept closed and securely
fastened to prevent the opening of the cover while the machine is in operation. When it becomes
necessary to clean the cards while they are in motion, a long-handled brush or dust mop shall be used.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-030, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-035 Garnett machines.
(1) Lickerin. Garnett lickerins shall be enclosed.
(2) Fancy rolls. Garnett fancy rolls shall be enclosed by covers. These shall be installed in a way that
keeps worker rolls reasonably accessible for removal or adjustment.
(3) Underside of machine. The underside of the garnett shall be guarded by a screen mesh or other
form of enclosure to prevent access while machine is running.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-035, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-040 Spinning mules.
A substantial fender of metal or hardwood shall be installed in front of the carriage wheels, the fender
to extend to within one-fourth inch of the rail.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-040, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-045 Slashers-Scope and application.
All sections of this chapter which include WAC 296-301-045 in the section number apply to slashers.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-045, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-04501 Cylinder dryers.
(1) Reducing valves, safety valves, and pressure gages. Reducing valves, safety valves, and pressure
gages shall conform to the ASME Pressure Vessel Code, section VIII, Unfired Pressure Vessels, 1968.
(2) Vacuum relief valves. Vacuum relief valves shall conform to the ASME Code for Pressure Vessels,
section VIII, Unfired Pressure Vessels, 1968.
(3) Lever control. When slashers are operated by control levers, these levers shall be connected to a
horizontal bar or treadle located not more than 69 inches above the floor to control the operation from
any point.
(4) Pushbutton control. Slashers operated by pushbutton control shall have stop and start buttons
located at each end of the machine, and additional buttons located on both sides of the machine, at
the size box and the delivery end. If calender rolls are used, additional buttons shall be provided at
both sides of the machine at points near the nips, except when slashers are equipped with an enclosed
dryer.
(5) Nip guards. All nip guards shall comply with the requirements of WAC 296-301-04503(4).
(6) Cylinder enclosure. When enclosures or hoods are used over cylinder drying rolls, such enclosures
or hoods shall be provided with an exhaust system which will effectively prevent wet air and steam
from escaping into the workroom.
(7) Expansion chambers. Slasher kettles and cookers shall be provided with expansion chambers in the
covers, or drains, to prevent surging over. Steam-control valves shall be so located that they can be
operated without exposing the worker to moving parts, hot surfaces, or steam.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-04501, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-04503 Enclosed hot air dryers.
(1) Lever control. When slashers are operated by control levers, these levers shall be connected to a
horizontal bar or treadle located not more than 69 inches above the floor to control the operation from
any point.
(2) Push-button control. Slashers operated by push-button control shall have one start button at each
end of the machine and stop buttons shall be located on both sides of the machines at intervals spaced
not more than 6 feet on centers.
Note: Inching buttons should be installed.
(3) Dryer enclosure. The dryer enclosure shall be provided with an exhaust system which will
effectively prevent wet air and steam from escaping into the workroom.
(4) Nip guards. All nip guards shall comply with Table R-1.
TABLE R-1
GUARD OPENINGS
Openings in the guard or between the guard and working surface shall not be greater than the
following:
Distance of opening from nip point Maximum width of opening

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 25 OF 83
Hemendra

0 to 1 ½ 1/4
1 1/2 to 2 ½ 3/8
2 1/2 to 3 ½ 1/2
3 1/2 to 5 ½ 5/8
5 1/2 to0 6 ½ 3/4
6 1/2 to 7 ½ 7/8
7 1/2 to 8 ½ 1 1/4
The measurements in Table R-1 are all in inches.
(5) Expansion chambers. Slasher kettles and cookers shall be provided with expansion chambers in the
covers, or drains, to prevent surging over. Steam control valves shall be so located that they can be
operated without exposing the worker to moving parts, hot surfaces, or steam.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-04503, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-050 Warpers.
(1) Swiveled double-bar gates. Swiveled double-bar gates shall be installed on all warpers operating in
excess of 450 yards per minute. These gates shall be so interlocked that the machine cannot be
operated until the gate is in the ―closed position,‖ except for the purpose of inching or jogging.
(2) Closed position. ―Closed position‖ shall mean that the top bar of the gate shall be at least 42 inches
from the floor or working platform; and the lower bar shall be at least 21 inches from the floor or
working platform; and the gate shall be located 15 inches from the vertical tangent to the beam head.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-050, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-055 Drawing frames, slubbers, roving parts, cotton combers, ring spinning
frames, twisters.
Gear housing covers on all installations of drawing frames, slubbers, roving frames, cotton combers,
ring spinning frames, and twisters shall be equipped with interlocks.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-055, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-060 Gill boxes.
(1) Pin guard. A guard shall be placed ahead of the feed end and shall be so designed that it will
prevent the worker's fingers from being caught in the pins of the intersecting fallers.
(2) Nip guards. All nip guards shall comply with the requirements of WAC 296-301-04503(4).
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-060, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-065 Heavy draw boxes, finishers, and speeders used in worsted drawing.
(1) Band pulley covers. Covers for band pulleys shall be closed when the machine is in motion.
(2) Benches or working platforms. Benches or working platforms approximately 10 inches in height
and 8 inches in width should be installed along the entire running length of the machine for the worker
to stand on while creeling the machine. Such benches or platforms shall be covered with an abrasive
or nonslip material.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-065, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-070 Silver and ribbon lappers (cotton).
Cover guard. An interlocking cover guard shall be installed over the large calender drums and the lap
spool, designed to prevent the operator from coming in contact with the nip.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-070, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-075 Looms.
(1) Shuttle guard. Each loom shall be equipped with a guard designed to minimize the danger of the
shuttle flying out of the shed.
(2) Protection for loom fixer. Provisions shall be made so that every loom fixer can prevent the loom
from being started while he is at work on the loom. This may be accomplished by means of a lock, the
key to which is retained in the possession of the loom fixer, or by some other effective means to
prevent starting the loom.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-075, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-080 Shearing machines.
All revolving blades on shearing machines shall be guarded so that the opening between the cloth
surface and the bottom of the guard will not exceed three-eighths inch.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-080, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-085 Continuous bleach range (cotton and rayon).
(1) J-box protection. Each valve controlling the flow of steam, injurious gases, or liquids into a J-box
shall be equipped with a chain, lock, and key, so that any worker who enters the J-box can lock the
valve and retain the key in his possession. Any other method which will prevent steam, injurious
gases, or liquids from entering the J-box while the worker is in it will comply with this provision.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 26 OF 83
Hemendra

(2) Open-width bleaching. The nip of all in-running rolls on open-width bleaching machine rolls shall be
protected with a guard to prevent the worker from being caught at the nip. The guard shall extend
across the entire length of the nip.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-085, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-090 Kiers.
(1) Reducing valves, safety valves, and pressure gages. Reducing valves, safety valves, and pressure
gages shall conform to the ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels, section VIII, Unfired Pressure
Vessels, 1968.
(2) Kier valve protection. Each valve controlling the flow of steam, injurious gases, or liquids into a
kier shall be equipped with a chain, lock, and key, so that any worker who enters the kier can lock the
valve and retains the key. Any other method which will prevent steam, injurious gases, or liquids from
entering the kier while the worker is in it will be acceptable.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-090, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-095 Gray and white bins.
Guard rails conforming to WAC 296-24-750 through 296-24-75011, of the general safety and health
standards, shall be provided where workers are required to plait by hand from the top of the bin so as
to protect the worker from falling to a lower level.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-095, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-100 Mercerizing range (piece goods).
(1) Stopping devices. A stopping device shall be provided at each end of the machine.
(2) Frame ends. A guard shall be installed at each end of the frame between the in-running chain and
the clip opener, to prevent the worker's fingers from being caught.
(3) Mangle and washers. The nip at the in-running rolls shall conform to WAC 296-301-04503(4).
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-100, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-105 Tenter frames.
(1) Stopping devices. A stopping device shall be provided at each end of the machine.
(2) Frame ends. A guard shall be installed at each end of the frame at the in-running chain and clip
opener.
(3) Oil cups. Oil cups shall be located to permit safe and easy access. They shall be of the extension
type to permit oiling while machines are operating.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-105, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-110 Dyeing jigs.
(1) Stopping devices. Each dye jig shall be equipped with individual mechanical or electrical means for
stopping the machine.
(2) Roll arms. Roll arms on jigs shall be built to allow for extra large batches, and to prevent the
center bar from being forced off, causing the batch to fall.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-110, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-115 Padders-Nip guards.
All nip guards shall comply with the requirements of WAC 296-301-04503(4).
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-115, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-120 Drying cans.
(1) Pressure reducing valves and pressure gages. Pressure reducing valves and pressure gages shall
conform to the ASME Code for Pressure Vessels, section VIII, 1968, Unfired Pressure Vessels.
(2) Vacuum collapse. If cans are not designed to prevent vacuum collapse, each can shall be equipped
with one or more vacuum relief valves with openings of such a size as to prevent the collapse of the
can if vacuum occurs.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-120, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-125 Ironer.
(1) Each flat-work or collar ironer shall be equipped with a safety bar or other guard across the entire
front of the feed or first pressure rolls, so arranged that the striking of the bar or guard by the hand of
the operator or other person will stop the machine. The pressure rolls shall be covered or guarded so
that the operator or other person cannot reach into the rolls without removing the guard. This may be
either a vertical guard on all sides or a complete cover. If a vertical guard is used, the distance from
the floor or working platform to the top of guard shall be not less than 6 feet.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-125, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-130 Extractors.
(1) Centrifugal extractor.
(a) Cover. Each extractor shall be equipped with a metal cover.
(b) Interlocking device. Each extractor shall be equipped with an interlocking device that will prevent
the cover from being opened while the basket is in motion, and also prevent the power operation of
the basket while the cover is open.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 27 OF 83
Hemendra

(c) Brakes. Each extractor shall be equipped with a mechanically or electrically operated brake to
quickly stop the basket when the power driving the basket is shut off.
(d) Maximum allowable speed. Each centrifugal extractor shall be effectively secured in position on the
floor or foundation so as to eliminate unnecessary vibration, and shall not be operated at a speed
greater than the manufacturer's rating, which shall be stamped where easily visible in letters not less
than one-quarter inch in height. The maximum allowable speed shall be given in revolutions per
minute (rpm).
(2) Engine drum extractor-Over-speed governor. Each engine individually driving an extractor shall be
provided with an approved engine stop and a speed limit governor.
(3) Squeezer or wringer extractor--Nip guards. All nip guards shall comply with the requirements of
WAC 296-301-04503(4).
[Statutory Authority: RCW 49.17.010, .040, .050, and .060. 07-03-163 (Order 06-30), § 296-301-
130, filed 01/24/07, effective 04/01/07. Order 74-19, § 296-301-130, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-135 Nip guards.
All nip guards for water mangle, starch mangle, backwasher (worsted yarn) crabbing machines,
decating machines, shall comply with the requirements of WAC 296-301-04503(4).
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-135, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-140 Sanforizing and palmer machine.
A safety trip rod, cable, or wire center cord shall be provided across the front and back of all palmer
cylinders extending the length of the face of the cylinder. It shall operate readily whether pushed or
pulled. This safety trip shall be not more than 72 inches above the level on which the operator stands
and shall be readily accessible.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-140, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-145 Rope washers.
(1) Splash guard. Splash guards shall be installed on all rope washers unless the machine is so
designed as to prevent the water or liquid from splashing the operator, the floor, or working surface.
(2) Safety stop bar. A safety trip rod, cable or wire center cord shall be provided across the front and
back of all rope washers extending the length of the face of the washer. It shall operate readily
whether pushed or pulled. This safety trip shall be not more than 72 inches above the level on which
the operator stands and shall be readily accessible.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-145, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-150 Laundry washer tumbler or shaker.
(1) Interlocking device. Each drying tumbler, each double cylinder shaker or clothes tumbler, and each
washing machine shall be equipped with an interlock device which will prevent the power operation of
the inside cylinder when the outer door on the case or shell is open, and which will also prevent the
outer door on the case or shell from being opened without shutting off the power. This should not
prevent the movement of the inner cylinder by means of a hand operated mechanism or an ―inching
device.‖
(2) Means of holding covers or doors in open position. Each enclosed barrel shall also be equipped with
adequate means for holding open the doors or covers of the inner and outer cylinders or shells while it
is being loaded or unloaded.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-150, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-155 Printing machine (roller type).
(1) Nip guards. All nip guards shall comply with the requirements of WAC 296-301-04503(4).
(2) Crown wheel and roller gear nip protection. The engraved roller gears and the large crown wheel
shall be provided with a protective disc which will enclose the nips of the in-running gears. Individual
discs for each nip will be deemed to be in compliance with the provisions of WAC 296-301-04503(4).
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-155, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-160 Calenders.
The nip at the in-running side of the rolls shall be provided with a guard extending across the entire
length of the nip and arranged to prevent the fingers of the workers from being pulled in between the
rolls or between the guard and the rolls, and constructed so that the cloth can be fed into the rolls
safely.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-160, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-165 Rotary staple cutters.
A guard shall be installed completely enclosing the cutters to prevent the hands of the operator from
reaching the cutting zone.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-165, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-170 Clothing folding machine.
Cloth-folding machines shall meet the requirements of chapter 296-806 WAC, Machine safety.
[Statutory Authority: RCW 49.17.010, .040, .050, and .060. 04-14-028 (Order 01-12), § 296-301-
170, filed 06/29/04, effective 01/01/05. Statutory Authority: RCW 49.17.010, .040, .050. 99-17-094

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 28 OF 83
Hemendra

(Order 99-01), § 296-301-170, filed 08/17/99, effective 12/01/99. Statutory Authority: Order 74-19, §
296-301-170, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-175 Hand bailing machine.
An angle-iron-handle stop guard shall be installed at the right angle to the frame of the machine. The
stop guard shall be so designed and so located that it will prevent the handle from traveling beyond
the vertical position should the handle slip from the operator's hand when the pawl has been released
from the teeth of the takeup gear.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-175, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-180 Roll bench.
Cleats shall be installed on the ends of roll benches.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-180, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-185 Cuttle or swing folder (overhead type).
The bottom of the overhead folders shall be located not less than 7 feet from the floor or working
surface.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-185, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-190 Color-mixing room.
Floors in color-mixing rooms shall be constructed to drain easily.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-190, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-195 Open tanks and vats for mixing and storage of hot or corrosive liquids.
(1) Guardrails shall be provided for open tanks and vats which conform to the requirements of WAC
296-24-750 through 296-24-75011.
(2) Shutoff valves. Boiling tanks, caustic tanks, and hot liquid containers, so located that the operator
cannot see the contents from the floor or working area, shall have emergency shutoff valves controlled
from a point not subject to danger of splash. Valves shall conform to the ASME Pressure Vessel Code,
section VIII, Unfired Pressure Vessels, 1968.
[Statutory Authority: RCW 49.17.010, .040, .050. 99-17-094 (Order 99-01), § 296-301-195, filed
08/17/99, effective 12/01/99. Statutory Authority: Order 74-19, § 296-301-195, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-200 Dye kettles and vats.
Pipes or drains of sufficient capacity to carry the contents safely away from the working area shall be
installed where there are dye kettles and vats which may at any time contain hot or corrosive liquids.
These shall not empty directly onto the floor.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-200, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-205 Acid carboys.
Carboys shall be provided with inclinators, or the acid shall be withdrawn from the carboys by means
of pumping without pressure in the carboy, or by means of hand operated siphons.
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-205, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-210 Handling caustic soda and caustic potash.
Means shall be provided for handling and emptying caustic soda and caustic potash containers to
prevent workers from coming in contact with the caustic (see WAC 296-301-220).
[Order 74-19, § 296-301-210, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-215 First aid.
The first-aid provisions of the safety and health core rule book, WAC 296-800-150 apply within the
scope of chapter 296-301 WAC.
[Statutory Authority: RCW 49.17.010, .040, .050. 01-11-038 (Order 99-36), § 296-301-215, filed
05/09/01, effective 09/01/01 Statutory Authority: RCW 49.17.010, .040, .050. 00-01-038 (Order 99-
08), § 296-301-215, filed 12/07/99, effective 02/01/2000. [Order 74-19, § 296-301-215, filed
5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-220 Personal protective equipment.
(1) Personal protective equipment. Workers engaged in handling acids or caustics in bulk, repairing
pipe lines containing acids or caustics, etc., shall be provided with personal protective equipment to
conform to the requirements of WAC 296-800-160.
(2) Respiratory protection. Employers must provide respiratory protection as required in chapter 296-
842 WAC.
[Statutory Authority: RCW 49.17.010, .040, .050, and .060. 05-03-093 (Order 04-41), § 296-301-
220, filed 01/18/05, effective 03/01/05. Statutory Authority: RCW 49.17.010, .040, .050. 01-11-038
(Order 99-36), § 296-301-220, filed 05/09/01, effective 09/01/01 Statutory Authority: RCW
49.17.010, .040, .050. 99-17-094 (Order 99-01), § 296-301-220, filed 08/17/99, effective 12/01/99.
Statutory Authority: Order 74-19, § 296-301-220, filed 5/6/74.]
WAC 296-301-225 Workroom ventilation.
In all workrooms in which potentially toxic substances are used, the maximum allowable
concentrations listed in chapter 296-841, Airborne contaminants, shall be maintained. Open surface
tanks shall conform to the requirements of WAC 296-62-11021.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 29 OF 83
Hemendra

[Statutory Authority: RCW 49.17.010, .040, .050, and .060. 07-03-163 (Order 06-30), § 296-301-
225, filed 01/24/07, effective 04/01/07. Order 74-19, § 296-301-225, filed 5/6/74.]

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 30 OF 83
Hemendra

SAFETY IN PAPER INDUSTRY

PAPER :

Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon, drawing or for packaging. It is
produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or
grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets.

The word "paper" is etymologically derived from papyros, Ancient Greek for the Cyperus papyrus plant.
Papyrus is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant which was
used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures for writing before the introduction of paper
into the Middle East and Europe.[4] Although paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are
produced very differently and the development of modern paper is separate from the development of
papyrus. Papyrus is a "lamination of natural plants, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose
properties have been changed by maceration or disintegration.

Paper is a versatile material with many uses. Whilst the most common is for writing and printing upon,
it is also widely used as a packaging material, in many cleaning products, in a number of industrial and
construction processes, and even as a food ingredient – particularly in Asian cultures.

Paper is made from plant fibers called cellulose, which are found in wood. Cellulose must be converted
into pulp before being used to manufacture paper. Another potential source of cellulose is paper that
has been recovered for recycling.

THE PROCESS :

To begin the papermaking process, recovered fiber is shredded and mixed with water to make pulp.
The pulp is washed, refined and cleaned, then turned to slush in a beater. Color dyes, coatings and
other additives are mixed in, and the pulp slush is pumped onto a large moving screen. As the pulp
travels down the screen, water is drained away and recycled.

The resulting paper sheet, also known as ―web,‖ is pressed between massive rollers to extract most of
the remaining water and to ensure uniform smoothness and thickness. The semi-dry web is then run
through heated dryer rollers to remove any remaining water.

The finished paper is then wound into large rolls, which can be 30 feet wide and weigh close to 25
tons. A slitter cuts the paper into smaller, more manageable rolls, and the paper is ready for use in
your school, workplace and community. For more information on the paper making process,

Chemical pulping
Main articles: kraft process, sulfite process, and soda pulping

The purpose of a chemical pulping process is to break down the chemical structure of lignin and render
it soluble in the cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose fibers. Because lignin holds
the plant cells together, chemical pulping frees the fibres and makes pulp. The pulp can also be
bleached to produce white paper for printing, painting and writing. Chemical pulps tend to cost more
than mechanical pulps, largely due to the low yield, 40–50% of the original wood. Since the process
preserves fibre length, however, chemical pulps tend to make stronger paper. Another advantage of
chemical pulping is that the majority of the heat and electricity needed to run the process is produced
by burning the lignin removed during pulping.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 31 OF 83
Hemendra

The microscopic structure of paper: Micrograph of paper autofluorescing under ultraviolet illumination. The
individual fibres in this sample are around 10 µm in diameter.

Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers. Not to be confused with tree-free
paper.

The kraft process is the most commonly practiced strategy for pulp manufacturing and produces especially
strong, unbleached papers that can be used directly for bags and boxes but are often processed further, e.g.
to make corrugated cardboard.

Mechanical pulping

There are two major mechanical pulps, thermo mechanical pulp (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the
TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into large steam-heated refiners where the chips are squeezed
and made into fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into
grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones and made into fibres. Mechanical pulping does not
remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >95%, but also causes paper made from this pulp to yellow and
become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibre lengths and produce weak paper.
Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than
chemical pulp.

Deinked pulp
Main article: deinking

Paper recycling processes can use either chemical or mechanical pulp. By mixing with water and applying
mechanical action the hydrogen bonds in the paper can be broken and fibres separated again. Most recycled
paper contains a proportion of virgin fibre in the interests of quality. Generally deinked pulp is of the same
quality or lower than the collected paper it was made from.

There are three main classifications of recycled fibre:.

 Mill broke or internal mill waste – this incorporates any substandard or grade-change paper made
within the paper mill which then goes back into the manufacturing system to be re-pulped back into
paper. Such out-of-specification paper is not sold and is therefore often not classified as genuine
reclaimed recycled fibre. However, most paper mills have been recycling their own waste fibre for many
years, long before recycling become popular.
 Preconsumer waste – this is offcuts and processing waste, such as guillotine trims and envelope
blank waste. This waste is generated outside the paper mill and could potentially go to landfill, and is a
genuine recycled fibre source. Also includes de-inked preconsumer (recycled material that has been
printed but did not reach its intended end use, such as waste from printers and unsold publications).
 Postconsumer waste – this is fibre from paper which has been used for its intended end use and
would include office waste, magazine papers and newsprint. As the vast majority of this paper has been
printed (either digitally or by more conventional means such as lithography or rotogravure), it will either
be recycled as printed paper or go through a deinking process first.

Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp. They are
(generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from virgin pulp.

Additives

Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay, which improve the characteristics of
the paper for printing or writing. Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed into the pulp and/or applied to
the paper web later in the manufacturing process. The purpose of sizing is to establish the correct level of
surface absorbency to suit the ink or paint.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 32 OF 83
Hemendra

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF A PAPER FACTORY :

HCl, H2O2 STEAM, H2O2 /ClO2 SURFACTANT

WATER /ClO2 BACTERIA

FARMING
BALE &
BALE PULPING INK DIGESTING BLEACHING DRYING SURFACT FOLDING
WASTE OPENING REMOVAL & ANT
PAPER BLEACHING SPRAY
BALE
OPENING
SHREADING

EFFLUENT
QC &
INSPECTION
& PACKING

PAPER
REJECT
RECYCLING DISPATCH
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
PRODUCT PAPER

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 33 OF 83
Hemendra

Area / Activity Machine / Input Output Hazards Safety Features

Department Device
Farming Farming Farm Machinery Seeds Grass - Snake/insect biting - Automation
Bamboo - Pesticides poisoning - Mask
- Ergonomic issues in seeding - Gumboots
and cutting - Antidotes for pesticides poisoning
- Pneomoconiosis - Fire protection – hydrant & extinguisher
- Fire - Insurance
Bale Bale preparation Power press Grass, Bale - Body trap - Photoelectric guard / distance guard /
Waste - Ergonomic issues two hand control
paper, - Fire - Mechanical handling and transportation
Bagass - Fire protection & insurance
Bale Opening Bale opening Opener crow bar, Bale Loose paper, - Poor housekeeping - On-the-job housekeeping
Bale breaker Loose grass, - Fire - Wetting
Bagass - Byssinosis - Fire protection & insurance
Pulping Pulping Pulper Grass, Pulp - Spillage - On-the-job housekeeping
Bamboo - Slips
Waste
Paper
Water
Ink Removal Corrosion and HCl Pulp Bleached and clean - Corrosion - Mask and hand gloves
& Bleaching bleaching H2O2 / ClO2 pulp - Fire & Explosion - Personal hygiene
- Exposure - Mechanical handling
- Dermatitis - Safety valve, rupture disc
-
Digesting Digesting Digester Cleaned Homogeneous slurry - Steam burning - Pre-employment, periodical and post
pulp - Fire & Explosion medical examinations
- Dermatitis - Acid Mask
- Barrier cream
- Safety valve, rupture disc
- Fire protection & insurance
Bleaching Bleaching Bleaching Slurry Cleared slurry - Corrosion - Pre-employment, periodical and post
- Fire & Explosion medical examinations
- Exposure - Acid Mask
- Barrier cream
- Safety shower, rupture disc
- Safety valve
- Fire protection & insurance
Drying Drying Drum Dryer Hot slurry Green paper - Burns - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Conveyor - Fire medical examinations
- Trap in conveyor - Distance guard
- Fire protection & insurance
- Safety shower
Surfactant Spray Sprayer Green Surface finished - Fire - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Application paper paper - Exposure to spray medical examinations
- Dermatitis - Gas/mist Mask

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 34 OF 83
Hemendra

- Trap in conveyor - LEV

- Cuts by paper - Fire protection & insurance
- Distance guard, Nip guard
- Anti cut gloves
Folding Folding Folder Paper Folded paper - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Roller Rolled paper - Pneumoconiosis medical examinations
- Folder striking - Dust Mask
- Ergonomic issue of roller / - Distance guard
bundle handling - Mechanical handling of bale / roll /
- Fire bundle
- Cuts by paper - Fire protection & insurance
- Anti cut Gloves
Shreading Cutting Press Folded Sized paper - Pre-employment, periodical and post
paper - Fire medical examinations
- Trap and cut in press - Dust Mask
- Distance guard, photo electric guard,
two hand control
- Fire protection & insurance
QC, Inspection Inspection Finished Approved Paper - Fire - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Inspection, Paper - Ergonomic issue of handling medical examinations
dispatch - Dust Mask
- Mechanized handling
- Fire protection & insurance

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 35 OF 83
Hemendra

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 36 OF 83
Hemendra

Papermachine and handmade paper

Air-laid paper

The pulp is feed to a paper machine where it is formed as a paper web and the water is removed from it by
pressing and drying.

Pressing the sheet removes the water by force. Once the water is forced from the sheet, felt (not to be
confused with the traditional felt) is used to collect the water. When making paper by hand, a blotter sheet
is used.

Drying involves using air and or heat to remove water from the paper sheet. In the earliest days of
papermaking this was done by hanging the paper sheets like laundry. In more modern times, various forms
of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine, the most common is the steam-heated can
dryer. These dryers can heat to temperatures above 200 °F (93 °C) and are used in long sequences of more
than 40 cans. The heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than 6% moisture.

Finishing

The paper may then undergo sizing to alter its physical properties for use in various applications.

Paper at this point is uncoated. Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as calcium carbonate or china
clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution halftone
screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may
have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and
gloss. Gloss papers give the highest optical density in the printed image.

The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other
printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets
are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet.

All paper produced by paper machines as the Fourdrinier Machine are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that
transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain.
Textured finishes, watermarks and wire patterns imitating hand-made laid paper can be created by the use
of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine.

Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was
handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run
perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges",
or rough and feathery borders.[6]

Applications

Paper can be produced with a wide variety of properties, depending on its intended use.[7]

 For representing value: paper money, bank note, cheque, security (see security paper), voucher
and ticket
 For storing information: book, notebook, magazine, newspaper, art, zine, letter
 For personal use: diary, note to remind oneself, etc.; for temporary personal use: scratch paper
 For communication: between individuals and/or groups of people.
 For packaging: corrugated box, paper bag, envelope, wrapping tissue, Charta emporetica and
wallpaper
 For cleaning: toilet paper, handkerchiefs, paper towels, facial tissue and cat litter
 For construction: papier-mâché, origami, paper planes, quilling, paper honeycomb, used as a core
material in composite materials, paper engineering, construction paper and paper clothing
 For other uses: emery paper, sandpaper, blotting paper, litmus paper, universal indicator paper,
paper chromatography, electrical insulation paper and filter paper

Types, thickness and weight

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 37 OF 83
Hemendra

Card and paper stock for craft use comes in a wide variety of textures and colors.
Main articles: Paper size and Paper density

The thickness of paper is often measured by caliper, which is typically given in thousandths of an inch.[8]
Paper may be between 0.07 millimetres (0.0028 in) and 0.18 millimetres (0.0071 in) thick.[9]

Paper is often characterized by weight. In the United States, the weight assigned to a paper is the weight of
a ream, 500 sheets, of varying "basic sizes", before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end customers.
For example, a ream of 20 lb, 8.5 × 11 in (216 × 279 mm) paper weighs 5 pounds, because it has been cut
from a larger sheet into four pieces.[10] In the United States, printing paper is generally 20 lb, 24 lb, or 32 lb
at most. Cover stock is generally 68 lb, and 110 lb or more is considered card stock.

In Europe, and other regions using the ISO 216 paper sizing system, the weight is expressed in grammes
per square metre (g/m2 or usually just g) of the paper. Printing paper is generally between 60 g and 120 g.
Anything heavier than 160 g is considered card. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions
of the paper and its thickness.

Most commercial paper sold in North America is cut to standard paper sizes based on customary units and is
defined by the length and width of a sheet of paper.

The ISO 216 system used in most other countries is based on the surface area of a sheet of paper, not on a
sheet's width and length. It was first adopted in Germany in 1922 and generally spread as nations adopted
the metric system. The largest standard size paper is A0 (A zero), measuring one square meter (approx.
1189x841 mm). Two sheets of A1, placed upright side by side fit exactly into one sheet of A0 laid on its
side. Similarly, two sheets of A2 fit into one sheet of A1 and so forth. Common sizes used in the office and
the home are A4 and A3 (A3 is the size of two A4 sheets).

The density of paper ranges from 250 kg/m3 (16 lb/cu ft) for tissue paper to 1,500 kg/m3 (94 lb/cu ft) for
some speciality paper. Printing paper is about 800 kg/m3 (50 lb/cu ft).

Paper may be classified into seven categories.

 Printing papers of wide variety.

 Wrapping papers for the protection of goods and merchandise. This includes wax and kraft papers.
 Writing paper suitable for stationary requirements. This includes ledger, bank, and bond paper.
 Blotting papers containing little or no size.
 Drawing papers usually with rough surfaces used by artists and designers, including cartridge paper.
 Handmade papers including most decorative papers, Ingres papers, Japanese paper and tissues, all
characterized by lack of grain direction.
 Specialty papers including cigarette paper, toilet tissue, and other industrial papers.

Some paper types include:

 Bank paper  Fish paper (vulcanized fibres for  Tyvek paper

 Banana paper electrical insulation)  Wallpaper
 Bond paper  Inkjet paper  Washi
 Book paper  Kraft paper  Waterproof
 Coated paper: glossy and  Laid paper paper
matte surface  Leather paper  Wax paper
 Construction paper/sugar  Mummy paper  Wove paper
paper

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 38 OF 83
Hemendra

 Cotton paper  Sandpaper  Xuan paper

 Electronic paper

Paper stability

Much of the early paper made from wood pulp contained significant amounts of alum, a variety of aluminium
sulfate salts that are significantly acidic. Alum was added to paper to assist in sizing the paper, making it
somewhat water resistant so that inks did not "run" or spread uncontrollably. The early papermakers did not
realize that the alum they added liberally to cure almost every problem encountered in making their product
would eventually be detrimental.[14] The cellulose fibres which make up paper are hydrolyzed by acid, and
the presence of alum would eventually degrade the fibres until the paper disintegrated in a process which
has come to be known as "slow fire". Documents written on rag paper were significantly more stable. The
use of non-acidic additives to make paper is becoming more prevalent and the stability of these papers is
less of an issue.

Paper made from mechanical pulp contains significant amounts of lignin, a major component in wood. In the
presence of light and oxygen lignin reacts to give yellow materials, which is why newsprint and other
mechanical paper yellows with age. Paper made from bleached kraft or sulfite pulps does not contain
significant amounts of lignin and is therefore better suited for books, documents and other applications
where whiteness of the paper is essential.

It is important to note that just because a paper is made of wood pulp, does not necessarily mean it is any
less durable than a rag paper. The factor that determines the ageing behavior of a paper is how it was
manufactured, not the original source of the fibres Furthermore, tests sponsored by the Library of Congress
prove that all paper is at risk of acid decay, because cellulose itself produces formic, acetic, lactic and oxalic
acids.[16]

Mechanical pulping yields almost a tonne of pulp per tonne of dry wood used (which is why mechanical pulps
are sometimes referred to as "high yield" pulps), which is about twice as much as chemical pulping.
Consequently, paper made with mechanical pulps is often cheaper than that made with bleached chemical
pulps. Mass-market paperback books and newspapers use these mechanical papers. Book publishers tend to
use acid-free paper, made from fully bleached chemical pulps for hardback and trade paperback books.

PULPER DIGESTER

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 39 OF 83
Hemendra

SAFETY IN SUGAR INDUSTRY

Sugar is a term for a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose,
characterized by a sweet flavor. In food, sugars refer to all monosaccharides and disaccharides present in
food, but excludes polyols,[2] while in its singular form, sugar normally refers to sucrose, which in its fully
refined (or free sugar) form primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet, though is present in natural
form in many carbohydrates. Other free sugars are used in industrial food preparation, but are usually
known by more specific names—glucose, fructose or fruit sugar, high fructose corn syrup, etc.

Sugar cane plantation

Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times. It was not plentiful or cheap in
early times—honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world.

Different kinds of Sugar

sugarcane juice
granulated crystals
sugar beat
corn syrup
sucrose

Human health effects

Some studies involving the health impact of sugars are effectively inconclusive. The WHO and FAO meta
studies have shown directly contrasting impacts of sugar in refined and unrefined forms and since most
studies do not use a population who are not consuming any "free sugars" at all, the baseline is effectively
flawed (or as the report puts it, the studies are "limited"). Hence there are articles such as Consumer
Reports on Health that said in 2008, "Some of the supposed dietary dangers of sugar have been overblown.
Many studies have debunked the idea that it causes hyperactivity, for example." though the article does
continue to discuss other health impacts of sugar. Other articles and studies refer to the increasing evidence
supporting the links to hyperactivity.[19] The WHO FAO meta-study suggests that such results are expected
when some studies do not effectively segregating or controlling for free sugars as opposed to sugars still in
their natural form (entirely unrefined) while others do.

Blood glucose levels

Sugar, because of its simpler chemical structure, may raise blood glucose levels more quickly than starch,
but results from more than twenty studies demonstrate that sugar and starch cause blood glucose to rise at
similar rates. This finding suggests that this basic differentiation between starch and sugar is insufficient
reason to segregate these two substances for controlling blood glucose levels in diabetics, the idea behind
carbohydrate counting. A more effective distinction could use that suggested by multiple meta-studies
between free sugars and naturally-occurring sugars which do suggest different impacts on health.

Obesity and diabetes

Studies appear to conflict with some suggesting eating excessive amounts of sugar does not increase the
risk of diabetes, although the extra calories from consuming large amounts of sugar can lead to obesity,
which may increase the risk of diabetes,[22][23][23][24][25][26][26][27] while others show links between refined
sugar (free sugar) consumption and the onset of diabetes, and negative correlation with the consumption of
fiber including a 2010 meta-analysis of eleven studies involving 310,819 participants and 15,043 cases of
type 2 diabetes that found that "SSBs [sugar-sweetened beverages] may increase the risk of [metabolic
syndrome] and type 2 diabetes not only through obesity but also by increasing dietary glycemic load,

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 40 OF 83
Hemendra

leading to insulin resistance, β-cell dysfunction, and inflammation.". As an overview to consumption related
to chronic disease and obesity, the World Health Organization's independent meta-studies specifically
distinguish free sugars ("all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by the manufacturer, cook or
consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit juices") from sugars naturally present in
food. The reports prior to 2000 set the limits for free sugars at a maximum of 10% of carbohydrate intake,
measured by energy, rather than mass, and since 2002 have aimed for a level across the entire population
at less than 10%. The consultation committee recognised that this goal is "controversial. However, the
Consultation considered that the studies showing no effect of free sugars on excess weight have limitations."

Cardiovascular Disease

A number of studies in animals have suggested that chronic consumption of refined sugars can contribute to
metabolic and cardiovascular dysregulation. Some experts have suggested that refined fructose is more
damaging than refined glucose is more damaging in terms of cardiovascular risk Cardiac performance has
been shown to be impaired by switching from a carbohydrate diet including fibre to a high-carbohydrate
diet.

Switching saturated fatty acids for carbohydrates with high glycaemic index values shows a statistically
significant positive association with the risk of myocardial infarction.

Other studies have found links between high fat and high glycaemic index carbohydrates accelerates the
development of cardiac pathology and pump dysfunction in hypertension despite no signs of diabetes and
only a modest level of obesity, suggesting that the link between obesity and coronary heart disease should
be shifted towards macronutrients and the the high glycaemic load typical of the "junk-food" diet.

The consumption of added sugars has been positively associated with multiple measures known to increase
cardiovascular disease risk amongst adolescents as well as adult.

Studies are suggesting the impact of refined carbohydrates or high glycaemic load carbohydrates are more
significant that the impact of saturated fatty acids on cardiovascular disease

Macular Degeneration

There are links between free sugar consumption and macular degeneration in older age .

Tooth decay

In regard to contributions to tooth decay, the role of free sugars is also recommended to be below an
absolute maximum of 10% of energy intake, with a minimum of zero. There is "convincing evidence from
human intervention studies, epidemiological studies, animal studies and experimental studies, for an
association between the amount and frequency of free sugars intake and dental caries" while other sugars
(complex carbohydrate) consumption is normally associated with a lower rate of dental [Link] rates of
tooth decay have been seen in individuals with hereditary fructose intolerance.

Terminology

Popular

The term sugar usually refers to sucrose, which is also called "table sugar" or "saccharose." Sucrose is a
white crystalline disaccharide. It is often obtained from sugar cane or sugar beet. Sucrose is the most
popular of the various sugars for flavoring, as well as properties (such as mouthfeel, preservation, and
texture) of beverages and food.

Chemical

"Sugar" can also be used to refer to water-soluble crystalline carbohydrates with varying sweetness. Sugars
include monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose), disaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose, maltose),
trisaccharides, and oligosaccharides,[43] in contrast to complex carbohydrates such as polysaccharides. Corn
syrup, dextrose, crystalline fructose, and maltose, for example, are used in manufacturing and preparing
food.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 41 OF 83
Hemendra

Baking weight/mass volume relationship

Grainier, raw sugar.

Different culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture.

The Domino Sugar Company has established the following volume to weight conversions:

 Brown sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 195 g = 6.88 oz

 Granular sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 200 g = 7.06 oz
 Powdered sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 120 g = 4.23 oz

Bulk density[44]

 Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL

 Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL
 Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL
 Beet sugar 0.80 g/mL

Purity standards

The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis sets standards for the measurement of
the purity of refined sugar, known as ICUMSA numbers; lower numbers indicate a higher level of purity in
the refined sugar.[45]

Chemistry

Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose (right), important molecules in the body.
Main article: Carbohydrate

Scientifically, sugar loosely refers to a number of carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or

oligosaccharides. Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars," the most important being glucose. Almost
all sugars have the formula CnH2nOn (n is between 3 and 7). Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6. The
names of typical sugars end with "-ose," as in "glucose", "dextrose", and "fructose". Sometimes such words
may also refer to any types of carbohydrates soluble in water. The acyclic mono- and disaccharides contain
either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These carbon-oxygen double bonds (C=O) are the reactive
centers. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides
joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of water (H2O) per bond.

Monosaccharides in a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides, creating
disaccharides (such as sucrose) and polysaccharides (such as starch). Enzymes must hydrolyse or otherwise
break these glycosidic bonds before such compounds become metabolised. After digestion and absorption.
the principal monosaccharides present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and
galactose. Many pentoses and hexoses can form ring structures. In these closed-chain forms, the aldehyde
or ketone group remains unfree, so many of the reactions typical of these groups cannot occur. Glucose in
solution exists mostly in the ring form at equilibrium, with less than 0.1% of the molecules in the open-chain
form.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 42 OF 83
Hemendra

Natural polymers of sugars

Biopolymers of sugars are common in nature. Through photosynthesis plants produce glucose, which has the
formula C6H12O6, and convert it for storage as an energy reserve in the form of other carbohydrates such as
starch, or (as in cane and beet) as sucrose (table sugar). Sucrose has the chemical formula C12H22O11.
Starch, consisting of two different polymers of glucose, is a readily degradable chemical energy stored by
cells, convertible to other types of energy.

Cellulose is a polymer of glucose used by plants as structural component.

DNA and RNA are built up of the sugars ribose and deoxyribose. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, and has
the formula C5H10O4.

 Barley sugar
 Biobutanol
 Brown sugar
 Caramel
 Glycomics
 Holing cane
 List of unrefined sweeteners
 Saccharophilic pathogen
 Sugar alcohol
 Sugarloaf
 Sugar plantations in the Caribbean
 Sugar substitute

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 43 OF 83
Hemendra

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF A SUGAR FACTORY :

STEAM, H2S2O7 H2S2O7

BACTERIA

FARMI
TRANSPORT
SORTING & JUICING BOILING BLEACHING JAGGERY BLEACHING
CUTTING

CRYSTALLIZATION

WASTE & EFFLUENT, MOLASSES SIZING &

SORTING

QC &
INSPECTION,
PACKING

SUGAR
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
DISPATCH

PRODUCT SUGAR

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 44 OF 83
Hemendra

Area / Activity Machine / Input Output Hazards Safety Features

Department Device
Farming Farming Farm Machinery Seeds Sugarcane - Snake/insect biting - Automation
- Pesticides poisoning - Mask
- Ergonomic issues in seeding - Gumboots
and cutting - Antidotes for pesticides poisoning
- Pneomoconiosis - Fire protection – hydrant & extinguisher
- Fire - Insurance
Transportation transport Vehicle Sugarcane Sugarcane - Body trap - Photoelectric guard / distance guard /
- Ergonomic issues two hand control
- Vehicular traffic issue - Mechanical handling and transportation
- Fire protection & insurance
- Road safety
Sorting & Cutting Press Sugarcane Sugarcane pieces - Poor housekeeping - On-the-job housekeeping
Cutting - Fire - Fire protection & insurance
- Body trap - Distance guard
Juicing Juicing Crusher Sugarcane Juice - Spillage - On-the-job housekeeping
pieces - Slips - Nip guard
- Nip - Mist mask
- Bacteria
- Biological hazards
- Epidemy
Boiling & Boiling Boiler Juice Syrup - Mask and hand gloves
Fermentation Fermentor - Fire & Explosion - Personal hygiene
- Exposure - Safety valve
- Epidemy - On-the-job housekeeping
Bleaching Bleaching Bleaching Syrup Cleared syrup - Exposure - Pre-employment, periodical and post
- Corrosion medical examinations
- Toxic releases - Mist/Gas mask
- Fire * Explosion - Fire protection
- Safety valve
-
Crystallization Evaporation and Crystallizer Cleared Jaggery - Burns - Pre-employment, periodical and post
drying syrup - Exposure medical examinations
- Safety shower
Jaggery Sugar crystals - Safety valve
Sorting & Sizing Sieves Sugar Sized sugar - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Sizing crystals Exposure medical examinations
- Dust Mask

QC, QC -- Sugar Approved product - Pre-employment, periodical and post

Inspection, Exposure medical examinations
Packing & - Dust Mask
Disptach - Fire protection & insurance
- Anti cut Gloves

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 45 OF 83
Hemendra

SAFETY IN GLASS INDUSTRY

Glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid material. Glasses are typically brittle and optically transparent.

The most familiar type of glass, used for centuries in windows and drinking vessels, is soda-lime glass, made of about 75% silica (SiO2) plus Na2O, CaO, and several minor
additives. Often, the term glass is used in a restricted sense to refer to this specific use.

In science, however, the term glass is usually defined in a much wider sense, including every solid that possesses a non-crystalline (i.e., amorphous) structure
and that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. In this wider sense, glasses can be made of quite different classes of materials: metallic
alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications (bottles, eyewear) polymer glasses (acrylic glass, polycarbonate,
polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter alternative to traditional silica glasses.

Glass, as a substance, plays an essential role in science and industry. Its chemical, physical, and in particular optical properties make it suitable
for applications such as flat glass, container glass, optics and optoelectronics material, laboratory equipment, thermal insulator (glass wool),
reinforcement materials (glass-reinforced plastic, glass fiber reinforced concrete), and glass art (art glass, studio glass). Silicate glass

Glass is a hard material normally fragile and transparent common in our daily life. It is composed mainly of sand (silicates, SiO2) and an alkali.

These materials at high temperature (i.e. molten viscous state) fuse together; then they are cooled rapidly forming a rigid structure, however not having enough time to
form a crystalline regular structure.

Depending on the final use and application the composition of the glass and cooling rate will vary to achieve the adequate properties for the specific application. These are
the common ingredients to obtain glass:

1. Sand (SiO2 silica)

In its pure form it exists as a polymer, (SiO2)n.

2. Soda ash (sodium carbonate Na2CO3)

Normally SiO2 softens up to 2000°C, where it starts to degrade (at 1713°C most of the molecules can already move freely). Adding soda will lower the melting point to
1000°C making it more manageable.

3. Limestone (calcium carbonate or CaCo3) or dolomite (MgCO3)

Also known as lime, calcium carbonate is found naturally as limestone, marble, or chalk.
The soda makes the glass water-soluble, soft and not very durable. Therefore lime is added increasing the hardness and chemical durability and providing insolubility of the
materials.

Other materials and oxides can be added to increase properties (tinting, durability, etc.), produce different effects, colors, etc.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 46 OF 83
Hemendra

Silica
(the chemical compound SiO2) is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming
hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurite.

Glass ingredients

Quartz sand (silica) is the main raw material in commercial glass production

While fused quartz (primarily composed of SiO2) is used for some special applications, it is not very common due to its high glass transition temperature of over 1200 °C
(2192 °F). Normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), which lowers the glass transition temperature. However, the
soda makes the glass water soluble, which is usually undesirable, so lime (calcium oxide (CaO), generally obtained from limestone), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and
aluminium oxide (Al2O3) are added to provide for a better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass
Soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.

Most common glass has other ingredients added to change its properties. Lead glass or flint glass is more 'brilliant' because the increased refractive index causes noticeably
more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low
dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eye glasses. Iron can be
incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV
wavelengths.

Borosilicate glasses (e.g. Pyrex) have as main constituents silica and boron oxide. They have very low coefficients of thermal expansion (7740 Pyrex COE is 32.5×10–7/°C
as compared to 8.36×10−5/°C for one type of soda-lime glass),[6] making them more dimensionally stable. The lower COE also makes them less subject to stress caused by
thermal expansion, thus less vulnerable to cracking from thermal shock. They are commonly used for reagent bottles, optical components and household cookware.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 47 OF 83
Hemendra

Another common glass ingredient is "cullet" (recycled glass). The recycled glass saves on raw materials and energy; however, impurities in the cullet can lead to product
and equipment failure.

Fining agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony oxide may be added to reduce the number of air bubbles in the glass mixture.[4] Glass batch calculation
is the method by which the correct raw material mixture is determined to achieve the desired glass composition.

Contemporary glass production

Main articles: Glass production, Float glass, and Glazier

Following the glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda-lime glass for mass production is melted in gas fired units.
Smaller scale furnaces for specialty glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks

After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process,
developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a
molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a
polished finish.[7] Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. Further glass forming techniques are summarized in the table
Glass forming techniques.

Once the desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses. Surface treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical
durability (glass container coatings, glass container internal treatment), strength (toughened glass, bulletproof glass, windshields), or optical properties (insulated glazing,
anti-reflective coating).

New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale
glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. Care must
be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali oxides and hydroxides, alkaline earth oxides and
hydroxides, or boron oxide), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition).[8] Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the selection of
the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating SeO2. Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert
ones, such as Al(OH)3 over Al2O3. Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity is achieved
by homogenizing the raw materials mixture (glass batch), by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to
prevent breakage during processing.[8][9]

In order to make glass from materials with poor glass forming tendencies, novel techniques are used to increase cooling rate, or reduce crystal nucleation triggers.
Examples of these techniques include aerodynamic levitation (cooling the melt whilst it floats on a gas stream), splat quenching (pressing the melt between two metal
anvils) and roller quenching (pouring the melt through rollers).

Optical lens design, Fabrication and testing of optical components

Other glasses

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 48 OF 83
Hemendra

Network glasses
A CD-RW (CD). Chalcogenide glasses form the basis of re-writable CD and DVD solid-state memory technology.[10]

Some glasses that do not include silica as a major constituent may have physico-chemical properties useful for their application in fibre optics and other specialized
technical applications. These include fluoride glasses, aluminosilicates, phosphate glasses, borate glasses, and chalcogenide glasses.

There are three classes of components for oxide glasses: network formers, intermediates, and modifiers. The network formers (silicon, boron, germanium) form a highly
cross-linked network of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc) can act as both network formers and modifiers,
according to the glass composition. The modifiers (calcium, lead, lithium, sodium, potassium) alter the network structure; they are usually present as ions, compensated by
nearby non-bridging oxygen atoms, bound by one covalent bond to the glass network and holding one negative charge to compensate for the positive ion nearby. Some
elements can play multiple roles; e.g. lead can act both as a network former (Pb 4+ replacing Si4+), or as a modifier.

The presence of non-bridging oxygens lowers the relative number of strong bonds in the material and disrupts the network, decreasing the viscosity of the melt and
lowering the melting temperature.

The alkaline metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their
mobility however decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions, with their two positive charges
and requirement for two non-bridging oxygen ions to compensate for their charge, are much less mobile themselves and also hinder diffusion of other ions, especially the
alkalis. The most common commercial glasses contain both alkali and alkaline earth ions (usually sodium and calcium), for easier processing and satisfying corrosion
resistance.[11] Corrosion resistance of glass can be achieved by dealkalization, removal of the alkali ions from the glass surface by reaction with e.g. sulfur or fluorine
compounds. Presence of alkaline metal ions has also detrimental effect to the loss tangent of the glass, and to its electrical resistance; glasses for electronics (sealing,
vacuum tubes, lamps...) have to take this in account.

Addition of lead(II) oxide lowers melting point, lowers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive index. Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and
therefore is used in colored glasses. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glasses); this allows easier
removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders. The high ionic radius of the Pb2+ ion
renders it highly immobile in the matrix and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude
higher than soda-lime glass (108.5 vs 106.5 Ohm·cm, DC at 250 °C). For more details, see lead glass.[12]

Addition of fluorine lowers the dielectric constant of glass. Fluorine is highly electronegative and attracts the electrons in the lattice, lowering the polarizability of the
material. Such silicon dioxide-fluoride is used in manufacture of integrated circuits as an insulator. High levels of fluorine doping lead to formation of volatile SiF2O and such
glass is then thermally unstable. Stable layers were achieved with dielectric constant down to about 3.5–3.7.[13]

Amorphous metals

Samples of amorphous metal, with millimeter scale

Electrolytes
Aqueous solutions
Molecular liquids

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 49 OF 83
Hemendra

sugar glass.
Polymers
Colloidal glasses

Glass-ceramicsStructure of liquids and glasses

The amorphous structure of glassy Silica (SiO2) in two dimensions. No long range order is present, however there is local ordering with respect to the tetrahedral
arrangement of Oxygen (O) atoms around the Silicon (Si) atoms.

As in other amorphous solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks any long range translational periodicity. However, due to chemical bonding characteristics glasses do
possess a high degree of short-range order with respect to local atomic polyhedra.

In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching. [25][26][27][28][29] However, the term glass is often used to describe
any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition temperature Tg. If the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crystallization
is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at Tg. Generally, the structure of a glass exists in a
metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous
phase.

Glass is an amorphous solid. It exhibits an atomic structure close to that observed in the supercooled liquid phase but displays all the mechanical properties of a solid.[31][32]
The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (see viscosity of amorphous
materials).

Some people consider glass to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition[31][33] where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and
enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range. However, the glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 50 OF 83
Hemendra

intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous Despite this, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does
not entirely hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids

Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition
temperature.[35] A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost instantly if a crystal is
added as a core. The change in heat capacity at a glass transition and a melting transition of comparable materials are typically of the same order of magnitude, indicating
that the change in active degrees of freedom is comparable as well. Both in a glass and in a crystal it is mostly only the vibrational degrees of freedom that remain active,
whereas rotational and translational motion is arrested. This helps to explain why both crystalline and non-crystalline solids exhibit rigidity on most experimental time
scales.

Behavior of antique glass

The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over
a timescale of centuries. The assumption being that the glass was once uniform, but has flowed to its new shape, which is a property of liquid However, this assumption is
incorrect; once solidified, glass does not flow anymore. The reason for the observation is that in the past, when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the
technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a
window. The pieces were not, however, absolutely flat; the edges of the disk became thicker as the glass spun. When installed in a window frame, the glass would be
placed thicker side down both for the sake of stability and to prevent water accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the window. Occasionally such glass has been
found thinner side down or thicker on either side of the window's edge, the result of carelessness during installation

Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and
allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into smaller window panes with
nonuniform thickness, typically with the location of the pour centred in one of the panes (known as "bull's-eyes") for decorative effect. Modern glass intended for windows is
produced as float glass and is very uniform in thickness.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 51 OF 83
Hemendra

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF A GLASS FACTORY :

SAND
ADDITIVES GLASS ARTICLE STREAM
CULLET

WASHING
PAKCING
MELTING MOULDING & ANNEALING INSPECTION
BLOWING
METAL
REMOVAL
DISPATCH
CRUSHING
ROLLING &
PRESSING

FLOAT GLASS STREAM

GLASS
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 52 OF 83
Hemendra

Area / Activity Machine / Input Output Hazards Safety Features

Department Device
Cullet Storage Chain conveyor Cullet Washed cullet - Cuts - Automation
Washing - Reflection and refrection - Mask
- infection - Gumboots with steel sole
- Trap - Leather hand gloves and apron with wire
inserts of anticut resin lined
- Magnet for metal lifting
- Distance guard
Crusher Breaking glass Crusher Cullet Crushed glass - Noise - Enclosure
- Trap - Distance and nip guards
Sand Sand preparation Sieve Sand Sand - Silicosis - Mask and hand gloves
Dust collector Additives - Pneomoconiosis - Personal hygiene
- Poor housekeeping - Closed circuit
- Slips - Wetting
- Manual handling - Mechanized handling
- Dermatitis - Fire protection
- Fire & explosion with additives
Furnace Melting Furnace Glass Molten glass - Radiation - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Sand - Heat stress medical examinations
- Ventilation issues - Glass shed 16
- Burns - Pyrometer for temp range
- Ejection of glass log - Safety shower
- Occupational catract - Suit
Moulding & shaping Individual section Molten Moulded and blown - Noise - deafness - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Blowing machine glass log green glass article - Heat stress medical examinations
- Burns - GasMask
- Ventilation issues - suit
- Ejection of glass log - Glass shed 16
- Fumes of coolant - Safety shower
- Cuts - LEV
- Fire - Noise protector
- Enclosure
- Steel sole shoes
- Wire insert leather gloves & apron
- Fire protection
Rolling & shaping Roll press Molten Float glass - Noise - Pre-employment, periodical and post
pressing glass log - Heat stress medical examinations
- Burns - GasMask
- Ventilation issues - suit
- Ejection of glass log - Glass shed 16
- Fumes of coolant - Safety shower
- Cuts - LEV
- Fire - Noise protector

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 53 OF 83
Hemendra

- Trap in roll press - Nip guard

- Distance guard, photo electric
guard, two hand control
- Enclosure
- Safety shower
- Steel sole shoes
- Wire insert leather gloves & apron
- Fire protection
- Pull cord
Annealing Stress removal Hearth furnace Green glass Annealed glass - Fire - Pre-employment, periodical and post
(LPG - Burns medical examinations
(butane)/CNG - Cuts due to broken glass - Fire protection
flame and air) - Body trap in conveyor - Nip guard and distance guard
- Pull cord
Inspection inspection Inspection bench Glass Approved product - Illumination, occupational - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Packing catract medical examinations
Dispatch Reject recycling - Cuts - Goggles
- Reflection and refraction - Wire insert hand gloves and apron
- Steel sole boots

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 54 OF 83
Hemendra

SAFETY IN CERAMIC INDUSTRY

A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling. Ceramic
materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous (e.g., a glass).
Because most common ceramics are crystalline, the definition of ceramic is often restricted to inorganic
crystalline materials, as opposed to the noncrystalline glasses.

The earliest ceramics were pottery objects made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other materials,
hardened in fire. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create a colored, smooth surface. Ceramics now
include domestic, industrial and building products and art objects. In the 20th century, new ceramic
materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering; for example, in semiconductors.

The word "ceramic" comes from the Greek word κεραμικός (keramikos), "of pottery" or "for pottery", from
κέραμος (keramos), "potter's clay, tile, pottery". The earliest mention on the root "ceram-" is the Mycenaean
Greek ke-ra-me-we, "workers of ceramics", written in Linear b syllabic script "Ceramic" may be used as an
adjective describing a material, product or process; or as a singular noun, or, more commonly, as a plural
noun, "ceramics".Types of ceramic products

For convenience, ceramic products are usually divided into four sectors; these are shown below with some
examples:

 Structural, including bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles

 Refractories, such as kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and glass making crucibles
 Whitewares, including tableware, cookware, wall tiles, pottery products and sanitary ware
 Technical, is also known as engineering, advanced, special, and in Japan, fine ceramics. Such items
include tiles used in the Space Shuttle program, gas burner nozzles, ballistic protection, nuclear fuel
uranium oxide pellets, biomedical implants, coatings of jet engine turbine blades, missile nose cones,
bearing (mechanical). Frequently, the raw materials do not include clays.[6]

Examples of whiteware ceramics

 Earthenware, which is often made from clay, quartz and feldspar.

 Stoneware
 Porcelain, which is often made from kaolin
 Bone china

Classification of technical ceramics

Technical ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories:

 Oxides: alumina, beryllia, ceria, zirconia

 Nonoxides: carbide, boride, nitride, silicide
 Composite materials: particulate reinforced, fiber reinforced, combinations of oxides and nonoxides.

Each one of these classes can develop unique material properties because ceramics tend to be crystalline.

Other applications of ceramics

 Knife blades: the blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than that of a steel knife,
although it is more brittle and can be snapped by dropping it on a hard surface.

 Vehicle ceramic brake discs are resistant to abrasion at high temperatures.

 Advanced composite ceramic and metal matrices have been designed for most modern armoured
fighting vehicles because they offer superior penetrating resistance against shaped charges such as high
explosive antitank (HEAT) rounds and kinetic energy penetrators.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 55 OF 83
Hemendra

 Ceramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used in ballistic armored vests to repel
large-calibre rifle fire. Such plates are known commonly as small arms protective inserts (SAPIs).
Similar material is used to protect cockpits of some military airplanes, because of the low weight of the
material.

 Ceramic balls can be used to replace steel in ball bearings. Their higher hardness means they are
much less susceptible to wear and can offer more than triple lifetimes. They also deform less under
load, meaning they have less contact with the bearing retainer walls and can roll faster. In very high
speed applications, heat from friction during rolling can cause problems for metal bearings, which are
reduced by the use of ceramics. Ceramics are also more chemically resistant and can be used in wet
environments where steel bearings would rust. In some cases, their electricity-insulating properties may
also be valuable in bearings. The two major drawbacks to using ceramics are a significantly higher cost
and susceptibility to damage under shock loads.

 In the early 1980s, Toyota researched production of an adiabatic engine using ceramic components
in the hot gas area. The ceramics would have allowed temperatures of over 3000°F (1650°C). The
expected advantages would have lighter materials, no or reduced cooling system, and hence a major
weight reduction. The expected increase of fuel efficiency of the engine (caused by the higher
temperature, as shown by Carnot's theorem) could not be verified experimentally; it was found that the
heat transfer on the hot ceramic cylinder walls is higher than the transfer to a cooler metal wall.
Obviously the cooler gas film on the metal surface works as a thermal insulator. Thus, despite all of
these desirable properties, such engines have not succeeded in production because of costs for the
ceramic components and the limited advantages. (Small imperfections in the ceramic material with its
low fracture toughness lead to cracks, which can lead to potentially dangerous equipment failure.) Such
engines are possible in laboratory settings, but mass production is not feasible with current technology.

 Work is being done in developing ceramic parts for gas turbine engines. Currently, even blades
made of advanced metal alloys used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful limiting of
operating temperatures. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, giving
aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of fuel.

 Recent advances have been made in ceramics which include bioceramics, such as dental implants
and synthetic bones. Hydroxyapatite, the natural mineral component of bone, has been made
synthetically from a number of biological and chemical sources and can be formed into ceramic
materials. Orthopedic implants coated with these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues in the
body without rejection or inflammatory reactions so are of great interest for gene delivery and tissue
engineering scaffolds. Most hydroxyapatite ceramics are very porous and lack mechanical strength, and
are used to coat metal orthopedic devices to aid in forming a bond to bone or as bone fillers. They are
also used as fillers for orthopedic plastic screws to aid in reducing the inflammation and increase
absorption of these plastic materials. Work is being done to make strong, fully dense nano crystalline
hydroxyapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and
plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic, but naturally occurring, bone mineral. Ultimately, these
ceramic materials may be used as bone replacements or with the incorporation of protein collagens,
synthetic bones.

 High-tech ceramic is used in watchmaking for producing watch cases. The material is valued by
watchmakers for its light weight, scratch resistance, durability and smooth touch. IWC is one of the
brands that initiated the use of ceramic in watchmaking. The case of the IWC 2007 Top Gun edition of
the Pilot's Watch double chronograph is crafted in black ceramic.

Types of ceramic materials

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 56 OF 83
Hemendra

A low magnification SEM micrograph of an advanced ceramic material, the properties of ceramics make
fracturing an important inspection method.

A ceramic material is often understood as restricted to inorganic "crystalline" oxide material. It is solid and
inert. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and tension. They
withstand chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments.
Ceramics generally can withstand very high temperatures, such as temperatures that range from 1,000 °C
to 1,600 °C (1,800 °F to 3,000 °F). Exceptions include inorganic materials that do not include oxygen, such
as silicon carbide or silicon nitride. A glass is often not understood as a ceramic because of its amorphous
(noncrystalline) character. However, glass making involves several steps of the ceramic process and its
mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials.

Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials
include aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina. The modern ceramic materials, which are
classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide. Both are valued for their
abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in
mining operations. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medicine, electrical and electronics industries.

Crystalline ceramics

Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for dealing with
them tend to fall into one of two categories – either make the ceramic in the desired shape, by reaction in
situ, or by "forming" powders into the desired shape, and then sintering to form a solid body. Ceramic
forming techniques include shaping by hand (sometimes including a rotation process called "throwing"), slip
casting, tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors, e.g.), injection molding, dry pressing,
and other variations. Details of these processes are described in the two books listed below. A few methods
use a hybrid between the two approaches.

Noncrystalline ceramics

Noncrystalline ceramics, being glasses, tend to be formed from melts. The glass is shaped when either fully
molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like viscosity, by methods such as blowing to a mold. If later
heat treatments cause this glass to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is known as a glass-
ceramic, widely used as cooktop.

Ceramics are classified as inorganic and nonmetallic materials that are essential to our daily lifestyle.
Ceramic and materials engineers are the people who design the processes in which these products can be
made, create new types of ceramic products, and find different uses for ceramic products in everyday life.

Ceramics are all around us. This category of materials includes things like tile, bricks, plates, glass, and
toilets. Ceramics can be found in products like watches (quartz tuning forks-the time keeping devices in
watches), snow skies (piezoelectric-ceramics that stress when a voltage is applied to them), automobiles
(sparkplugs and ceramic engine parts found in racecars), and phone lines. They can also be found on space
shuttles, appliances (enamel coatings), and airplanes (nose cones). Depending on their method of
formation, ceramics can be dense or lightweight. Typically, they will demonstrate excellent strength and
hardness properties; however, they are often brittle in nature. Ceramics can also be formed to serve as
electrically conductive materials, objects allowing electricity to pass through their mass, or insulators,
materials preventing the flow of electricity. Some ceramics, like superconductors, also display magnetic
properties.

Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of clay, earthen elements, powders, and water and
shaping them into desired forms. Once the ceramic has been shaped, it is fired in a high temperature oven
known as a kiln. Often, ceramics are covered in decorative, waterproof, paint-like substances known as
glazes.

Ceramics are familiar to us as materials that can be formed into objects that have a range of useful
properties: not conducting electricity, resisting corrosion, and being hard, durable, and waterproof.
Traditional ceramics, such as brick, tile, porcelain, and china, are indispensable for commonplace activities,
and newer varieties of ceramics have enabled dramatic improvements in communications and computer
technologies.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 57 OF 83
Hemendra

Ceramics are one of the most ancient of man-made materials; "keramikos" is the Greek word for "burnt
stuff," and ceramics are made by reacting a mixture of inorganic elements and compounds at temperatures
as high as 2000°F. Most ceramics consist of one or more varieties of a metal oxide. A metal oxide is a
compound of a metal and oxygen—when the metal is bonded to the oxygen its properties can change
dramatically. For instance, when it is bonded with oxygen, the metal aluminum, which is valued for its
flexibility and capacity to conduct electricity and heat, becomes a hard, brittle, electrically and thermally
insulating ceramic known as alumina.

In a ceramic, the atoms of metal and oxygen usually form a crystal, where the positions of the atoms are
very regular, producing edges and facets. Small, variously-sized metal oxide crystals containing alumina and
silica (the oxide of silicon) exist in clays, which are the primary raw ingredients of traditional ceramics. The
temperature process of "firing" a ceramic made from clay is needed to remove the water and to join
together the small crystals, producing a kind of three-dimensional jigsaw puzzle. When the conditions of
composition, heat, and pressure are just right, the crystals can become quite large—sapphire is a naturally
occurring crystal containing aluminum, oxygen, and trace metals that can now be made industrially.

Some compositions of metal oxides form a liquid when heated to high temperature—cooling that liquid does
not always produce crystals, but instead freezes the atoms into positions that are random, like in the liquid,
and a glass is formed. Most glasses (including those used in windows) contain silica, which makes up much
of the sand across the globe and most of the earth's crust and the molten magma below. Remarkably silica
is also at the heart of two technologies that now influence our lives perhaps even more than the windows
that let the light in and keep the rain out: phone calls and cable television travel over optical fibers made
from pure silica glass and we process data in computers that use thin layers of insulating silica to control the
electrical currents in silicon chips. Ceramics are made of very common stuff, but that stuff can be made to
do very unusual things!

What are pottery and ceramics? Is there a difference? Is everything that is made out of clay pottery? Are all
ceramics made out of clay?

Pottery and ceramics have been an important part of human culture for thousands of years. From prehistoric
storage jars to tiles on the space shuttles, pottery and ceramics have played a key role in innumerable
human endeavors. But how do we define them?

Technically, ceramics are those things made from materials which are permanently changed when heated.
For example, clay has chemically-bonded water in it which will cause it to slake down (disintegrate) when a
dried clay object is put in water. Once heated (fired) to between 660⁰ and 1470⁰F (350⁰ and 800⁰C), the
clay is converted to ceramic and will never dissolve again.

All clay is a ceramic material, but there are other ceramic materials, as well. Glazes are also ceramic
materials, because they permanently change during firing. Industrial ceramics include a range of materials
such as silica carbide and zirconium oxide.

What Is Pottery?

Pottery is generally considered to be containers made from clay. "Pot" is a term used for any number of
container forms. Both words derive from the Old English potian, "to push". When we consider how the potter
pushes as they throw the clay on the wheel, it is easy to see how the process got its name. The term
"pottery" may also be used as an adjective with some objects, such as small figurines.

In industrialized countries, modern pottery can be classified two ways. There is commercial pottery or
ceramics which are produced in factories, and there is studio pottery which is produced by individual
craftsmen. You may also hear of "art pottery," which may be either produced commercially or by an
individual craftsman.

Studio Pottery
Studio pottery (studio ceramics) can be quite diverse. Production potters are most active in making large
quantities of ceramic wares such as plates, platters, dishes, bowls, and so on. Production potters can sit
down with a hundred pounds of clay and throw the same form all day. The technique of throwing off the
mound is often employed by production potters because it reduces time spent centering the clay and moving
bats on and off the wheel head.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 58 OF 83
Hemendra

Other studio potters are more concerned with creating forms for their uniqueness and beauty. These "art"
pieces might still retain full functionality, or they may move toward being more sculptural. Many of these are
"one-off" pieces, meaning they are one-of-a-kind.

Clay as a Sculpting Medium

Image Courtesy of Ilhuicamina / Thomas Aleto
From prehistoric times to the present, clay has not only been used to create utilitarian items like bowls and
storage jars, but also rich works of three-dimensional art. Clay artists such as Peter Holland may work as
designers for commercial potteries, they may do sculptural work as part of their studio pottery, or they may
work exclusively as sculptors in clay.

Potter, Ceramic Artist, or What?

There is not a singular term for those who work with clay. Rather the opposite is true. Some of the most
common terms are

 potter: a general term for an individual craftsman working in clay

 production potter: these folk make large numbers of functional pots as their main employment
 studio potters: often those who create one-off pieces but may also do production pottery
 ceramic artists: those who create clay artwork
 clay artist: same as a ceramic artist, but may not fire their pieces (i.e. they are working as a
designer for a commercial pottery)
 ceramist: anyone who works with ceramic materials either industrially or as an individual, and
 ceramic engineer: those who work (often in industry) with the chemistry and physics of ceramic
materials

Beginning Hand Building Projects

 Make a Basic Pinch Pot

 Make a Basic Coil Pot
 Make a Basic Slab Pot

Beginning Throwing Projects

 Throw a Basic Cylindrical Pot

 Throw a Simple Vase
 Throw a Flat-Sided Bowl

Tools and Equipment

 How to Buy a Potter's Wheel

 How to Buy a Kiln
 Tools for Potters

Health care is growing increasingly complex, and most clinical research focuses on new approaches to
diagnosis and treatment. In contrast, relatively little effort has been targeted at the perfection of operational
systems, which are partly responsible for the well-documented problems with medical safety.1 If medicine is
to achieve major gains in quality, it must be transformed, and information technology will play a key part,2
especially with respect to safety.

In other industries, information technology has made possible what has been called ―mass customization‖ —
the efficient and reliable production of goods and services according to the highly personalized needs of
individual customers.2 Computer retailers, for example, now use their Web sites to allow people to purchase
computers built to their exact specifications, which can be shipped within two days. Medical care is, of
course, orders of magnitude more complex than selling personal computers, and clinicians have always

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 59 OF 83
Hemendra

strived to provide carefully individualized care. However, safe care now requires a degree of individualization
that is becoming unimaginable without computerized decision support. For example, computer systems can
instantaneously identify interactions among a patient's medications. Even today, more than 600 drugs
require adjustment of doses for multiple levels of renal dysfunction, a task that is poorly performed by
human prescribers without assistance but can be done accurately by computers.3 Multiple studies now
demonstrate that computer-based decision support can improve physicians' performance and, in some
instances, patient outcomes.3-6

In the past decade, the risk of harm caused by medical care has received increasing scrutiny.1 The growing
sophistication of computers and software should allow information technology to play a vital part in reducing
that risk — by streamlining care, catching and correcting errors, assisting with decisions, and providing
feedback on performance. Given the large potential risks and benefits as well as the costs involved, in this
article we analyze what is known about the role and effect of information technology with respect to safety
and consider the implications for medical care, research, and policy.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 60 OF 83
Hemendra

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 61 OF 83
Hemendra

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF A CERAMIC FACTORY :

SAND

ADDITIVES
ANNEALING GLAZING PRINTING PAKCING
INSPECTION

WARMING
SAND
DISPATCH
MOULD
PRESSING

CERAMICS
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 62 OF 83
Hemendra

Area / Activity Machine / Input Output Hazards Safety Features

Department Device
Sand Sand preparation Sieve Sand Sand - Silicosis - Mask and hand gloves
Dust collector Additives - Pneomoconiosis - Personal hygiene
- Poor housekeeping - Closed circuit
- Slips - Wetting
- Manual handling - Mechanized handling
- Dermatitis - Fire protection
- Fire & explosion with additives
Furnace Warming sand Furnace Sand Warm sand - Radiation - Pre-employment, periodical and post
- Heat stress medical examinations
- Ventilation issues - Glass shed 16
- Burns - Safety shower
- Occupational catract
Mould shaping Mould press Warm sand Green article - Noise - intermittanat - Pre-employment, periodical and post
pressing - Heat stress medical examinations
- Burns - GasMask
- Ventilation issues - Safety shower
- Ejection of articles - LEV
- Fumes of coolant - Noise protector, canal cap
- Cuts - Enclosure
- Steel sole shoes
- Wire insert leather gloves & apron
Annealing Baking & Stress Hearth furnace Green Baked article - Fire - Pre-employment, periodical and post
removal (LPG article - Burns medical examinations
(propane)/CNG - Cuts due to broken articles - Fire protection
flame and air for - Body trap in conveyor - Nip guard and distance guard
much hours) - Pull cord
Glaze Preparation and -- Glaze Glaze - Dermatitis - Barrier cream
application constituents Glazed article
Printing printing Print screen Ink Printed article - Fire & explosion - Fire protection
Sprayer - Dermatitis - LEV, paint booth, robot
- Exposure
Inspection inspection Inspection bench Glass Approved product - Illumination - Pre-employment, periodical and post
Packing - Cuts medical examinations
Dispatch Reject recycling - Reflection and refraction - Goggles
- Wire insert hand gloves and apron
- Steel sole boots

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 63 OF 83
Hemendra

SAFETY IN PESTICIDE INDUSTRY

What Is A Pesticide?

A pesticide is a chemical used to prevent, destroy, or repel pests. Pests can be insects, mice and other
animals, weeds, fungi, or microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. Some examples of pests are
termites causing damage to our homes, dandelions in the lawn, and fleas on our dogs and cats. Pesticides
also are used to kill organisms that can cause diseases.

Pesticides are substances or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or
mitigating any pest.[1] A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or
bacterium), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest. Pests include insects, plant
pathogens, weeds, molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms), and microbes that destroy
property, spread disease or are a vector for disease or cause a nuisance. Although there are benefits to the
use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other animals.
According to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 9 of the 12 most dangerous and
persistent organic chemicals are pesticides

'Pesticide' is a broad term, covering a range of products that are used to control pests. The slug pellets, ant
powder, weed killers, and rat and mouse baits that you may use in your everyday life are all pesticides.
Other pesticides you may have heard of include:

 insect killers (insecticides)

 mould and fungi killers (fungicides)
 weedkillers (herbicides)
 slug pellets (molluscicides)
 plant growth regulators
 bird and animal repellents, and
 rat and mouse killers (rodenticides)

Often people only think of pesticides as chemicals, but they include a very large range of different types of
products. Some are natural (eg, pyrethrums, obtained from chrysanthemums), while many are altered
versions of natural chemicals.

Most pesticides contain chemicals that can be harmful to people, animals, or the environment. For this
reason the Office of Pesticide Programs of the Environmental Protection Agency regulates pesticides in the
United States to protect public health and the environment.

Here are some examples of pesticide products we use in our homes:

 Cockroach sprays and baits

 Mosquito sprays
 Rat poisons
 Flea and tick sprays, powders, and pet collars.

Did you know that these common products are considered pesticides?

 Cleaners used to disinfect the kitchen floor.

 Cleaning products used to remove the mildew on bathroom tiles.
 Household plant sprays.
 Lawn and garden products to kill insects and weeds.
 Some swimming pool chemicals.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 64 OF 83
Hemendra

These are some common types of pesticides, and their purposes, used in our homes:

Algicides Control algae in swimming pools and water tanks.

Antimicrobials Kill microorganisms (such as bacteria and viruses).

Attractants Attractants are traps containing a pesticide and food to lure insects or rodents inside.
However, food is not a pesticide even though it certainly attracts pests...like ants at a
picnic.

Disinfectants and Kill disease-producing microorganisms in the kitchen and bathroom.

sanitizers

Fumigants Produce gas or vapor intended to destroy pests in the house or in the ground.

Fungicides Kill fungi (including blights, mildews, molds, and rusts).

Herbicides Kill weeds.

Insecticides Kill insects and other arthropods.

Miticides Kill mites that feed on plants and animals.

Microbial Microorganisms that kill or inhibit pests, including insects or other microorganisms.
pesticides Sometimes microorganisms get rid of pests simply by growing larger in numbers, using
up the pests' food supply, and invading the pests' environment.

Molluscicides Kill snails and slugs.

Nematicides Kill nematodes (microscopic, worm-like organisms that feed on plant roots).

Pheromones Biochemicals used to disrupt the mating behavior of insects.

Repellents Repel pests, including insects (such as mosquitoes) and birds.

Rodenticides Control mice and other rodents.

Why do we need Pesticides?

Today's modern agriculture produces plentiful food, at a reasonable price, all year round. Most of us take it
for granted that we can buy whatever food we want, whenever we want. We rightly expect our food to be
safe and nutritious and we have also become used to food, particularly fruit and vegetables, not having any
blemishes or other marks. We don’t tend to think about how farmers produce food or how it gets from the
farm to the shops in "perfect" condition.

Over the last 60 years farmers and growers have changed the way they produce food in order to meet the
expectations of consumers, supermarkets and Governments. In doing so they have made many changes to
the way they farm. This often includes the use of pesticides.

Farmers use pesticides to:

 protect crops from insect pests, weeds and fungal diseases while they are growing
 prevent rats, mice, flies and other insects from contaminating foods whilst they are being stored
 safeguard human health, by stopping food crops being contaminated by fungi

However, as pesticides are used to kill unwanted pests, weeds and moulds, they can also harm people,
wildlife and the environment. This is why there are strict controls in place over their sale and use. It is up to
everyone who is involved with pesticides, whether they are farmers, professional growers or gardeners, to
ensure that they are used safely and effectively.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 65 OF 83
Hemendra

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has defined the term of pesticide as:

any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying or controlling any pest,
including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals causing harm
during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport or marketing of
food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs, or substances which
may be administered to animals for the control of insects, arachnids or other pests in or on their
bodies. The term includes substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant,
desiccant or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit. Also used as substances
applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during
storage and transport.[4]
Type of Pesticide Target Pest Group
Algicides or Algaecides Algae
Avicides Birds
Bactericides Bacteria
Fungicides Fungi and Oomycetes
Insecticides Insects
Miticides or Acaricides Mites
Molluscicides Snails
Nematicides Nematodes
Rodenticides Rodents
Virucides Viruses

Subclasses of pesticides include: herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides, pediculicides, and

biocides.[3][5]

Pesticides can be classified by target organism, chemical structure, and physical state.[6] Pesticides can
also be classed as inorganic, synthetic, or biologicals (biopesticides),[6] although the distinction can
sometimes blur. Biopesticides include microbial pesticides and biochemical pesticides.[7] Plant-derived
pesticides, or "botanicals", have been developing quickly. These include the pyrethroids, rotenoids,
nicotinoids, and a fourth group that includes strychnine and scilliroside.[8]:15

Many pesticides can be grouped into chemical families. Prominent insecticide families include
organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates. Organochlorine hydrocarbons (e.g. DDT) could be
separated into dichlorodiphenylethanes, cyclodiene compounds, and other related compounds. They
operate by disrupting the sodium/potassium balance of the nerve fiber, forcing the nerve to transmit
continuously. Their toxicities vary greatly, but they have been phased out because of their persistence
and potential to bioaccumulate.[8]:239-240 Organophosphate and carbamates largely replaced
organochlorines. Both operate through inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, allowing acetylcholine
to transfer nerve impulses indefinitely and causing a variety of symptoms such as weakness or
paralysis. Organophosphates are quite toxic to vertebrates, and have in some cases been replaced by
less toxic carbamates.[8]:136-137 Thiocarbamate and dithiocarbamates are subclasses of carbamates.
Prominent families of herbicides include pheoxy and benzoic acid herbicides (e.g. 2,4-D), triazines (e.g.
atrazine), ureas (e.g. diuron), and Chloroacetanilides (e.g. alachlor). Phenoxy compounds tend to
selectively kill broadleaved weeds rather than grasses. The phenoxy and benzoic acid herbicides function
similar to plant growth hormones, and grow cells without normal cell division, crushing the plants
nutrient transport system.[8]:300 Triazines interfere with photsynthesis.[8]:335 Many commonly used
pesticides are not included in these families, including glyphosate.

Pesticides can be classified based upon their biological mechanism function or application method. Most
pesticides work by poisoning pests.[9] A systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following absorption by
the plant. With insecticides and most fungicides, this movement is usually upward (through the xylem)
and outward. Increased efficiency may be a result. Systemic insecticides, which poison pollen and nectar
in the flowers, may kill bees and other needed pollinators.

In 2009, the development of a new class of fungicides called paldoxins was announced. These work by
taking advantage of natural defense chemicals released by plants called phytoalexins, which fungi then
detoxify using enzymes. The paldoxins inhibit the fungi's detoxification enzymes. They are believed to
be safer and greener.[10]

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 66 OF 83
Hemendra

Uses

Pesticides are used to control organisms considered harmful.[11] For example, they are used to kill
mosquitoes that can transmit potentially deadly diseases like west nile virus, yellow fever, and malaria.
They can also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions. Insecticides can protect animals
from illnesses that can be caused by parasites such as fleas.[11] Pesticides can prevent sickness in
humans that could be caused by moldy food or diseased produce. Herbicides can be used to clear
roadside weeds, trees and brush. They can also kill invasive weeds that may cause environmental
damage. Herbicides are commonly applied in ponds and lakes to control algae and plants such as water
grasses that can interfere with activities like swimming and fishing and cause the water to look or smell
unpleasant.[12] Uncontrolled pests such as termites and mould can damage structures such as
houses.[11] Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and
insects that infest food such as grain. Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk. Proper
pesticide use decreases these associated risks to a level deemed acceptable by pesticide regulatory
agencies such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Pest Management
Regulatory Agency (PMRA) of Canada.

Pesticides can save farmers' money by preventing crop losses to insects and other pests; in the U.S.,
farmers get an estimated fourfold return on money they spend on pesticides.[13] One study found that
not using pesticides reduced crop yields by about 10%.[14] Another study, conducted in 1999, found that
a ban on pesticides in the United States may result in a rise of food prices, loss of jobs, and an increase
in world hunger.[15]

DDT, sprayed on the walls of houses, is an organochloride that has been used to fight malaria since the
1950s. Recent policy statements by the World Health Organization have given stronger support to this
approach.[16] Dr. Arata Kochi, WHO's malaria chief, said, "One of the best tools we have against malaria
is indoor residual house spraying. Of the dozen insecticides WHO has approved as safe for house
spraying, the most effective is DDT."[16] However, since then, an October 2007 study has linked breast
cancer from exposure to DDT prior to puberty.[17] Poisoning may also occur due to use of DDT and other
chlorinated hydrocarbons by entering the human food chain when animal tissues are affected.
Symptoms include nervous excitement, tremors, convulsions or death. Scientists estimate that DDT and
other chemicals in the organophosphate class of pesticides have saved 7 million human lives since 1945
by preventing the transmission of diseases such as malaria, bubonic plague, sleeping sickness, and
typhus.[18] However, DDT use is not always effective, as resistance to DDT was identified in Africa as
early as 1955, and by 1972 nineteen species of mosquito worldwide were resistant to DDT. [19] A study
for the World Health Organization in 2000 from Vietnam established that non-DDT malaria controls were
significantly more effective than DDT use.[20] The ecological effect of DDT on organisms is an example of
bioaccumulation.

Pesticides may cause acute and delayed health effects in those who are exposed . Pesticide exposure can
cause a variety of adverse health effects. These effects can range from simple irritation of the skin and
eyes to more severe effects such as affecting the nervous system, mimicking hormones causing
reproductive problems, and also causing cancer A 2007 systematic review found that "most studies on
non-Hodgkin lymphoma and leukemia showed positive associations with pesticide exposure" and thus
concluded that cosmetic use of pesticides should be decreased. [26] Strong evidence also exists for other
negative outcomes from pesticide exposure including neurological, birth defects, fetal death and
neurodevelopmental disorder.

The American Medical Association recommends limiting exposure to pesticides and using safer
alternatives:[6] "Particular uncertainty exists regarding the long-term effects of low-dose pesticide
exposures. Current surveillance systems are inadequate to characterize potential exposure problems
related either to pesticide usage or pesticide-related illnesses…Considering these data gaps, it is
prudent…to limit pesticide exposures…and to use the least toxic chemical pesticide or non-chemical
alternative."

The World Health Organization and the UN Environment Programme estimate that each year, 3 million
workers in agriculture in the developing world experience severe poisoning from pesticides, about
18,000 of whom die According to one study, as many as 25 million workers in developing countries may
suffer mild pesticide poisoning yearly.

One study found pesticide self-poisoning the method of choice in one third of suicides worldwide, and
recommended, among other things, more restrictions on the types of pesticides that are most harmful
to humans.[30]

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 67 OF 83
Hemendra

Environmental effect
Main article: Environmental effects of pesticides

Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of
herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including non-target species, air, water
and soil.[18] Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to
other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the causes of water pollution, and
some pesticides are persistent organic pollutants and contribute to soil contamination.

In addition, pesticide use reduces biodiversity, reduces nitrogen fixation,[31] contributes to pollinator
decline,[32][33][34][35] destroys habitat (especially for birds),[36] and threatens endangered species.[18]
Pests can develop a resistance to the pesticide (pesticide resistance), necessitating a new pesticide.
Alternatively a greater dose of the pesticide can be used to counteract the resistance, although this will
cause a worsening of the ambient pollution problem.

Benefits

There are two levels of benefits for pesticide use, primary and secondary. Primary benefits are direct
gains from the use of pesticides and secondary benefits are effects that are more long-term.[38]

Primary benefits

1. Controlling pests and plant disease vectors

 Improved crop/livestock yields

 Improved crop/livestock quality
 Invasive species controlled

2. Controlling human/livestock disease vectors and nuisance organisms

 Human lives saved and suffering reduced

 Animal lives saved and suffering reduced
 Diseases contained geographically

3. Prevent of control organisms that harm other human activities and structures

 Drivers view unobstructed

 Tree/brush/leaf hazards prevented
 Wooden structures protected [38]

Secondary benefits

1. Community benefits

 Farm and agribusiness revenues

 Nutrition and health improved
 Food safety and security

2. National benefits

 Workforce productivity increased

 Increased export revenues
 National agriculture economy

3. Global benefits

 Assured safe and diverse food supply

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 68 OF 83
Hemendra

 Less greenhouse gas

 Reduced civil unrest [38]

Alternatives

Alternatives to pesticides are available and include methods of cultivation, use of biological pest controls
(such as pheromones and microbial pesticides), genetic engineering, and methods of interfering with
insect breeding.[18] Application of composted yard waste has also been used as a way of controlling
pests.[40] These methods are becoming increasingly popular and often are safer than traditional chemical
pesticides. In addition, EPA is registering reduced-risk conventional pesticides in increasing numbers.

Cultivation practices include polyculture (growing multiple types of plants), crop rotation, planting crops
in areas where the pests that damage them do not live, timing planting according to when pests will be
least problematic, and use of trap crops that attract pests away from the real crop.[18] In the U.S.,
farmers have had success controlling insects by spraying with hot water at a cost that is about the same
as pesticide spraying.[18]

Release of other organisms that fight the pest is another example of an alternative to pesticide use.
These organisms can include natural predators or parasites of the pests.[18] Biological pesticides based
on entomopathogenic fungi, bacteria and viruses cause disease in the pest species can also be used.[18]

Interfering with insects' reproduction can be accomplished by sterilizing males of the target species and
releasing them, so that they mate with females but do not produce offspring.[18] This technique was first
used on the screwworm fly in 1958 and has since been used with the medfly, the tsetse fly,[41] and the
gypsy moth.[42] However, this can be a costly, time consuming approach that only works on some types
of insects.[18]

Another alternative to pesticides is the thermal treatment of soil through steam. Soil steaming kills pest
and increases soil health.[citation needed]

In India, traditional pest control methods include using Panchakavya, the "mixture of five products." The
method has recently experienced a resurgence in popularity due in part to use by the organic farming
community.[citation needed]

Push pull strategy

The term "push-pull" was established in 1987 as an approach for integrated pest management (IPM).
This strategy uses a mixture of behavior-modifying stimuli to manipulate the distribution and abundance
of insects. "Push" means the insects are repelled or deterred away from whatever resource that is being
protected. "Pull" means that certain stimuli (semiochemical stimuli, pheromones, food additives, visual
stimuli, genetically altered plants, etc.) are used to attract pests to trap crops where they will be killed
[43]
There are numerous different components involved in order to implement a Push-Pull Strategy in
IPM.

Many case studies testing the effectiveness of the push-pull approach have been done across the world.
The most successful push-pull strategy was developed in Africa for subsistence farming. Another
successful case study was performed on the control of Helicoverpa in cotton crops in Australia. In
Europe, the Middle East, and the United States, push-pull strategies were successfully used in the
controlling of Sitona lineatus in bean fields.[43] Plus many more cases where this strategy was more
beneficial than simply using pesticides on their crops.

Some advantages of using the push-pull method are less use of chemical or biological materials and
better protection against insect habituation to this control method. Some disadvantages of the push-pull
strategy is that if there is a lack of appropriate knowledge of behavioral and chemical ecology of the
host-pest interactions then this method becomes unreliable. Furthermore, because the push-pull method
is not a very popular method of IPM operational and registration costs are higher.[44]

Pesticide Fires - Prevention, Control, and Cleanup

Fires involving pesticides can be very dangerous. Burning pesticides may release toxic fumes that are
poisonous to fire fighters, bystanders, and animals or contaminate the environment. Pressurized

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 69 OF 83
Hemendra

containers can explode. Pesticides can spill out of containers damaged by the fire. Runoff from
fighting a fire can contaminate a larger area. Reduce the potential for fires by following good practices.

Preventing Fires

Store pesticides safely to reduce the risk of fires.

 Keep pesticides away from windows and out of direct sunlight.

 Store pesticides in a cool dry environment.

 Keep combustible materials away from heat sources (steam pipes, radiators, heaters, etc.)

 Be aware of explosive or flammable risks for the pesticides used on your farm. Read and follow

pesticide label directions. For example, glyphosate (i.e. Roundup, Wrangler, Rustler, Laredo, etc.) can

create an explosive hazard if it is in a galvanized steel or unlined steel (not stainless steel)

container/sprayer.

 Do not store pesticides near fire hazards such as ammonium nitrate or calcium hypochlorite.

 Do not allow smoking near flammable compounds or materials. Do not allow smoking when handling

pesticides or in the storage area.

 Do not work with flames near flammable compounds and materials.

 Store pesticides according to legal requirements and safety guidelines. Contact local authorities
having jurisdiction for requirements and recommendations for safe storage of pesticides.

Accidents can happen even when taking precautions. Therefore, be prepared in case there is a fire
involving pesticides and minimize the health, economic, and environmental risks that result from fires.

Being Prepared for Fires

1. Develop a fire contingency plan. Each farm should have a fire contingency plan or emergency

response plan in case of a fire. The plan should explain:

 How to prevent fires.

 Who to contact if there is a fire.

 What to do if there is a fire.

 Where the emergency equipment, access points/routes, and evacuation routes are on the

farm.

 Where there is a potential for water runoff on the farm and how to prevent contamination of

waterways. Include where to obtain equipment and supplies for constructing dikes or dams. Do

not only rely solely on farm equipment as they may not be accessible due to the fire.

 The location of critical or sensitive areas on the farm (i.e. pesticide storage, other hazardous

compounds, wells and water supplies, water courses, drains, etc.)

 How often the plan will be updated.

2. Store all pesticides in one designated storage room or cupboard.

3. Identify the pesticide storage shed/cupboard by putting a sign stating Danger Chemical Storage

Authorized Persons Only on all entrances. The sign needs to be big enough to read from a distance.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 70 OF 83
Hemendra

4. Post emergency numbers by each phone and at the storage shed. Write the numbers large enough

so they are easy to read. Include phone numbers for: Fire (911), Poison Control Centre, the farm

owner or supervisor, and the Provincial Emergency Program. See Emergency Contacts.

5. List all the pesticides in storage, their names, active ingredient, PCP #s, and quantity remaining.

Keep a copy of the list with the fire contingency plan and near the pesticide storage area. Give the

local fire department a copy. Update the list each year.

6. Ask your pesticide dealer for copies of the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the pesticides on

the farm. Keep these in a convenient location.

7. Show family members and employees the location of the contingency plan, MSDS sheets, emergency

numbers, pesticide list, and emergency equipment.

8. Tell farm workers and family members what to do in an emergency. Have regular fire drills.

9. Tell the local fire department that pesticides are stored on the farm and the location of the storage

area.

10. Keep a fire extinguisher approved for chemical fires near the storage area.

11. Provide clear access for emergency vehicles to farm buildings.

12. Keep a spill kit near the pesticide storage area. Click here for a list of the contents of a spill kit.
13. Regularly review emergency procedures for poisoning, spills and fires.

Dealing with Fires Involving Pesticides

1. Call the fire department. Tell them that there is a fire involving pesticides. Provide information about

the pesticides. It helps with fire fighting and the protection of firefighters. Tell the fire department if

people are involved.

2. Do not take unnecessary risks. It is wiser to wait for the fire department, than to risk your life.

3. Keep people and animals away from the fire.

4. Do not attempt to fight the fire unless you have been trained and have the correct personal

protective equipment.

5. Avoid being downwind of the fire.

6. Follow the instructions of the firefighters.

7. Attempt to contain the fire and protect the surroundings. Prevent the spread of the fire by cooling

nearby containers to prevent rupture.

8. Avoid using large quantities of water to keep toxic run-off to a minimum. Construct dikes to prevent

flow into lakes, streams, sewers, irrigation water, and other water bodies.

9. Wash before eating, drinking, smoking or using the toilet.

10. If anyone is exposed to smoke and fumes, exposed body areas should be washed as soon as

possible at the fire site.

11. If fire fighters or bystanders have symptoms of pesticide poisoning, call the Poison Control Centre

immediately.

12. Once the fire is out, contact the nearest office of the Ministry of Water, Land, and Air Protection for

information on decontamination procedures.

13. Contact the PEP If contaminated water from fire fighting enters a drainage system.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 71 OF 83
Hemendra

Cleaning up After a Fire

Personal Precautions

1. Remove protective clothing upon leaving site and place them in a plastic bag. Wear waterproof

gloves when handling contaminated clothing. Throw out heavily contaminated clothing. Clean less

contaminated clothing the same way pesticide application clothing is cleaned.

2. Shower and shampoo thoroughly with soap and water.

3. Wash inner clothing with detergent and put on clean clothes.

4. Watch for signs and symptoms of pesticide poisoning.

Fire Site

1. The fire scene should be secured to keep out unauthorized personnel until cleanup and

decontamination have been completed. Post warning signs and rope off burned-out area and water

run-off area.

2. Contact the Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection for advice on cleaning up after the fire. Follow
their instructions.

3. Wear protective clothing when working in or cleaning up a contaminated area.

4. Handle pesticide containers carefully to prevent spillage of the contents. Containers may have been

damaged during the fire. If you have any concerns, contact a qualified person or agency for

assistance. The manufacturer, Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection, Provincial Emergency

Program, or Pest Management Regulatory Agency may be able to provide information.

5. Concentrated pesticides that are spilled during the post-fire cleanup can be cleaned up according to

the instructions at Pesticide Spills.

6. When the cleanup of the fire site is completed, decontaminate the equipment.

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF A PESTICIDES FACTORY :

ACTIVE
INGRDIENT
PESTICIDE

EMULSION

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 72 OF 83
Hemendra

Area / Activity Machine / Input Output Hazards Safety Features

Department Device
Active Chemical Reactor Raw Active ingredient - Toxic - Closed circuit
Ingredient reaction materials - Fire & explosion - Personal hygiene
- Reactive - Washing
- Corrosive - No food at workplace
- Chlolinesterase test
- PPE
- Product Safety
Emulsion Emulsion -- Solvent Emulsion - Mist - Mask and hand gloves
(petroleum - Fire - Personal hygiene
of C9 - Toxic - Barrier cream
grades) - Dermatitis
Formulation mixing Mixer Active Pesticide - Toxic - Closed circuit
ingredients - Fire & explosion - Personal hygiene
Emulsion - Reactive - Washing
- Corrosive - No food at workplace
- Chlolinesterase test
- PPE
- Product safety

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 73 OF 83
Hemendra

SCHEDULE XV
Manufacture and manipulation of dangerous pesticides
1. Definitions
For the purpose of this schedule-
(a) ―pesticides‖ means agents used for the purpose of destroying or arresting the growth or increase of
harmful organisms;
(b) ―dangerous pesticides‖ means pesticides or mixtures of such pesticides as are included in the list of
dangerous pesticides in Appendix I attached to this schedule;
(c) ―Suspension‖ means suspension from exployment in any process in which a dangerous pesticide us used
by written certificate in the health register (Form No.20) signed by the certifying surgeon, who shall be
competence to suspend all persons employed in such process;
(d) ―first employment‖ means first employment in any manufacturing process referred to in this schedule
and also re-employment, in such manufacturing process following any cessation of employment for a
continuous period exceeding three calendar months;
(e) ―efficient exhaust draught‖ means localized ventilation effected by mechanical means, for the removal of
gas, vapour, dust or fumes so as to prevent them from escaping into the air of any place in which work
is carried on. No draught shall be deemed efficient which fails to remove smoke generated at the point
where such gas, vapour, fume or dust originates;
(f) ―manipulation‖ includes mixing, blending, filling, emptying, packing, handling or using of a dangerous
pesticide.
2. Application
This schedule shall apply in respect of all factories or any part thereof in which the process of manufacture or
manipulation of a dangerous pesticide (hereinafter referred to as ―the said manufacturing process‖) is carried on.
3. Cautionary placard
A cautionary placard and the form specified in Appendix II attached to this schedule and printed in the language
understood by the majority of the workers employed shall be affixed in prominent place frequented by them. In
the factory where the placards can be easily and conveniently read by the workers, arrangement shall be made
by the occupier to instruct periodically all workers employed in the said manufacturing process regarding the
health hazards connected with it and methods to protect themselves.
4. Prohibited relating to employment of women and young persons
No woman or young person shall be employed or permitted to work in any room in which the said manufacturing
process is carried on or in any room in which dangerous pesticide is stored.
5. Air space
In every room in which the said manufacturing process is carried on, there will be at least 500 cubic feet of air
space, excluding any space occupied by machinery equipped or any other articles, for every person employed
therein and in computing this air space, no height over 12 feet shall be taken into account.
6. Prohibition of the said manufacturing process without efficient exhaust draught
The said manufacturing process, shall not be carried on without the use of efficient exhaust draught when –
(a) a container holding a dangerous pesticide is emptied, or
(b) a dangerous pesticide is introduced into a container tank hopper to machine or filled in small sized
packings, or
(c) a powder or a liquid is prepared from a dangerous pesticide, or
(d) a dangerous pesticide is blended unless the process is completely enclosed.
7. Floor of workroom
The floor of every workroom in which the said manufacturing process is carried on shall be –
a. of cement of similar material so as to be smooth and impervious to water,
b. maintained in sound condition
c. sloping and provided with gutters for adequate drainage, and
d. thoroughly washed daily by means of hose-pipe.
8. Work Benches
The work benches at which a dangerous pesticide in manipulated shall –
(a) have a smooth surface and be of non-absorbent material preferably of
stainless steel, and
(b) be cleaned daily.

9. Waste
(a) A suitable receptacle with tightly fitting cover shall be provided and used for
depositing waste like cloth paper or other materials soiled with a dangerous
pesticide.
(b) All such contaminated waste shall be destroyed by burning at least once a
week.
10. Empty containers used for dangerous pesticides
Such containers shall be destroyed or thoroughly cleaned of their contents and treated with an inactivating agent
before being discarded.
11. Manual handling
A dangerous pesticide shall not be required or allowed to be manipulated by hand except by means of a long ha
12. Protective clothing
(1) Protective clothing shall be provided and maintained in good repair for all workers and such clothing
shall be worn by the workers concerned. The protective clothing shall consist of -
(a) long pants and shirts or overalls with long sleeves and head coverings, and
(b) rubber gloves, gum boots, rubber aprons, chemical safety goggles and
respirators.
Provided that where the pesticide contains oil, the rubber gloves, bolts, and aprons shall be of synthetic rubber.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 74 OF 83
Hemendra

(2) Where the worker has to handle a dangerous pesticide -

(a) containing phosphorous or nicotine the protective clothing shall be washed daily both inside and
outside, and if the protective clothing mentioned in clause (a) of sub-paragraph (1) is soiled
with such pesticides it shall be changed immediately, and
(b) not containing phosphorous or nicotine the protective clothing mentioned in clause (a) of sub-
paragraph (1) shall be washed frequently.
13. Medical examination
(1) (a) No person shall be employed in the said manufacturing process unless he has been examined
by the certifying surgeon within seven days preceding his first employment and certified fit for
such employment.
(b) No person shall be employed in the said manufacturing process unless he is re-examined by the
certifying surgeon at least once in every three calendar months.
(c) The certifying surgeon shall examine persons employed in the said manufacturing process by
giving due notice to all concerned.
(d) A health register in Form 20 containing the names of all workers employed in the said
manufacturing process shall be kept.
(e) No person after suspension shall be employed without written sanction from the certifying
surgeon entered in or attached to the health register.
(2) The chief inspector may order any suitable clinical test or tests to be carried out in respect of the
workers employed in any factory where the said manufacturing process is carried on at such intervals as
he deems, fit.
14. Medical facilities
(1) The occupier shall engage a qualified medical practitioner who shall examine and if necessary treat in
the premises of the factory all workers who handle dangerous pesticides for effects of excessive
absorption at least once a week. The occupier shall make necessary arrangement to ensure quick
availability of a qualified medical practitioner in emergency cases.
(2) Medicaments including antidotes and other equipment necessary for treatment of excessive absorption
of a dangerous pesticide shall be provided by the occupier.
(3) Records of such examination and treatment shall be maintained in such form as may be approved by the
chief inspector and shall be made available to inspector for inspection.
15. Time allowed for washing
Before each meal and before the end of the day’s work, at least 10 minutes in addition to the regular rest
interval, shall be allowed for washing to each person who has been employed in the said manufacturing proces.
Washing and bathing facilities
(1) There shall be provided and maintained in cleanly state and in good repair for the use of all persons
employed adequate washing and bathing places having a constant supply of water under cover at the
rate of one such place for every 5 persons employed.
(2) The washing places shall have stand pipes spaced at intervals of not less than three feet.
(3) Not less than one half of the total number of washing place shall be provided with bath rooms.
(4) Sufficient supply of clean towels made of suitable material shall be provided:
Provided that such towels shall be supplied individually for each worker if so ordered by the inspector.
(5) Sufficient supply of soap and nail brushes shall be provided.
17. Food, Drinks, etc. prohibited in workrooms
No food, drink, pan, supari or tobacco shall be consumed or brought by any worker into any work room in which
the said manufacturing process is carried on.
18. Cloak Room
There shall be provided and maintained for the use of persons employed in the said manufacturing process:
(a) A cloak room for clothing put off during working hours with adequate arrangements for drying clothing if
wet; and
(b) Separate and suitable arrangements for the storage of protective clothing provided under paragraph 12.
19. Mess Room
There shall be provided and maintained for the use of all persons employed in the factory and remaining on the
premises during the rest intervals, a suitable mess room which shall be furnished with –
(a) sufficient tables and benches; and
(b) adequate means for warming food.
The mess room shall be placed under the charge of responsible person and shall be kept clean.
20. Exemption
If in respect of any factory the chief inspector is satisfied that owing to the exceptional circumstances or
infrequency of the process or for any other reason all or any of the provisions of this schedule are not necessary for the
protection of the persons employed in the factory, he may, by a certificate in writing, exempt such factory, from all or any
of the provisions, on such condition as he may specify therein. Such certificate may, at any time be revoked by the chief
inspector.
21. Manipulation not be undertaken
Manipulation of pesticide other than those maintained in Appendix I of the schedule shall not be undertaken in
any factory unless a certificate regarding its dangerous nature of otherwise is obtained from the chief inspector.

APPENDIX I
List of Dangerous Pesticides
Parthion
Diazeomon
Gexaethyl Tetra phosphate
Tetra ethyl Pyrophosphate
Demeton (Systex)
Scheadan (OMPH)
Para-Oxon (E.600)

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 75 OF 83
Hemendra

Methyl Parathion
Dimefox
Sulphotepp
EPN
Nicotine or its compounds
Mercury compounds
Methyl bromide
Cyanides
Chlordane
Endrin
Adldrn
Dieldrin
Texaphene
Dinitro-o-cresol
Arsenical compounds
Cryolite
Pentachlorophenol

APPENDIX II
Cautionary placard
1. Pesticides are generally poisonous substance.
2. Therefore in rooms where these are handled:
(a) do not chew, eat, drink or smoke and keep food or drink away from pesticides.
(b) Use the protective wear supplied e.g. gloves, aprons, clothes, boots, etc.
3. Either before meals or when any part of the body has come in contact with the pesticides, wash with soap and water.
4. Before leaving the factory, take a bath and change your clothing.
5. Do not use any container that has contained a pesticide as a pot for food or drink.
6. Do not handle any pesticide with bare hands but use a handled scoop.
7. Avoid spilling of any pesticide on body, floor or table.
8. Maintain scrupulous cleanliness of body and clothing and of your surroundings.

ANTIDOTE

Antidote is a Greek word meaning ―Giving against‖.

An antidote is a substance which can counteract a form of poisoning.

Antidote is a medicine or other remedy for counteracting the effects of poison, disease, etc. It is
something that prevents or counteracts injurious or unwanted effects:

There are basically four kinds of poisons, divided according to the way they affect the body.
Corrosive poisons (like strong acids) destroy tissues locally. Irritant poisons produce congestion
of the organ with which they come in contact. The next kind of poison, neurotoxins, affect the
nerves within the cell. And finally, the hemotoxins combine with the blood and prevent oxygen
from forming hemoglobin. Carbon monoxide (such as comes from the exhaust of an automobile)
is a hemotoxin. It causes death because the blood is deprived of oxygen that nourishes the
tissues and brain. In treating cases of poisoning, three things are usually done immediately. The
first is to dilute the poison. This is done by having the patient drink as much water as possible.
The next step is to empty the stomach, and this is done by inducing vomiting.

Then a specific anti dote is given against the particular poison. Antidotes act in several different
ways in preventing the action of a poison. One way is by combining chemically with the poisonous
sub stance, thus making it harmless. For example, soda combines with an acid, vinegar combines
with lye. An antidote may also act physically by coating the mucous membranes with a protective
layer. Olive oil and milk act as antidotes in this way. A third way antidotes may work is by
absorbing the poisonous substances on the surface of finely divided particles. Charcoal acts in this
way. Some antidotes actually produce the opposite effect from the original poison in the body,
and so they counteract the action of the poison. Of course, one of the chief things a doctor tries
to do in a case of poisoning is to eliminate the poison from the body, and there are many ways to
accomplish this. The best rule to follow is prevention. Poisonous substances should be kept where
children cannot get at them, and products that contain poison should be clearly marked and
carefully stored.

The antidotes for some particular toxins are manufactured by injecting the toxin into an animal in
small doses and extracting the resulting antibodies from the host animals' blood. This results in
an antivenom that can be used to counteract poison produced by certain species of snakes,

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 76 OF 83
Hemendra

spiders, and other venomous animals. A number of venoms lack a viable antivenom, and a bite or
sting from an animal producing such a toxin often results in death. Some animal venoms,
especially those produced by arthropods (e.g. certain spiders, scorpions, bees, etc.) are only
potentially lethal when they provoke allergic reactions and induce anaphylactic shock; as such,
there is no "antidote" for these venoms because it is not a form of poisoning and anaphylactic
shock can be treated (e.g., by the use of epinephrine).

Some other toxins have no known antidote. For example, the poison
aconitine, a highly poisonous alkaloid derived from various aconite species
has no antidote, and as a result is often fatal if it enters the human body in
sufficient quantities.

Mechanical approaches

Ingested poisons are frequently treated by the oral administration of activated charcoal, which
adsorbs the poison and flushes it from the digestive tract, thereby removing a large part of the
toxin.

Poisons which are injected into the body (such as those from bites or stings from venomous
animals) are usually treated by the use of a constriction band which limits the flow of lymph
and/or blood to the area, thus slowing circulation of the poison around the body. This should not
be confused with use of a tourniquet which cuts off blood flow completely - often leading to the
loss of the limb.

Agent Indication
Activated charcoal with sorbital used for many oral toxins
organophosphate and carbamate insecticides, nerve
Atropine
agents, some mushrooms
Beta Blocker theophylline
Calcium chloride calcium channel blockers, black widow spider bites
Calcium gluconate hydrofluoric acid
Chelators such as EDTA, dimercaprol (BAL), penicillamine, and 2,3-
heavy metal poisoning
dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA, succimer)
Cyanide antidote (amyl nitrite, sodium nitrite, or thiosulfate) cyanide poisoning
Cyproheptadine serotonin syndrome
Deferoxamine mesylate Iron poisoning
Digoxin Immune Fab antibody (Digibind and Digifab) digoxin poisoning
Extrapyramidal reactions associated with
Diphenhydramine hydrochloride and benztropine mesylate
antipsychotic
Ethanol or fomepizole ethylene glycol poisoning and methanol poisoning
Flumazenil benzodiazepine poisoning
beta blocker poisoning and calcium channel blocker
Glucagon
poisoning
100% oxygen or hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) carbon monoxide poisoning and cyanide poisoning
beta blocker poisoning and calcium channel blocker
Insulin
poisoning
Leucovorin methotrexate and trimethoprim
treatment of conditions that cause
Methylene blue
methemoglobinemia fritz pogi
Naloxone hydrochloride opioid poisoning
N-acetylcysteine Paracetamol (acetaminophen) poisoning
Octreotide oral hypoglycemic agents
Pralidoxime chloride (2-PAM) organophosphate insecticides
Protamine sulfate Heparin poisoning

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 77 OF 83
Hemendra

Prussian blue Thallium poisoning

Physostigmine sulphate anticholinergic poisoning
Pyridoxine Isoniazid poisoning, ethylene glycol
Phytomenadione (vitamin K) and fresh frozen plasma warfarin poisoning and indanedione
Sodium bicarbonate ASA, TCAs with a wide QRS

Antidote/drug Indication

Amyl nitrite (for inhalation) 1 Cyanides, nitriles

Atropine (for injection) 1 Organophosphates, carbamates

Budesonide (for inhalation)* 1,2 Irritant gases

Betamethasone (for injection) 1,2 Irritant gases

Calcium gluconate (topical) 1 Hydrofluoric acid

Calcium saits (for iniection)** Hydrofluoric acid

Cobait edentate Cyanides (nitriles)

Copper solution* 1 Phosphorus white (yellow)

Dimercaproi* Arsenic, mercury

Dimercaptopropane sulphonate (DMPS)*

Arsenic, mercury
(for injection) (tabiets)

Dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA)*

Arsenic, mercury
(for injection) (tabiets)

Hydroxocobalamin (for injection) 1 Cyanides/nitriles

4-Dimethylaminophenoi (4-DMAP) Cyanides

Methylthionine (methylene blue) (for Nitrites, nitrobenzene (and other methaemogiobin-forming

injection)* agents)

Obidoxime (for injection)* 1 Organophosphates

Carbon monoxide, cyanides, hydrogen sulphide, irritant gases,

Oxygen 1
nitriles

Polyethylene glycoi 400 (topical) 1 Phenol

Potassium permanganate +
Phosphorus, white (yellow)
soidum bicarbonate (topical)* 1

Pralidoxime (for iniection)* 1 Organophosphates

Salbutamoi (for inhalation)* 1 lrritant gases

Sodium nitrite 1 Cyanides, nitriles

Sodium thiosulphate (for iniection) 1 Cyanides, nitriles

Terbutaline sulphate (for inhalation)* 1 lrritant gases

Tetracaine hydrochioride (eye drops)*1 For eye irrigation

Toluidine blue (for iniection)* Nitrites, dinitrobenzene (and other methaemogiobin-forming

Xanthine derivatives lrritant gases

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 78 OF 83
Hemendra

SPECIAL MEDICAL TREATMENTS / ANTIDOTS FOR HAZARDOUS

CHEMICALS
Neutralizing
Sr. Name of TLV LD50 Solubility in
Medical Treatment / Antidotes /Inactivating
No. Chemicals ppm Mg/kg Water
Media
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Alcoholic
Acetonitryl Very Careful treatment of cobalt E.D.T.A. 40 6500 Miscible
Sodium
(calocynor) and if that is not effective
1. Hydroxide &
give Nitrite / Sodium Thio Sulphate
Acrylonitryl Calcium 20 93 Poor
treatment
Hypochlorate
If skin is affected then wash with plenty
of water for 15 min. and then wash with
dilute lactic acid and apply soframycin
cream.
If eye is affected then wash by eye
fountain with plenty of water for 15 min.
Put one drop of 0.4% Benzocaine Hydrochloric 350
2. Ammonia 50 Good
(Novocaine) solution in eye. Boric or Acid mg/kg
lactic acid solution eye drops can also be
given.
If entered in throat then give smell
through cotton dipped in ethanol or ether
through nose. Administer oxygen in case
of breathing difficulty.
Methylene Blue (1% solution), Ascorbic
Mixture of
Acid (5% solution)
3. Aniline Sand and 5 450 Poor
Administer Oxygen in case of breathing
Soda Ash
difficulty.

Magnesium Sulphate (30gm in 250 ml Violently

4. Barium & its salt
water), Morphine (5 to 10 mg). Reacts
Skin is affected then wash with plenty of
water. Administer Oxygen or shift to
5. Benzene Incineration 10 3400 Poor
fresh air.
Diazepam 0.1 mg/kg.(iv), bed rest.
Skin is affected then wash with plenty of
water. Apply sodium bicarbonate and
again wash with water.
Eye is affected then flush eye in eye
fountain. Put 2-3 drops in eye of Sodium
6. Bromine Pontocaine 0.5% solution or Benzocaine Thiosulphate, 0.1 - Poor
(Novocain) 0.4% solution. Soda Ash
If inhaled then give smell through
ethanol or ether dipped cotton. Give
milk, buttermilk or lemon water. Give O2
in case of breathing difficulty.
Administer Oxygen (100% pure),
Carbon -
7. intravenous injection of 1 gm/1kg of 20% 50 Not Soluble
Monoxide
mannitol, or 1 mg/kg of Prednisolone.
Carbon Tetra
8. N-acetyl-L-cysteine 5 2800 Not Soluble
Chloride
Skin is affected then wash with plenty of
water. Apply sodium bicarbonate and
again wash with water.
Eye is affected then flush eye in eye
fountain. Put 2-3 drops in eye of
9. Chlorine Pontocaine 0.5% solution or Benzocaine 1 - Poor
(Novocain) 0.4% solution.
If inhaled then give smell through
ethanol or ether dipped cotton. Give
milk, buttermilk or lemon water. Give O2
in case of breathing difficulty.

Dimercaprol. Give high vitamins, protein

10. Chromium and carbohydrates in food. - - -
Methylene Blue.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 79 OF 83
Hemendra

CaNa2EDTA, D-Penicilliamine (oral), BAL

11. Lead Compounds (with CaEDTA), Induce vomiting, then
give Magnesium sulphate in water.

Safe escaping
Wash with water of gas
12. LPG Prevent source 1000 - Floats
Remove affected person to fresh air.
of ignition
Ethanol (30% solution from inside, 5%
solution from out side i.e. by intravenous
injection), Epicake Syrup.
In case of acidosis give Sodium
13. Methyl Alcohol bicarbonate. 200 4100 Good
In case of delirium give Diazepam 10
mg. by intravenous injection.
Folinic acid (Leucovorin), 1 mg/kg, iv, 4
hourly.

Intravenous injection of 1 ml/kg of

14. Magnesium Salt Insoluble
Calcium gluconate 10% solution.

5
15. Manganese Calcium Edentate Decompose
mg/m3

Give white of egg in water. Later give

milk, then incude vomiting. BAL, D- 0.1
16. Mercury Insoluble
Penicillamine, n-Acetycysteine, mg/m3
Dimercaptopropane-1 sulfonate (DMPS)
Metals(Heavy Unithol (BAL, dimercaprol, 5% solution),
Metals),mercury, Tetacin calcium (10%solution),
17. lead, copper, Penicillaminen Dextrose (10%) by Insoluble
cobalt, arsenic, intravenous injection. Chillating agent
nickel) for effect of mercury.
5 gm. Sodium bicarbonate every 4 hrs.
and keep urine alkaline.
18. Naphthalene Give 1 ml/kg. furosemide in liquid. Blood 10 1780 Insoluble
transfusion till haemoglobin becomes
normal – 60 to 80%.

19. Nitrobenzene Methylene blue, 1-2 mg/kg, over 5 min.

Nitrogen Oxides Prednisone or Prednisolone 5 mg. every

20.
(NOx) 6 hrs interval.

Sodium
Administer oxygen, morphine injection Carbonate or
21. Nitric Acid 2 - Good
for severe aches. Soda Ash or
Slacked Lime

Wash contaminated area with water and

Dry Sand, Highly
22. Oleum soap. 5% soln of sodium bicarbonate. 1 -
Earth Reactive
Artificial respiration

Milk, lemon Water, chalk or calcium

lactate, calcium chloride or calsium
23. Oxalic Acid gluconate with liquid. 1mg/m3 1000 Soluble
10% calcium gluconate or chloride 10 ml.
by intravenous injection.
Shift in fresh air, activated charcoal and
240 ml. milk. If skin or eye is affected
Phenol &
24. then wash with plenty of water for 15 5 414 Soluble
Derivatives
min. if skin is affected then wash with
Polyethylene glycol (PEG).

Cortisone acetate 1 mg/kg by mouth –

25. Phosgene thrice a day. In case of breathing 0.1 - Hydrolyzed
difficulty administer Oxygen.

10 ml calcium gluconate (10%) by

intravenous injection, 5% glucose in
26. Phosphorus 0.1 3030 Insoluble
water. Travert (10% invert sugar) by
intravenous injection.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 80 OF 83
Hemendra

Organics Atropine injection, Atropine (0.1%

Phosphorous solution), Nalorphine hydrochloride (0.5
Insecticides %solution), Trimedoxim bromide
27. (e.g. Malathion, (15%solution), Pyridine Aldoxy
Parathion, Methyodate, Diperoxim, Biodexim and
Monocrotophos, Isonitrocin (40%solution), Pralidoxi,
Phorate) PAM, TOXOGONIN.

10% Salt (Sodium Chloride) solution,

Silver Nitrate &
28. milk and for reducing pain Demrol or 50 Soluble
other Salts
Codeine.

Cover with ash

Treat burns as usual. Oxygen with or sodium
29. Sulphur Dioxide intermittent positive pressure breathing bicarbonate 2 - Sinks & Boils
apparatus. and Calcium
Hydrochlorite
Cover with
Sodium
Wash thoroughly with water followed by 1
30. Sulphuric Acid Carbonate or 2140 Reactive
5% soln of sodium bicarbonate. mg/m3
Soda Ash or
Slacked Line

Wash Completely with. Remove exposed

31. Toluene 100 1640 Poor
Person to Fresh Air, Artificial Respiration.

Cover with
Administer oxygen. 5% soln of sodium Decomposes
32. Thionyl Chloride sodium 5 -
bicarbonate may be used. (Hydrolyses)
bicarbonate

Induce vomiting, Atropine (large dose)

Tobacco &
33. In case of difficulty in breathing, - - -
Nicotine
administer oxygen

Skin is affected, wash with plenty of

water.
Eye is affected then keep eye open and
allow material to vaporise. Don’t apply
any eye drops.
In case of breathing difficulty, administer Slightly
34. Vinyl Chloride 1 500
oxygen. If injected then include Soluble
vomiting. Give one spoon mineral oil and
after that give sodium /magnesium
sulphate (one Spoon) in a glass of water.
Give strong tea or coffee of feeling
exhausted.

Zink fumes &

35. Metal fume Prednisolone, Aspirin, Bed rest. - - -
Fever

Skin is affected then wash with plenty of

water. Administer Oxygen or shift to
36. Xylene 100 4300 Not Soluble
fresh air.
Diazepam 0.1 mg/kg.(iv), bed rest.

Activated charcoal is considered to be medicine's most powerful absorbent and as such, it readily works to absorb many toxins and poisons,
rendering them harmless.
Activated charcoal is simply burnt wood that has had all the oxygen removed through controlled oxidation and or processing by steam.
Before the nineteenth century plain burnt wood was used in the same way activated charcoal is used today. Activated charcoal has up to
four times the absorption power of plain burnt wood. Although charcoal briquettes, burned toast, burned meat or any burned food can be
harmful carcinogens or cancer producers, activated charcoal is an important health aid. Activated charcoal is most commonly produced from
hardwood trees or coconut shells.
As an antidote, activated charcoal is mainly known both for its use in drug overdoses and chemical poisonings. Charcoal acts to purify and
cleanse the body due to its amazing ability to attract poisons to itself. Charcoal has a wide range of absorption. Heavy metals, viruses,
bacterial and fungal toxins, etc. are all absorbed effectively. Activated charcoal often absorbs more than its own weight of injurious
materials.
Internally as an antidote and remedy, charcoal works by binding drugs and poisons within the gastrointestinal tract. This allows their
transfer out of the body in a harmless form. Charcoal absorbs like a sponge, and renders poisons harmless. It can do varied tasks because
of it’s amazing ability to attract other substances to its surface and hold on to them until they exit the body.
One tablespoon or more mixed into glass of water is usually all that is required. Charcoal is an odorless and tasteless powder that is best
taken between meals-two hours before or two hours after a meal. One teaspoon of charcoal has a surface area of more than 10,000 square
feet. This unique feature allows it to absorb large amounts of chemicals and poisons. Activated charcoal powder must be stored in a tightly

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 81 OF 83
Hemendra

sealed container because it really absorbs impurities from the atmosphere. If kept in a glass jar or can, charcoal will store indefinitely.
Mason jars with seals are ideal for storage.
Studies show that activated charcoal is harmless when ingested, inhaled or when it comes into contact with the skin. In rare cases charcoal
may mildly irritate the bowel in sensitive persons, but no allergies or other side effects have been recorded. It can also be slightly
constipating.
For the few sensitive persons that may have Crohn's disease, colitis or irritable bowel syndrome, etc. there is a special way to prepare
charcoal. Actually, every person reading this paper can benefit by using this formula for preparation.
Put two tablespoons of charcoal into quart jar with a little water. Mix well. Fill the jar to the top with more water. Put a lid on the jar and
shake. Let the mixture sit overnight. The next day, pour off the water into another empty jar and discard the charcoal that has settled to
the bottom. The mixture is now ready to use or to save for future use.
You can use this mixture in an infant's baby bottle, for colic. Dilute with more water if necessary. As long as a suspension is stored in a
closed container, the potency of the suspension will be preserved indefinitely. It is suggested to drink this mixture first thing in the morning
as far away from breakfast time as possible. Try this for three months and see how much better you feel.
The most common drug poisoning is from aspirin. Charcoal should be given within the first 30 minutes of an overdose. Powdered charcoal
reaches its maximum rate of absorption rapidly, within one minute. The sooner it is given the better the chances of successful treatment.
Charcoal given after one hour of fast absorbing drugs, like aspirin, are usually only about 10 percent effective.
Externally, charcoal has been found to be effective for itchy skin, infections, gangrenous ulcers, insect bites and stings. Charcoal poultices
draw toxins and poisons out through the skin tissue. Skin tissue is itself a permeable membrane that allows a two-way transfer of liquids
and gases. The skin is the largest organ of the body, and therefore a very vital organ. Do not put charcoal directly on an open wound, it
can cause a pigment tattooed effect. Instead use a poultice application, which filters out charcoal pigment and allows the healing moisture
to go through.
A poultice (which means paste), is generally made with charcoal and a little water. The poultice should be about one-
fourth inch thick and put into a cloth or paper towel. One important point about a poultice is that it needs to be kept moist
to be effective. Covering the poultice with plastic wrap or plastic bag will keep air from drying it out. Charcoal may be
used by itself, or with ground flaxseed or clay added. Using equal parts of charcoal, clay, and ground flaxseed makes a
nice poultice that will remain moist overnight when covered with plastic.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 82 OF 83
Hemendra

SAFETY IN IT INDUSTRY
Information Technology uses following.

- Computer – VDU, Input devices, Output devices

- Circuit Boards
- Transmission Towers
- Cables
- Electricity
.
VDU : involves glass. Vacuum tubes, circuit boards etc. The screen may use fluorescent chemicals, liquid crystals etc.
Now a days LED concept adds up illumination hazards.
Circuit boards are mainly formaldehyde plastic and lead as metal. Soldering is the main activity which can lead to
metal fume fever. Metal degradation is very difficult. Fluorescent chemicals are toxic, and have special effects.

Input devices : include all of the above. In addition, paper, floppy, CD, magnetic tape etc. are used. These include metal
and plastic and ferro-magnetic materials.

Output devices are similar to the input devices.

Glass is already discussed earlier.

Transmission towers have fall hazards.

Cables can be above and underground. Optic fibers are not degradable. Special cutters are needed.

Electricity hazards are also associated with IT industry.

Ergonomic issues like VDU arrangement, key board arrangement, chair etc are also hazards. Musculoskeleton diseases are
likely with IT industry.

Overall health issues are likely being longer hour working in sitting posture.

Dusting can impair the quality of IT equipment.

Magnestism is another issue with IT equipment. This can adversely effect on blood.

Capacitors can accumulate static for longer duration. Its proper removal is essential.

HRR/ISTAR/MIHS/IH684 /R0 83 OF 83