GLISTEN INTERNATIONAL ACADEMY

FIRST TERM LESSON NOTE

Subject teacher: Mr. Ferguson Ukokobili

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY

SCHEME OF WORK

TOPICS:

1. INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY
2. GEOGRAPHY OF FEDERAL CAPITAL TERRITORY
3. THE SOLAR SYSTEM
4. THE EARTH’S ROTATION AND REVOLUTION
5. LATITUDE
6. LONGITUDE
7. THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
8. ROCKS
9. REVISION
10. EXAMS
WEEK 1
DATE: ...23/09/2024................
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: (year 10)
TOPIC: Introduction to Geography
SUB-TOPIC 1: Meaning, nature, scope and value of Geography

The word geography is derived from two Greek words “geo” meaning the
earth and “graph” meaning to describe. The words grouped together formed
the definition of Geography. Geography therefore, can simply be defined as
the “description of the earth”.
However, Geography is more than mere description of the earth. Hence, it
is both defined as the study of people, their activities, places and physical
features within the earth.
Scope and Nature of Geography
Geography is a social science subject which deals with the study of man, his
activities within the environment and the physical things within the earth.
In order words, Geography studies different people in different places and
their activities like farming, trading, fishing, manufacturing and construction.
It also involves the study of places like Nigeria, Ghana, USA, Lagos etc.
Geography also deals with study of natural phenomena on the earth like
climate, oceans, rocks, mountains, vegetation etc. Also, it involves studying
of the heavenly bodies like the sun, moon and the planets.
Geography as a field of study cuts across many other fields of human study
such as Agricultural science, Geology, Biology, History, Economics,
Anthropology etc.
Branches of Geography
Geography is divided into three sub divisions. They are:
1. Physical Geography
2. Human/Regional Geography
3. Map Work/Reading
Values of Geography
1. Geography helps us to know the way of life of other people in other
parts of the world.
2. It helps us to know where places are on earth and understand better
what is said about them.
3. It also enables us to study physical things around us like soil,
vegetation, climate, mountains etc.
4. A study of Geography makes the understanding of related topics in
other subjects easy.
5. Geography helps us to know the relevance of the physical features
within our environment to man’s life.
 6. It helps us gain knowledge and skills useful in different profession like
Teaching, Surveying, Estate management, Architecture, Urban and
regional planning, Aviation, and Geology etc.
7. It also enable us to understand other subjects like Agricultural science,
Economics, Biology etc.
Assignment:
1. What is Geography?

2. Explain the scope and nature of Geography.

WEEK 2 DATE…………..
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY

TOPIC: GEOGRAPHY OF THE FCT:

Note: F.C.T means Federal Capital Territory

1. Location & Boundaries

• The Federal Capital Territory is situated at Nigeria's geographical
center, immediately north of the Niger–Benue confluence.
• It shares borders with Niger State (west and north, ~179 km),
Kaduna State (northeast, ~45 km), Nasarawa State (east and
south, ~156 km), and Kogi State (southwest, ~17 km)
2. Coordinates, Area & Administrative Divisions
• Geographical coordinates span approximately 8°15′N to 9°20′N
latitude, and 6°45′E to 7°39′E longitude.
• The FCT covers around 7,315 km² (≈2,824 sq mi).
• Administratively, it comprises six Area Councils—Abaji, Abuja
Municipal, Bwari, Gwagwalada, Kuje, and Kwali—further divided into
wards and chiefdoms
3. Physical Setting
• Geologically, the territory is predominantly underlain by Precambrian
crystalline rocks, including migmatites, gneisses, and granites. In
certain southwestern parts, these rocks are overlain by Cretaceous
sandstones and claystones
• Soils are largely lateritic, classified under SW–SP–SM and SC
categories in engineering terms, reflecting both strength and texture
• The climate is distinctly tropical, with a well-defined rainy season
(April–October) and a dry season (November–March), including
a brief harmattan period. Rainfall ranges between 1,100 mm and
1,600 mm annually. The terrain's altitude and undulation moderate
temperatures and rainfall patterns
4. Vegetation & Wildlife
• The region falls within the savanna vegetation zone, with savanna
grasslands and woodlands predominating. Some forest patches—
particularly around gullies and southeast areas like Gwagwa Plains—
occur
• Wildlife includes antelopes, certain primates, and a variety of bird
species, especially near features like Aso Rock
5. Mineral Resources & Economy
• The FCT is endowed with minerals such as clay, tin, feldspar, gold,
iron ore, lead, marble, talc, and others like mica and tantalite
• Agriculture remains a vital economic sector, cultivating yams, millet,
maize, sorghum, beans, and staples like cassava and rice in some
zones
6. Urban Geography (Abuja)
• Abuja, Nigeria’s capital, is centrally located within the FCT and
developed as a planned city from the 1980s
• It sits at an elevation of around 360 m (1,180 ft) above sea level
• The city’s topography is characterized by iconic monoliths—Aso Rock
(≈400 m) and Zuma Rock (≈725–792 m) depending on source—
which shape the urban landscape
 • Abuja boasts the Three Arms Zone (legislative, executive, judicial),
national landmarks, and major infrastructures like the international
airport and expressways

Summary Table
Component Key Details
Central Nigeria; 7,315 km²; between 8°15′–9°20′ N
Location & Size
and 6°45′–7°39′ E
Borders Niger, Kaduna, Nasarawa, Kogi States
Precambrian rocks, lateritic soils, some sediment
Geology & Soils
overlay
Tropical; wet (Apr–Oct), dry (Nov–Mar), rainfall
Climate
~1100–1600 mm
Vegetation &
Savanna, forest patches; antelopes, primates, birds
Wildlife
Minerals & Clay, tin, feldspar, gold, marble; staples including
Agriculture yam, maize
Planned city of Abuja; Aso & Zuma Rocks; central
Urban Features governance zone
Source: chatGPT
WEEK 3 DATE....
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY

TOPIC: THE EARTH AND OTHER PLANETS

SUB-TOPIC 1: Components of the Solar system
MEANING:
The solar system consists of the sun and the nine planets with their satellites.
The sun is at the centre of the planets and all other planets revolve around
it on elliptical orbits.

DEFINITION TERMS
  Orbit: The path followed by each of these planets around the sun

 SATELLITE. A smaller body which moves around a

 PLANET: A celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit round a star;

 Asteroid or minor planets; irregular shaped bodies found between the

orbits of mars and Jupiter

 Galaxies or nebula; are group or cluster of stars

 Dwarf planet: planet that does not have the ability to clear its path(
there are five dwarf planets in the solar system. They are; Ceres, Pluto
Haumea, Makemake, eris)

The planets themselves can be grouped into two:

TERRESTRIAL PLANETS: ie; Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. They are also
called inner planets. They consist of rocks and heavy minerals like iron.

JOVIAN PLANETS: ie; Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. They are called
Jovian planets because they have similar features with Jupiter being large
and made of gaseous materials.

THE SUN

The sun is the largest star in the solar system. It is at the centre of the
planets. It is stationary while all the planets move around it. It has a surface
temperature of about 6,0000c with an interior temperature of over
20,000,0000c. In size, the sun is about 300,000 times as big as the earth. It
is the ultimate source of light and energy to all the planets.

PLANETS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

 MERCURY

 It is the smallest and closest planet to the sun.

  It is about 57,900,000km (36million miles) away from the sun.

 It has the shortest orbit.

 A year in mercury is only 88 days.

 It has no satellite.

VENUS

 It is the second closest planet to the sun.

 It is often considered as earth’s twin because of the close proximity in

size, mass (weight) and density but contains no living things.

 It takes 225 days to complete it revolution round the sun.

 It has no satellite.

 It distance from the sun is about 107,200,000km.

EARTH

 It is the only planet which supports the existence of plants and animals.

 It has one natural satellite called the moon, which revolve around the
earth eastward once in every 27/28days.

 It is described by the spacemen as a “beautiful jewel” when seen from

space.

 It takes the earth about 365 ¼ days to complete it orbit.

 It is about 148,800,000km away from the sun.

 The distance of the moon from the earth is 384,629km

MARS

 Mars is the fourth and next planet to the earth.

 It has dark patches on its surface and is believed to be the next planet
after earth to have possibility of some plant life.

 It distance from the sun is 227,200,000km.

 It takes Mars 687days to complete its orbit.

 It has two satellite

JUPITER

 It is the largest planet in the solar system.

 It contains hydrogen and methane gases with light and dark bands on
its surface.

 It has twelve satellites that circle around it.

 Its distance from the sun is 772,800,000km.

 It takes Jupiter 9years to complete its orbits.

SATURN

 It is the second largest planet after Jupiter.

 It takes about 29 ½ years to complete its orbit.

 The distance of Saturn from the sun is about 1,417,600,000km.

 Saturn has three rings and ten satellite.

URANUS

 Uranus is 50 times larger than the earth and 15time as heavy.

 Its orbits around the sun is in clockwise direction from east to west.

 It has five satellite revolving around it.

 It distance from the sun is 2,854,400,000km.

  It takes about 84years to complete its orbits.

NEPTUNE

 It is very cold, with two satellite.

 It takes Neptune about 164.8years to complete its orbit.

 Its distance from the sun is 4,468,800,000km.

 It has two satellites.

Assignment

 Mention four characteristics each of the eight planets.

 What can you say about Pluto in recent time?

Topic: THE SIZE OF THE EARTH

The earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar system. The surface area of
the earth is approximately 443 million square kilometre (197 million square
miles).

NOTE:
(i) Equatorial circumference = 40,084km
(ii) Equatorial diameter = 12,761km
(iii) Polar circumference = 39,951km
(iv) Polar diameter = 12,719km

The Shape of the Earth

The earth is not flat. It has a spherical shape. It is slightly flattened at the
poles to give a nearly spherical in shape. The best word used to describe
the shape of the earth is geoid which means, the earth’s shape.

EVIDENCE/PROOFS TO SHOW THAT EARTH IS SPHERICAL

1. CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE EARTH: This proves that no

traveller going round the world by land or by sea has ever
encountered an abrupt edge, over which he would fall. This was
established and proved beyond doubt by Ferdinand Magellan and his
crew who travelled round the world between 1519 and 1522.

Circumnavigation of the Earth

2. SUNRISE AND SUNSET: As the earth rotates from west to east,

the places in the east experience the sun earlier than places in the
west. If the earth is flat, the whole earth would experience sunrise
and sunset at the same time.
 Sunrise and Sunset
3. THE CIRCULAR HORIZON: When one views a distant horizon from
the deck of a ship at sea, or from a cliff on land, the shape is always
circular. As one climbs higher, the circular horizon widens. This type
of feature is seen only on a spherical body.

4. SHIP’S VISIBILITY: When a ship is seen at a far distance, the top

of the mast is seen first before the hull and later the rest of the ship’s
body. In the same way, if a ship leaves a harbour it disappears
gradually. If the earth is flat, the ship from a distant view would
appear and disappear at once.

Ship’s Visibility on the Sea

5. PLANETARY BODIES: All other planetary bodies such as moon,

stars, sun etc are circular in shape. So the earth cannot be an
exception.
6. DRIVING POLES OF EQUAL LENGTH ON A LEVEL GROUND:
When poles of equal length were driven at the same depth in a level
ground by surveyors, it was found that the centre pole is projected
slightly above the poles at either side because of the curvature of the
earth. If the earth is flat, all the poles would have the same height.

Driving poles of equal length on a levelled ground

7. THE LUNAR ECLIPSE: During the lunar eclipse, the shadow of

earth casts on the moon is always circular in shape. Only a sphere,
like the earth can cast such as circular shadow.

Sun

Moon Earth
An Eclipse of the Moon

8. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH: Pictures of the earth taken from high

altitudes by rockets clearly show the curve edge of the earth. This is
the most recent and up-to-date proof of the earth’s sphericity.

ASSIGNMENT
 1. Describe the planet earth.
2. Discuss the importance of the Sun in the Solar system.

WEEK 4 DATE……

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY

EARTH’S MOVEMENT
The earth moves in space in two different ways. They are
1 Rotation
2 Revolution.

Meaning of Rotation of the Earth

The earth rotates on its axis from west to east in every 24hours through
3600. This is why it is said that there are twenty four hours (24) in a day. It
rotates through 150 in 1hour or 10 in 4 minutes. The rotating earth is
inclined at an angle of 23½0 along it axis
.
EFFECT OF ROTATION OF THE EARTH
1. DAY AND NIGHT: As the earth rotates from west to east only one
part of the earth facing the sun experiences daylight while other part
of the earth backing the sun’s ray will experience darkness (night).

2. DEFLECTION OF WIND AND OCEAN CURRENT: The rotation of

the earth causes the deflection of winds and ocean current to the
right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere.
 3. APPARENT SUNRISE AND SUNSET: During the earth’s rotation,
the part of the earth that emerges from the darkness into the rays of
the sun experience sunrise while the other part going away from the
sun’s rays to darkness will experience sunset.

4. TIME DIFFERENCE FROM PLACE TO PLACE: There is a

difference of one hour at every 150 apart. To the west an hour is lost
and to the east an hour is gained.

5. DAILY RISING AND FALLING OF THE TIDES: The rotation of the

earth causes the rising and falling in the level of water in the sea and
oceans.

6. IT CAUSES DAWN AND TWILIGHT: Dawn is a brief period

between the sunrise and complete daylight while twilight is the brief
period between sunset and complete darkness.
.

Meaning of Revolution of the Earth

The earth revolves around the sun on its orbit. It takes 365¼ days to
complete one revolution. The ¼ day or 6hours is added up every four
years to make an extra day in a leap year.
The revolving earth is tilted or inclined at an angle of 66½ 0 to the plane of
ecliptic orbit during its revolution.
EFFECTS OF REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
1. IT DETERMINES A YEAR. The time taken by the earth to move
round the sun is fixed at 365 ¼ days which make up a year.
2. VARYING LENGTH OF DAY AND NIGHT: The length of day and
night varies depending on the position of the earth.
 3. IT CAUSES SEASONS: The tropical areas like West Africa have two
seasons- rainy and dry seasons. But the temperate region countries
experience four seasons- Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter.

4. CHANGES IN THE ALTITUDE OF THE MID-DAY SUN: The

revolution of the earth cause a change of the mid-day sun resulting
in equinoxes and solstices.

EQUINOXES: Equinox means equal day and night. It is the time

when the mid-day sun is directly overhead at the equator. This
occurs on March 21st and September 23rd.

SOLSTICES: This means that the period of day and night is not
equal. It is the time when the sun is vertically overhead at the
tropic of cancer. This normally occurs on December 22nd and June
21st.
5. CHANGES IN SEASONAL TEMPERATURE: There is a warm and
bright summer while winters are cold and dark in the arctic region

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ROTATION AND REVOLUTION OF THE

EARTH
1. During rotation the earth rotates on its axis while during revolution it
revolves round the sun along its orbit.
2. The earth rotates through 3600 in 24 hours (one day) whereas it
revolves round the sun in 365¼ days (one year).
3. The rotating earth is inclined at an angle of 23½0 along its axis while the
revolving earth is tilted or inclined at an angle of 66½ 0 to the plane of
ecliptic.
4. Rotation causes day and night whereas revolution causes seasons.
5. Rotation causes the difference of one hour between two meridians – 150
apart whereas revolution causes changes in the altitude of the mid-day
sun.
Assignment

Objective Test. Choose the correct answer from letter a-d

1. The rotation of the earth causes (A) changes in the altitude of the
mid-day sun (B) day and night (C) variations in the length of day and
night (D) differences in the length of one year.
2. Which of the following conditions occurs during equinox? (A) The
tropic of Cancer experiences longer day than the tropic of Capricorn
(B) All places across the globe experience equal lengths of day and
nights (C) The length of day at the Equator is shorter than the tropic
of Cancer (D) The moon is star-shaped all through the night all over
the world.
3. When the sun is directly overhead at the tropic of Capricorn (23½0S)
on 22nd December, the Northern Hemisphere experiences its (A)
twilight (B) winter solstice (C) summer solstice (D) spring equinox (E)
autumn equinox.
4. In the southern hemisphere, the autumnal equinox occurs on (A)
21st March (B) 21st June (C) 23rd September (D) 22nd December
(E) 4th January.
5. Which of the following is a leap year? (a) 1978 (b) 2001 (c) 1988
(d)1990

WEEK 5

TOPIC: Latitudes and Longitudes

SUB-TOPIC 1: Meaning and Uses of Latitude
Meaning of Latitude.
Latitude is an imaginary line drawn on the globe running from west to east.
It can also be defined as the angular distance of a point on the earth’s
surface, measured in degrees from the centre of the earth.
The earth is divided into equal halves –
1. The northern hemisphere
 2. southern hemisphere by latitude (O0) called the equator.
Other lines of latitude are parallel to the equator and to each other.
Lines of latitude are also called parallels of latitude.

Lines of Latitude run from west to east

The major lines of latitude are:
i. The Equator (0°)
ii. The Tropic of Cancer 23 ½ °N
iii. The Tropic of Capricorn 23 ½ °S
iv. The Arctic Circle 66 ½ °N
v. The Antarctic Circle 66 ½ °S
These are diagrammatically showing below

Equator: Equator is a line of latitude that divides the earth into two
halves- northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere. It is 00.
All other lines of latitude north or south take their readings from equator
and they are parallel to it.
The equator is also referred to as Great Circle.
USES OF LINES OF LATITUDE
i. It is used in conjunction with longitude to locate places on the
map.
ii. It is used to calculate distance between two places on the earth’s
surface.

The Parallel of Latitude

Latitude and Distance

Lines of latitude are used to calculate the distance between two
places on the earth surface.
To calculate distance the following procedure are to be followed
 1. Locate the two places
2. Find the latitude difference between the two places involved.
To do that,
Use this formular
i. North – North = subtract
ii. South – South = Subtract
iii. South – North = Add
iv. Equator (00) – North/South = Add or subtract
3. Multiply the latitude difference by 111km
Note that 10 of latitude is approximately 111km on land. This is derived by
dividing the length of equatorial circumference (40,089km) by 3600
40,089
i.e. = 111km
360 0

EXAMPLE 1: Calculate the distance between the equator (Lat 00) and
Egypt (300N)
Solution:

a. Locate the two places involved

Latitude of equator = 00
Latitude of Egypt = 300
b. The difference in latitude is 0 + 30 = 300
c. Since 10 =111km
Therefore, 300 = 30 x 111km = 3,330km
The distance between the equator and Egypt = 3,330km
EXAMPLE 2: Calculate the distance between South Africa (30os) and Spain
(400N)
Solution:

a. Locate the places involved

South Africa 300s
Spain 400N
b. Latitude difference 300 + 400 = 700
c. Since 10 = 111km
 700 = 111 x 70 = 7,770km
The distance between South Africa and Spain is 7,770km

Assignment:
1. Calculate the distance between Point R (lat. 500S) and Point Q (lat.
350N)
Week 6

Meaning of Longitude
Longitude is an imaginary line drawn on the globe (earth) running from
north to south at right angle to the parallel.
It is also defined as an angular distance measured in degrees east and
west of the Greenwich meridian.
All other lines of longitude are called meridian and are numbered in
degrees east and west of longitude 00.
The longitude passing through London (Britain) and Accra (Ghana) is called
Great, Prime or Greenwich Meridian and it is longitude 00.
The major lines of longitude are showing in the diagram below.

Important Lines of Longitude

Uses of Lines of Longitude

i. They are used in calculating local time.
ii. They are used in conjunction with latitude to locate places on the
map.
 GREAT CIRCLE
It is an imaginary circle on the earth’s surface with its plane
passing through the centre of the earth, thereby dividing the globe
into two hemispheres or two equal parts. Out of all the lines of
latitude, only the equator is a great circle. Any two opposite
longitudes (meridians) form a great circle. Thus, Greenwich
meridian together with meridian 180 form a great circle.
. The shortest distance between any two points on the earth’s
surface is an arc of a GREAT CIRCLE.
A great circle route is the shortest route between two points on
the globe.
Modern aircraft follow routes along sections of great circles to
save time and fuel.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE LINES OF LATITUDE AND

LONGITUDE.
1. Both are imaginary lines drawn on the earth’s surface.
2. Both are angular distances of a point on the earth’s surface.
3. Both are measured in degrees.
4. Both are used to locate places on the earth’s surface.
5. Both contain great circle.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE LINES OF LATITUDE AND

LONGITUDE.
1. Lines of latitude are called parallels while lines of longitude are called
meridians.
2. Parallels are drawn from west to east while meridians are drawn from
north to south.
3. Distance between two meridians decreases towards the poles while for
the parallels the distance is constant.
4. Parallels have different circumference while meridians have equal
circumference,
5. Parallels never meet while meridians meet at the poles.
6. Parallels are marked 0 to 90 north and south of the equator while
meridians are marked 0 to 180 east and west of the Greenwich.
7. Of all the parallels only the equator is a great circle while all meridians
form part of a great circle.

Local Time
The situation in which time varies for every degree of longitude is what is
referred to as local time.
PROCEDURES FOR CALCULATING LOCAL TIME
1. Locate the places involved in question
2. Find the longitude difference
3. Convert the longitude difference to time
4. Adjust the time according to the direction of the movement (West or
East)

EXAMPLE 1: What will be the local time in Nigeria (Long 150E) when it is
5.00pm in Ethiopia (Long 450E)?
SOLUTIONS
Longitude difference. To find the longitude difference the formula used is
(i) East – East = Subtract
(ii) West – West = Subtract
(iii) East – West = Add
(iv) Greenwich Meridian (00) - West or East = Add or Subtract
Longitude difference = 450 – 150 = 300
Convert the longitude difference to time
The formula used is
3600 = 24hrs
150 = 1hour
10 = 4minutes
Using 150 = 1hour
30
300 =  1 = 2hrs
15
OR
Using 1 = 4minutes
0

30 0  4 min 120
300 = = = 2hrs
60 60
To adjust the time, subtract 2hours from 5.00pm for the direction of arrow
5.00pm – 2hrs = 3.00pm
Therefore, the local time in Nigeria is 3.00pm.
Note that if the direction is to the west, you subtract the calculated time
from the given one. But if direction of arrow is to the east, the calculated
time will be added to the given time.
CALCULATION OF LONGITUDE
PROCEDURE
a. Locate the places involved
b. Find the time difference
 c. Convert the time difference to longitude
d. Adjust the longitude to the direction of movement (west or east)
EXAMPLE: What is the longitude of a town X whose time is 12.00noon
when Greenwich Mean Time is 6.00pm?
SOLUTION:
Procedure A:

Note: Town X has to come first because you get 12noon before [Link]
Procedure B: Find the time difference
12.00pm – 6.00pm = 6hrs
Procedure C: Convert 6hrs to longitude.
Since 150 = 1hour
6hrs = 6 x 150 = 900
Procedure D: Since the arrow is pointing to the question mark (i.e. west),
therefore, the 900 is to the west which is 900W. Therefore the longitude of
town X = 900W.
Standard Time and World Time Zone
This is a time generally adopted by a country in order to eliminate
differences in local time between one town and the other within the same
country. It is usually taken in reference to the Greenwich meridian. For
example, Nigeria regulates its time with longitude 150 E, which is an hour
ahead GMT.
The world is divided into 24 standard time zones, each of which differs
from the next zone by 150 in longitude or one hour in time. Some bigger
countries like Canada, USA, etc adopted many time zones due to the area
extent of the country. For example, Russia and China are divided into
eleven time zones while both Canada and USA have five time zones.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
This is also called world time and it is longitude [Link] countries of the
world take or adjust their time from longitude 00. Countries locate on
longitude 00 such as Accra (Ghana), London (Britain), Paris (France),
Algiers (Algeria), etc. observe GMT. Nigeria for instance is on longitude 150
E which is an hour ahead of Ghana.

International Dateline and Grid references

This is an imaginary line running from north to south through Pacific
Ocean. The line is zig-zag in some places to avoid some island group
thereby removing the confusion of dividing one island into different date.

Where this line is crossed, the date changes by exactly one day (24hours).
When crossing IDL (Longitude 1800) from west to east 24hours is gained.
If it is crossed from east to west 24hours is lost. For example, if a traveller
crosses IDL on Friday 13th to the east, the day becomes Thursday 12th,
while crossing it to the west on Friday 13th, the day becomes Saturday
14th.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Objective Tests: Choose the correct answer from letter A-D
1. The longitude that joins Longitude 180° at the opposite side of the
globe to form a Great Circle is (A) Longitude 0° (B) Longitude 30°E
(C) Longitude 150°W (D) Longitude 170°W.
2. What is the distance along a great circle between Latitudes 270S and
23.50N of the equator? (A) 5,705.5km (B) 5,610.5km (C) 5,500.5km
(D) 5,405.5km.
 3. The angular distance of a point on the Earth's surface measured in
degrees from the centre of the Earth east or west of the Greenwich
Meridian is known as (A) axis (B) latitude (C) orbit (D) longitude.
4. The degree of longitude through which the Earth spins within 3 hours
is (A) 150. (B) 300. (C) 450. (D) 600.
5. Which of the following countries is located on longitude 00? (a)
Nigeria (b) Gambia (c) Ethiopia (d) France

WEEK 8
DATE..................

TOPIC: THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The structure of the earth is grouped into
1. the outer structure
2. the internal structure of the earth.

The outer structures of the earth consist of four zones or layers.

Three are made up of physical constituents, which consist of the
three different states of matter; which are solid, liquid and gaseous
substances. While the fourth which is made up of the Biological
constituents, consist of living organisms.
These outer structures of the earth includes: -
i. The Atmosphere,
ii. ii. The Lithosphere,
iii. iii. The Hydrosphere and
iv. iv. The Biosphere.
 The External and Internal Structure of the Earth

THE ATMOSPHERE: The atmosphere is the portion of the earth that

consists of gases. These mixtures of various gases and other matter, forms
and envelops round the earth. The atmosphere is loosely called “Air”,
around us but in the real fact the atmosphere contain more than just air.
The pure air in it, is made up of the following gases:
Nitrogen -------- -----------------------78%
Oxygen --------------------------------- 21%
Argon and Neon (rare gases------- 0.93%
Carbon dioxide ----------------------0.03%
The atmosphere also contains water vapour and dust particles. The
atmosphere also is made up of four layers which include:
i. the troposphere,
ii. the stratosphere,
iii. the mesosphere and
iv. The thermosphere.
The troposphere is the lowest and nearest to the earth, while the
thermosphere, otherwise known as the ionosphere is the uppermost part of
the earth.
THE LITHOSPHERE: The lithosphere or the crust is the outer solid part of
the earth. The lithosphere comprises of two distinct parts;
1. the upper part consists of granite rocks and forms the continents
comprising of the landmasses, which is marked by irregular surface
features known as landforms, e.g. mountains, plateau, hills, plains,
etc.; its main mineral compositions are Silica and Alumina, collectively
referred to as SIAL.
2. The lower part is a continuous zone of thicker rocks forming the
ocean floor, comprising of silica, iron and magnesium collectively
called the SIMA.

THE HYDROSPHERE: The hydrosphere is the liquid components of the

earth where there is water. It consists of oceans, sea, river, lake, streams
and other forms of water bodies. The water bodies consist of 71% of the
earth surface. The ocean and the sea make up 97% of them.
.
THE BIOSPHERE: The biosphere is the world of living organisms, which
includes Man, plants, animals and micro-organisms like bacteria and fungi.
These organisms dwell on Lithosphere (land), Hydrosphere (water) and
Atmosphere (air) around us. They obtain their energy from the sun convert
it into use, interact and depend on one another for existence.
The Relationship between the major spheres of the Earth
1. The lithosphere which is the solid part of the earth is where all living
organisms including man lives and survive; though not without the
support of the other two spheres (Hydrosphere and Atmosphere).
2. The atmosphere which consists of the different gases that envelops
the earth is the very source of energy to all living organisms. The sun
is the ultimate source of energy from which plants and other
organisms derive their source of energy to produce their own food,
on which other animals including man depend on for survival.
Oxygen, Nitrogen, carbon dioxide and the rare gases are other
atmospheric composite that enhances the survival of living organisms
on the Biosphere.
3. The hydrosphere, which consist of all natural water bodies of the
earth, from which plants, animal, and other living organisms
including man depend on for survival. Therefore these three spheres
(atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere) are very essential for
every living organism in the biosphere

RELEVANCE OF THESE SPHERES TO HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Atmosphere
1. It serves habitat for some living organism.
2. It provides oxygen for plants and animals for respiration.
3. It provides carbon dioxide for photosynthesis by plants.
4. It contains ozone layer which acts as protective cover for living
organism against the burning effects of ultra violet rays of the
sun.
5. It acts as green house.
 6. It is a medium of communication e.g. air routes.
Hydrosphere
1. It provides water for domestic uses e.g. drinking, washing,
bathing, etc.
2. It provides water for industrial uses.
3. It serves as a means of transportation.
4. It provides employment opportunities for the people dwelling in
the riverine areas.
5. It is used for generating electricity.
6. It is also used for irrigation purpose.
7. It serves as tourist centre e.g. bar beach.
Lithosphere
1. Lithosphere forms the basis of all human settlement.
2. It serves as a source of all mineral resources.
3. It aids transportation through construction of roads, railways
and airports.
4. All forms of farming activities are carried out on lithosphere.
5. It forms basis for most human activities such as mining,
trading, etc.

Internal structure of the earth

LITHOSPHERE (CRUST)
This is the solid portion of the earth that contains mineral substances
broadly called Sial and Sima. The upper part of lithosphere is made of
Silica and aluminium (sial) and the lower part silica and magnesium (sima).
The density of sial is 2.7 while that of sima is 3.0. Silica floats on sima. The
boundary of lithosphere and mantle is called Mohorovisic discontinuity.
MANTLE (MESOSPHERE OR SUBSTRATUM)
Mantle is also called mesosphere. It is found beneath the lithosphere. It
has high density and contains a kind of rock called olivine. The boundary
between the mantle and the core is called Gutenberg discontinuity.
CORE (BARYSPHERE)
The core or barysphere comes after the mantle and is made up of Iron and
Nickel (Nife). It has a very hot temperature of 1927°c and so is in a state of
fluid. The rock is known to be crystalline in nature.

READING ASSIGNMENT:
Essential Geography for Senior Secondary Schools by O.A Iwena
Pages 51-55.

WEEK 9 DATE..............

TOPIC: Rocks

Sub – Topic 1: Definition and types of rocks.

A rock is any solid substance that forms part of the earth crust. This solid
substance may be hard, like granite or even be soft like mud. In other
word, rocks are aggregates of minerals, that is, a combination of different
minerals.
 COMMON ROCKS AND THEIR MINERALS

ROCKS MINERALS

Limestone quart, feldspar,

micas
Sandstone quart, calcite,
feldspar
Granite feldspar, augite
Types of Rock
There are three major types of rocks according to their origin, mode of
formation and physical appearance. They are:

1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
Mode of formation:
These rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of molten rock
or magma from the earth beneath. They are crystalline in nature examples
are Basalt and Granite.
Igneous rock could be divided into two, namely:
1. Intrusive or plutonic igneous rock and
2. Extrusive or Volcanic Igneous rock
Intrusive Igneous rocks are rocks which solidified deep in the crust and
they are only seen on the surface after a prolong erosive action. Examples
are granite, diorite and gabbro.

Extrusive Igneous rocks are rocks that formed when the molten rock or
magma are ejected and poured on the earth’s surface as Lavas.
These rocks do not contain fossils. Example is Basaltic rock and they can
be located in North Eastern part of Nigeria.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

1. These rocks are crystalline in nature
 2. They are non- stratified rocks i.e. they do not occur in layers.
3. They are resistant to erosion and are usually hard and impervious.
4. They do not contain fossils

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Mode of formation:
These rocks are formed from the accumulation of sediments either by
water, ice or wind. They are derived from other pre- existing rocks such as
igneous rocks. They are laid in layers or strata. These rocks are said to be
stratified rocks only when they become harder in nature by compressional
forces. All sedimentary rocks are non crystalline and contain fossils.
There are three major types of sedimentary rocks namely:
a. Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks.
These rocks are formed by breakdown or disintegration of pre- existing
rocks during the process of mechanical weathering. The materials are now
transported by agents of erosion such as water, wind and glacier .The rock
debris are then deposited either in the sea or on land .The following rocks
are the result of the action of water which include clays, gravel and
aluminium. Those that result from the action of ice are moraine, boulder
and gravel. The only rock produce by wind is loess.
b. Organically formed sedimentary rocks.
These rocks are formed from the accumulation of the remains of dead
plants and animals. Some of the notable rocks formed by the remains of
animals are chalk and corals and they are known as calcareous rocks.
Those that result from plants include peat, coal and lignite and they are
known as carbonaceous rocks.
c. Chemically formed sedimentary rocks.
These rocks are chemically precipitated from other rock solution before
they solidified. Examples include potash, sodium chloride (common salt),
nitrate, gypsum and dolomite.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1. They occur in layers or strata.
 2. The rocks may be coarse, fine soft or hard.
3. They do not exist in crystals i.e. they are non- crystalline in
nature.
4. They contain fossil of plants and animals.
5. They are not resistant to erosion.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Mode of formation:
These are rocks whose structures and appearance have been affected by
great heat and pressure. The rocks are formed from pre- existing igneous
or sedimentary rocks which have been changed over time. Examples of
metamorphic rocks include slate, marble, quartzite, gneiss, schist and
graphite. Metamorphic regions are often regions of great economic value
e.g. the Canadian shield of North America.
All rocks are subject to metamorphism. Even metamorphic rocks can still
be metamorphosed. Below is a documentation of the changes some rocks
undergo as a result of metamorphism.
Limestone == changes to == marble
Clay == changes to == slate
Sandstone == changes to == quartzite
Granite == changes to == gneiss
Shale == changes to == schist
Coal == changes to == graphite
The following are the three types of metamorphism:
I. Dynamic, which is the result of pressure force from the surrounding and
overlying rocks.
II. Thermal, which is caused by heat force deep beneath the earth’s
surface.
III. Thermo-dynamic, which is caused by the combination of heat and
pressure.

CHARACTERISTICS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

1. Some may occur in layers or strata.
 2. The rock may be hard or soft.
3. They are not crystalline in nature.
4. They exist in different colour and texture.
5. They may contain fossil.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ROCKS TO MAN

1. Sources of Minerals: some rocks are sources of minerals such as
gold, diamond, limestone, petroleum etc. Which can be exported
to provide foreign exchange to a country.
Petroleum coal, limestone are derived from sedimentary rocks
while gold, diamond and tin are derived from igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
2. Sources of Fuel: sedimentary rocks like petroleum and coal are
sources of fuel for domestic and industrial uses.
3. Construction Purposes: some rocks like granite and sand stone
are quarried and used for roads, bridges and building
construction.
4. Tourist Centres: Huge rock masses on mountain serve as tourist
centres e.g. Olumo rock in Abeokuta and Zuma rock in Suleja.
5. As Ornamental: Some beautiful rocks such as marble can be
polished as ornaments for decorating floors, walls of building,
churches, tombstones etc.
6. Sources of food Nutrients: Rock salts as sodium chloride (table
salt) from sedimentary rocks provide minerals used in cooking.
7. Formation of Soil: soil are formed from the disintegration of
rocks.
8. Sources of Metal: Rocks are sources of metals which are derived
from mines e.g. gold, silver, iron, aluminium, copper etc.
9. Domestic uses: some rocks like granite are used for domestic
purposes e.g. grinding stones.
10. Raw Materials for Industries: some sedimentary rocks are
used as raw materials in industries e.g. limestone is used for
 making cement, dolomite and marble are used for manufacturing
of glasses and house paints

Assignment
1. (a) Give two examples each of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
(b) Outline four major differences between sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks. (WASSCE June 2000).

Revision