UNIT II ELEMENTS OF IOT

IoT and M2M- difference between IoT and M2M - Software Defined Networks - Network
Function Virtualization - IoT systems management – Needs - NETCONF, YANG - IoT design
methodology Sensors and actuators - Communication modules – LoRa - RFID - Wi-Fi - Power
sources

IOT AND M2M

The field of remote device networking has been revolutionized in the past several
years. Two technologies that we often hear while discussing device networking are M2M
(Machine-to-Machine) and IoT (Internet of Things). They both have similar objectives:
connecting smart devices without, or with the least, human involvement for capturing and
transmitting the data and remote monitoring.

What is IoT?

IoT (Internet of Things) is the network of physical objects embedded with software,
sensors, and other technologies to connect and share data with multiple devices over the internet.
It is an environment in which devices share the data via the networking media known as the
internet. Users can build fast, scalable, high-performance networks by connecting a wide range
of devices via the technologies with the use of IoT devices.

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 For example, an air conditioners sensor may collect the data on outside temperatures and
change its temperature to increase or decrease according to the outside environment's
temperature. Likewise, the refrigerators may change their temperature accordingly, too.

IOT is known as the Internet of Things where things are said to be the communicating
devices that can interact with each other using a communication media. Usually every day
some new devices are being integrated which uses IoT devices for its function. These devices
use various sensors and actuators for sending and receiving data over the internet. It is an
ecosystem where the devices share data through a communication media known as the
internet or Iot is an ecosystem of connected physical object that are accessible through
internet. Iot means anything which can be connected to internet and can be controlled or
monitored using internet from smart devices or PC.

What is M2M?

M2M stands for Machine to Machine communication. It is a direct communication

system between the devices using wired or wireless communications channels without any
human interaction. It collects the data and shares it with other connected devices. It is a
technology that allows devices without the use of the internet to connect between devices.
Various applications, such as defense, monitoring and tracking, production and facility
management, are provided by M2M communications.
M2M technology may be present in offices, shopping malls, houses, and many other
places. A common example of a machine to machine is controlling electrical devices like fans
and bulbs using Bluetooth from the smartphone. Here, the smartphone and electrical devices are
the two interacting devices with each other.
This is commonly known as Machine to machine communication. It is a concept where
two or more than two machines communicate with each other without human interaction using
a wired or wireless mechanism. M2M is an technology that helps the devices to connect
between devices without using internet. M2M communications offer several applications such
as security, tracking and tracing, manufacturing and facility management.
M2M is also named as Machine Type Communication (MTC) in 3GPP ( 3rd
Generation Partnership Project).

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 M2M is communication could carried over mobile networks, for ex- GSM-GPRS,
CDMA EVDO Networks .
In M2M communication, the role of mobile networks is largely confined to server as a
transport networks.
M2M is only subset of IoT

Common examples of machine-to-machine technology is the smart meter, which can

track electric consumption in real-time. M2M technology is widely used in applications such as
tracking and tracing, automation, metering, healthcare, etc
M2M technology has many benefits, including but not limited to:
 cost-effective
 easy to maintain
 improves customer service by proactive monitoring and servicing

How M2M works?

The primary purpose of M2M technology is to tap into sensor data and transmit it over
the network. M2M system often uses cellular or Ethernet and consists of three main
components:
1. Data endpoint (DEP): It is the system containing the data to be monitored or transmitted.
Data endpoints are microcomputer systems- transmitters that are linked to a receiver. The
network consists of many connected devices and data endpoints.
2. Communication networks: Cellular networks and wireless or wired internet connections
are different types of communication networks transferring data from one machine to
another.
3. Data integration point (DIP): It is the machine that receives the information. There can be
multiple data endpoints in a network but only one data integration point. The DIP can be a
control centre for metre readings, a server, or a web crawler.

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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IOT AND M2M
Main Differences between the IoT and M2M
1. IoT is a subset of M2M technology. In IoT, the communication between two machines
without human instruction, making it a part of the M2M communication system.
2. The point-to-point communication of M2M is the main difference between M2M and IoT
technology. Meanwhile, an IoT system usually locates its devices within a global cloud
network that facilitates larger-scale automation and more advanced applications.
3. Another key difference between IoT and M2M is scalability. IoT is designed to be highly
scalable because devices may also be included in the network and integrated into existing
networks with minimal issues.

Features IoT M2M

Abbreviation IoT stands for the Internet of Things. M2M stands for Machine-to-Machine
communication.

Intelligence Devices include objects that are responsible In M2M, there is a limited amount of
for decision-making processes. intelligence observed.

Communicati IoT has used internet protocols like FTP, Communication technology and
on Protocol Telnet, and HTTP. Traditional protocols are uses in
Used M2M technology.

Connection The connection of IoT is through the network M2M uses a point to point
Type Used and using various types of communication. connection.

Scope It has a wide range of devices, yet the scope is It has a limited Scope for devices.
large.

Business Type It has Business to Consumer (B2C) and It has Business to Business (B2B)
Used Business to Business (B2B). communication.

Data Sharing In IoT, data sharing depends on the Internet In M2M, devices may be connected
protocol network. through mobile or any other network.

Open API IoT technology supports Open API In M2M technology, there is no Open
Support integrations. API support.

Example Big Data, Cloud, Smart wearables, and many Data and Information, sensors, and
more. many more.

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SOFTWARE DEFINED NETWORKS

 Software- Networking (SDN) is a networking architecture that separates the control plane
from the data plane and centralizes the network controller.

 Software-based SDN controllers maintain a united view of the network The underlying
infrastructure in SDN uses simple packet forwarding hardware as opposed to specialized
hardware in conventional networks.

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SDN Architecture
Key elements of SDN:
Centralized Network Controller With decoupled control and data planes and
centralized network controller, the network administrators can rapidly configure the network.
Programmable Open APIs SDN architecture supports programmable open APIs for
interface between the SDN application and control layers (Northbound interface).
Standard Communication Interface(OpenFlow) SDN architecture uses a standard
communication interface between the control and infrastructure layers (Southbound the Open
Networking Foundation (ONF) is the broadly accepted SDN protocol for the Southbound
interface.

NETWORK FUNCTION VIRTUALIZATION(NFV)

 Network Function Virtualization (NFV) is a technology that leverages virtualization to
consolidate the heterogeneous network devices onto industry standard high volume
servers, switches and storage.

 NFV is complementary to SDN as NFV can provide the infrastructure on which SDN can
run.

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Key elements of NFV:
NFV Architecture Virtualized Network Function(VNF):
VNF is a software implementation of a network function which is capable of running
over the NFV Infrastructure (NFVI).
NFV Infrastructure(NFVI):
NFVI includes compute, network and storage resources that are virtualized.
NFV Management and Orchestration:
NFV Management and Orchestration focuses on all virtualization-specific
management tasks and covers the orchestration and life-cycle management of physical and/or
software resources that support the infrastructure virtualization, and the life-cycle management
of VNFs.

Need for IoT Systems Management

Managing multiple devices within a single system requires advanced management
capabilities.

1. Automating Configuration : IoT system management capabilities can helpin automating

the system configuration.
2. Monitoring Operational & Statistical Data : Management systems can help in
monitoring operational and statistical data of a system. This data can be used for fault
diagnosis or prognosis.
3. Improved Reliability: A management system that allows validating the system
configurations before they are put into effect can help in improving the system reliability.
4. System Wide Configurations: For IoT systems that consist of multiple devices or nodes,
ensuring system wide configuration can be critical for the correct functioning of the
system.
5. Multiple System Configurations : For some systems it may be desirable to have
multiple valid configurations which are applied at different times or in certain conditions.
6. Retrieving & Reusing Configurations: Management systems which have the capability
of retrieving configurations from devices can help in reusing the configurations for other
devices of the same type.

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IoT Systems Management with NETCONF-YANG
YANG is a data modeling language used to model configuration and state data
manipulated by the NETCONF protocol.
The generic approach of IoT device management with NETCONF-YANG. Roles of
various components are:
1. Management System
2. Management API
3. Transaction Manager
4. Rollback Manager
5. Data Model Manager
6. Configuration Validator
7. Configuration Database
8. Configuration API
9. Data Provider API

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 1. Management System : The operator uses a management system to send NETCONF
messages to configure the IoT device and receives state information and notifications
from the device as NETCONF messages.
2. Management API : allows management application to start NETCONF sessions.
3. Transaction Manager: executes all the NETCONF transactions and ensures that ACID
properties hold true for the transactions.
4. Rollback Manager : is responsible for generating all the transactions necessary to
rollback a current configuration to its original state.
5. Data Model Manager : Keeps track of all the YANG data models and the corresponding
managed objects. Also keeps track of the applications which provide data for each part of
a data model.
6. Configuration Validator: checks if the resulting configuration after applying a
transaction would be a valid configuration.
7. Configuration Database : contains both configuration and operational data
8. Configuration API : Using the configuration API the application on the IoT device can
be read configuration data from the configuration data store and write operational data to
the operational data store.
9. Data Provider API: Applications on the IoT device can register for callbacks for various
events using the Data Provider API. Through the Data Provider API, the applications can
report statistics and operational data.

Steps for IoT device Management with NETCONF-YANG

1. Create a YANG model of the system that defines the configuration and state data of the
system.
2. Complete the YANG model with the _Inctool which comes With Libnetconf.
3. Fill in the IoT device management code in the TransAPImodule.
4. Build the callbacks C file to generate the library file.
5. Load the YANG module and the TransAPImodule into the Netopeer server using
Netopeer manager tool.
6. The operator can now connect from the management system to the Netopeer server using
the NetopeerCLI.

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 7. Operator can issue NETCONF commands from the Netopeer CLI. Command can be
issued to change the configuration data, get operational data or execute an RPC on the
IoTdevice.

What is Software-defined Networking in IoT?

To make networks more adaptable and flexible, Software-defined Networking in IoT is
an architecture that easily abstracts many different layers of a network. SDN aims to improve
network control by enabling enterprises and service providers to respond quickly to changing
business requirements.

Different types of software-defined networking

Primarily, there are 4 types of Software-defined Networking in IoT, each with its own benefits:
1. Open SDN: Open SDN uses open protocols to control the virtual and physical devices
responsible for routing the data packets.
2. API SDN: API SDN uses programming interfaces, called southbound APIs, to control
data flow to and from each device.
3. Overlay Model SDN: Overlay Model SDN creates a virtual network above existing
hardware, providing tunnels containing channels to data centers. This model then
allocates bandwidth in each channel and assigns devices to each channel.
4. Hybrid Model SDN: Hybrid Model SDN combines SDN and traditional networking,
allowing the optimal protocol to be assigned for each type of traffic. Hybrid SDN is often
used as a phase-in approach to SDN.

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 IOT DESIGN METHODOLOGY

Designing IoT systems can be a complex and challenging task as these systems involve
interactions between various components. A wide range of choices are available for each
component. IoT designers often tend to design the system keeping specific products in mind.
We will look at a generic design methodology which is independent of specific product,
service or programming language. IoT systems designed with this methodology will have
reduced design time, testing time, maintenance time, complexity and better interoperability.
The steps involved in the designing of an IoT system or application can be summarized as
shown in the below figure:

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1. Purpose and Requirements specification
First step is to define the purpose and requirements of the system. In this step, the system
purpose, behavior and requirements are captured. Requirements can be:
 Data collection requirements
 Data analysis requirements
 System management requirements
 Security requirements
 User interface requirements
For home automation system the purpose and requirements specification is as follows:

A home automation system that allows controlling the lights remotely

Purpose
using a web application

Home automation system should support two modes: auto and manual
Auto: System measures the light level in the room and switches on the
Behavior
light when it is dark
Manual: Allows remotely switching lights on and off

System
System should provide remote monitoring and control functions
Management

Data Analysis System should perform local analysis of the data

Application Application should be deployed locally, but should be accessible

Deployment remotely

Security Should provide basic security like user authentication

2. Process Specification
The use cases of the IoT system are formally described based on or derived from the
purpose and requirements specifications. The process specification for home automation system
is as shown below.

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3. Domain Model Specification
The domain model describes the main concepts, entities and objects in the domain of the
IoT system to be designed. Domain model defines the attributes of the objects and relationships
between objects. The domain model is independent of any specific technology or platform.
Using domain model, system designers can get an understanding of the IoT domain for
which the system is to be designed. The entities, objects and concepts defined in the domain
model of home automation system include the following:

• The physical identifiable objects in the environment

Physical
• IoT system provides information about the physical entity (using sensors) or
Entity
performs actuation upon the physical entity

• Virtual entity is a representation of the physical entity in the digital world

Virtual Entity
• For every physical entity there is a virtual entity

• Devices provide a medium for interaction between physical and virtual entities
Device • Devices are used to gather information from or perform actuation on physical
entities

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 • Resources are software components which can be either on-device or network-
resources
• On-device resources are hosted on the device and provide sensing or actuation
Resource
(eg: operating system)
• Network-resources include software components that are available on the
network (eg: database)

• Services provide an interface for interacting with the physical entity

Service
• Services access resources to perform operations on physical entities

The domain model specification diagram for home automation system is as shown in the
below figure.

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4. Information Model Specification
Information model defines the structure of all the information in the IoT system. Does not
describe how the information is stored and represented. To define the information model, we first
list the virtual entities. Later more details like attributes and relationships are added. The
information model specification for home automation system is as shown below:

5. Service Specifications
The service specification defines the following:
 Services in the system
 Service types
 Service inputs/output
 Service endpoints
 Service schedules
 Service preconditions
 Service effects

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 For each state and attribute in the process specification and information model, we define
a service. Services either change the state of attributes or retrieve their current values. The
service specification for each state in home automation systems are as shown below:

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6. IoT Level Specification
Based on the requirements we will choose the IoT application deployment level. The
deployment level for home automation system is shown in the below figure.

7. Functional View Specification

The functional view defines the functions of the IoT systems grouped into various
functional groups. Each functional group provides functionalities for interacting with concepts in
the domain model and information related to the concepts.
The functional groups in a functional view include: Device, Communication, Services,
Management, Security, and Application. The functional view specification for home automation
system is shown in the below figure:

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The mapping between the IoT level and the functional groups is as shown in the below figure.

8. Operational View Specification

In this step, various options related to the IoT system deployment and operations are defined,
such as:
 Service hosting options
 Storage options
 Device options
 Application hosting options
The options chosen for home automation system are as shown in the below figure.

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9. Device and Component Integration
In this step the devices like sensors, computing devices and other components are
integrated together. The interconnection of different components in our home automation system
is as shown in the figure given below.

10. Application Development

Using all the information from previous steps, we will develop the application (code) for
the IoT system. The application interface for home automation system is shown below.

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 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
Generally, sensors are used in the architecture of IOT devices.
Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.
A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement. The
sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for processing (e.g.
electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or material to detect the
presence of a particular physical quantity. The output of the sensor is a signal which is
converted to a human-readable form like changes in characteristics, changes in resistance,
capacitance, impedance etc.

IOT HARDWARE
Transducer :
 A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.
 It converts one type of energy into another type.
 It might be used as actuators in various systems.
Sensors characteristics
1. Static
2. Dynamic
1. Static characteristics
It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change after
steady state condition.

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Accuracy
 Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close to the true
value of the measured quantity. It measures errors.
 It is measured by absolute and relative errors. Express the correctness of the output
compared to a higher prior system.
 Absolute error = Measured value – True value
 Relative error = Measured value/True value
Range
 Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which the sensor
can actually sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind of response.
e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.
Resolution
 Resolution is an important specification towards selection of sensors.
 The higher the resolution, better the precision.
 When the accretion is zero to, it is called threshold. Provide the smallest changes in the
input that a sensor is able to sense.
Precision
 It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when repetitively
measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions.
 It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value.
 It is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
 It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.
Sensitivity
 Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of the system with
respect to incremental change in input parameters.
 It can be found from the slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor.
 It is the smallest amount of difference in quantity that will change the instrument’s
reading.
Linearity
 The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particular straight line.
 Linearity is determined by the calibration curve.

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  The static calibration curve plots the output amplitude versus the input amplitude under
static conditions.
A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight line describes the linearity.
Drift
 The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when kept at
that value for a long period of time.
Repeatability
 The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same conditions.
 The measurements have to be made under a short enough time duration so as not to
allow significant long-term drift.

2. Dynamic Characteristics
Properties of the systems
 Zero-order system
The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It does not include energy-
storing elements.
Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements.
 First-order system
When the output approaches its final value gradually.
Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element.
 Second-order system
Complex output response. The output response of the sensor oscillates before steady state.

Sensor Classification
1. Passive & Active
2. Analog & digital
3. Scalar & vector
1. Passive Sensor
 Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil moisture, water
level and temperature sensors.

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2. Active Sensor
 Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter sensors.
3. Analog Sensor
 The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input
parameter.
 Ex- Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall effect.
4. Digital sensor
 Response in binary nature.
 Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors.
 Along with the analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit conversion.
 Example – Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and digital temperature sensor(DS1620).
5. Scalar sensor
 Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude.
 The answer for the sensor is a function of magnitude of some input parameter.
 Not affected by the direction of input parameters.
Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.
6. Vector sensor
 The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and
orientation of input parameter.
 Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field and motion detector sensors.

ACTUATORS IN IOT

1. Sensor:
 Sensor is a device used for the conversion of physical events or characteristics into the
electrical signals.
 This is a hardware device that takes the input from environment and gives to the system
by converting it.
 For example, a thermometer takes the temperature as physical characteristic and then
converts it into electrical signals for the system.

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2. Actuator:
 Actuator is a device that converts the electrical signals into the physical events or
characteristics.
 It takes the input from the system and gives output to the environment.
For example, motors and heaters are some of the commonly used actuators.

An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”)

+ Sensors + Actuators + Networks (Internet). An actuator is a machine component or system
that moves or controls the mechanism of the system. Sensors in the device sense the
environment, then control signals are generated for the actuators according to the actions
needed to perform.
A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can
move to a given specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT
applications and make the motor rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.

The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the actuator based on
the sensor data to do the work.

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Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source
of energy and a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of
energy to a mechanical operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has
different types given below.

Types of Actuators
1. Hydraulic Actuators
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are
actuated by a cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or
oscillatory motion, according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses
hydraulic actuators because hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.

Advantages
 Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
 Used in welding, clamping, etc.
 Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
Disadvantages
 Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
 It is expensive.
 It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance systems.

2. Pneumatic Actuators
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure
to convert into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work
like human fingers by using compressed air.

Advantages
 They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is a safer
option than chemicals.
 They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
 It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.

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Disadvantages
 Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.
 The air compressor should be running continuously.
 Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.

3. Electrical Actuators
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts
electrical energy into mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based
electric bell.

Advantages
 It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.
 It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
 It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.
Disadvantages
 It is expensive.
 It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
Other actuators are
 Thermal/Magnetic Actuators
These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) or
Magnetic Shape‐Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators. An example of a
thermal/magnetic actuator can be a piezo motor using SMA.
 Mechanical Actuators
 A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into
linear motion.
 It involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate.
 Example – A crankshaft.
 Soft Actuators
 Shape Memory Polymers
 Light Activated Polymers
 With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in commercial
and domestic applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.

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Difference between Sensor and Actuator :

SENSOR ACTUATOR

It converts physical characteristics into electrical It converts electrical signals into physical
signals. characteristics.

It takes input from output conditioning unit

It takes input from environment.
of system.

It gives output to input conditioning unit of

It gives output to environment.
system.

Sensor generated electrical signals. Actuator generates heat or motion.

It is placed at input port of the system. It is placed at output port of the system.

It is used to measure the continuous and

It is used to measure the physical quantity.
discrete process parameters.

It gives information to the system about

It accepts command to perform a function.
environment.

Example: Photo-voltaic cell which converts Example: Stepper motor where electrical
light energy into electrical energy. energy drives the motor.

COMMUNICATION MODELS IN IOT

IoT devices are found everywhere and will enable circulatory intelligence in the future.
For operational perception, it is important and useful to understand how various IoT devices
communicate with each other.
Communication models used in IoT have great value. The IoTs allow people and things
to be connected any time, any space, with anything and anyone, using any network and any
service.

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Types of Communication Model
1. Request & Response Model
This model follows a client-server architecture.
 The client, when required, requests the information from the server. This request is usually
in the encoded format.
 This model is stateless since the data between the requests is not retained and each request
is independently handled.
 The server Categories the request, and fetches the data from the database and its resource
representation. This data is converted to response and is transferred in an encoded format to
the client. The client, in turn, receives the response.
 On the other hand — In Request-Response communication model client sends a request to
the server and the server responds to the request. When the server receives the request it
decides how to respond, fetches the data retrieves resources, and prepares the response, and
sends it to the client.

2. Publisher-Subscriber Model
This model comprises three entities: Publishers, Brokers, and Consumers.
 Publishers are the source of data. It sends the data to the topic which are managed by the
broker. They are not aware of consumers.
 Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker.
 Hence, Brokers responsibility is to accept data from publishers and send it to the
appropriate consumers. The broker only has the information regarding the consumer to
which a particular topic belongs to which the publisher is unaware of.

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3. Push-Pull Model –
The push-pull model constitutes data publishers, data consumers, and data queues.
 Publishers and Consumers are not aware of each other.
 Publishers publish the message/data and push it into the queue. The consumers, present on
the other side, pull the data out of the queue. Thus, the queue acts as the buffer for the
message when the difference occurs in the rate of push or pull of data on the side of a
publisher and consumer.
 Queues help in decoupling the messaging between the producer and consumer. Queues
also act as a buffer which helps in situations where there is a mismatch between the rate at
which the producers push the data and consumers pull the data.

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4. Exclusive Pair –
 Exclusive Pair is the bi-directional model, including full-duplex communication among
client and server. The connection is constant and remains open till the client sends a request
to close the connection.
 The Server has the record of all the connections which has been opened.
 This is a state-full connection model and the server is aware of all open connections.
 WebSocket based communication API is fully based on this model.

LORA
LoRa, or Long Range, is a proprietary, low-power and long-range wireless
technology that uses license-free wireless spectrum -- much like Wi-Fi uses the unlicensed 2.4
GHz and 5 GHz frequencies.
The exact frequency LoRa uses depends on the physical location of a deployment. For
example, LoRa uses the 915 MHz band in North America and the 868 MHz band in Europe.
Thus, it's important to know which frequencies can be legally used in each LoRa deployment
location. From a range perspective, LoRa can communicate up to 10 km away under optimal,
line-of-sight conditions.

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 LoRa technology belongs to Semtech, a semiconductor supplier. While LoRa has been
around for a while, LoRa chipsets have advanced to consume far less power only in the last
couple of years. These advancements make LoRa ideal for IoT devices that are widely
distributed and battery-powered yet only send small amounts of data up to a maximum speed of
27 Kbps. Common LoRa deployment examples include asset tracking, smart meters, detection
devices, smart parking and agriculture field monitoring.
From a networking perspective, LoRa creates only a physical layer method of wireless
transport, such as a transceiver chip. That means it lacks the proper network protocols to manage
traffic for data collection and endpoint device management.

What is LoRa?
LoRa technology was developed by a company called Semtech and it is a new wireless
protocol designed specifically for long-range, low-power communications. LoRa stands for Long
Range Radio and is mainly targeted for M2M and IoT networks. This technology will enable
public or multi-tenant networks to connect a number of applications running on the same
network.
LoRa Alliance was formed to standardize LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Networks)
for IoT and is a non-profit association which features membership from a number of key market
shareholders such as CISCO, actility, MicroChip, IBM, STMicro, SEMTECH, Orange mobile
and many more. This alliance is key to providing interoperability among multiple nationwide
networks.
Each LoRa gateway has the ability to handle up to millions of nodes. The signals can
span a significant distance, which means that there is fewer infrastructures required, making
constructing a network much cheaper and faster to implement.
LoRa also features an adaptive data rate algorithm to help maximize the nodes battery life
and network capacity. The LoRa protocol includes a number of different layers including
encryption at the network, application and device level for secure communications.

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Features
The following table showcases some of the key features of the LoRa protocol such as
range, modulation and capacity.
Specification LoRa Feature
Range 2-5Km Urban (1.24-3.1 mi),
15Km suburban (9.3 mi)
Frequency ISM 868/915 MHz
Standard IEEE 802.15.4g
Modulation Spread spectrum modulation type based on FM pulses which vary.
Capacity One LoRa gateway takes thousands of nodes
Battery Long battery life
LoRa Physical Frequency, power, modulation and signalling between nodes and
layer gateways

LoRa Advantages

1. Better battery life

2. Long range
3. Cost effective for large deployment

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 RFID
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is a technology that enables communication and
data transmission via radio waves. It automatically identifies and tracks tags attached to the
object.

How RFID works?

RFID Working

RFID is a wireless system referred to as Automatic Identification and Data Capture

(AIDC). The purpose of AIDC is identifying, tracking, recording, storing, and communicating
essential data. The system consists of an RFID reader, RFID tags, and an antenna. An RFID tag
consists of a transponder, a radio receiver, and a transmitter. Firstly, tags transmit digital data; it
emits a unique identification code. Secondly, the primary responsibility of the antenna is to
transmit and receive radio waves for communication. Thirdly, the Reader communicates with
any tags in its read range. After that, it sends tags’ data to an application that can use the data.
The data collected from the tag can then be sent either directly to a host computer or stored in a
portable reader and uploaded later to the host computer.

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Operating frequency
The system is mainly used in three frequency bands.
1) Low-frequency band(LF):
General Frequency Range: 30 – 300 kHz
Primary Frequency Range: 125 – 134 kHz
Read Range: Contact – 10 Centimeters
2) High-frequency band (HF):
Primary Frequency Range: 13.56 MHz
Read Range: Near Contact – 30 Centimeters
3) Ultra-high frequency band:
General Frequency Range: 300 – 3000 MHz
Primary Frequency Ranges: 433 MHz, 860 – 960 MHz

RFID tags
There are three different kinds of tags.
1) Active tags: Active tag has its power source for internal circuitry and sends the Reader’s
response.
Primary frequency range: 433 MHz, (Can use 2.45 GHz – under the Extremely High-Frequency
Range)
Read range: 30 – 100+ Meters.
2) Passive tags: They used to get their power from the Reader’s incoming radio waves.
Primary frequency range:860 – 960 MHz
Read Range: Near Contact – 25 Meters
3) Semi-passive tags: They have a power supply for internal circuitry. But, it relies on the radio
waves received from the Reader for sending the response.

RFID Technology in IoT

The evolution of IoT is coinciding with that of RFID and sensor technologies. This
technology is a vital and fundamental groundwork for IoT. RFID tags can make everyday
physical objects communicate, and the central hub and reports their status. For instance,
Attached RFID tags to finished items, products, and assembled goods can speed up service
operation. Tracking of tagged persons or objects and sending real-time data to a model.

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It creates a connected device system. That continuously transmit data about their location,
conditions, amount, etc. In short, These capabilities make the foundation for building an IoT
system.
Applications tracking assets can make a wide range of business activities more efficient.
RFID technology in IoT connects up the things into a network and makes them create and send
data. Unlike simple RFID tags that don’t actively broadcast signals. So, sensor-enabled tags are
used. It can generate and send metrics and other data in real-time. It expands the connected
devices’ capabilities and makes them truly smart. As a result, RFID is one of the key
technologies that the Internet of Things depends on.

WI-FI

How does Wi-Fi work?

Wi-Fi is a wireless technology for networking, so it uses Electromagnetic waves to
transmit networks. We know that there are many divisions of Electromagnetic waves according
to their frequency such as X-ray, Gamma-ray, radio wave, microwave, etc, in Wi-Fi, the radio
frequency is used. For transmitting Wi-Fi signal there is three medium,

 Base station network or an Ethernet (802.3) connection: It is the main host network
from where the network connection is provided to the router.
 Access point or router: it is a bridge between a wired network and a wireless network. It
accepts a wired Ethernet connection and converts the wired connection to a wireless
connection and spreads the connection as a radio wave.
 Accessing devices: It is our mobile, computer, etc from where we use the Wi-Fi and
surfing internet.

Working of Wi-Fi

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How signals are reached to our devices?

Role of WiFi in IoT

WiFi, or 802.11, is a wireless protocol. It was built with the intent of replacing Ethernet
using wireless communication over unlicensed bands. Its goal was to provide off-the-shelf, easy
to implement, easy to use short-range wireless connectivity with cross-vendor interoperability.
With zero spectrum cost, there was little focus on spectral efficiency. With expected use by
desktop devices, power efficiency was not critical.
WiFi is an obvious choice for IoT connectivity because in-building WiFi coverage is now
almost ubiquitous. However it is not always the appropriate choice .

POWER SOURCES

Powering the IoT System

The size of an IoT device can range from tiny to very large. It might perform a single,
simple function, or have complex on-board intelligence. It may transfer byte-sized data over
short range radio-frequency identification (RFID). Or, it may transfer high bandwidth streams of
data over long distance cellular. The IoT de- vice may be in a fixed or varying location, and it
may or may not be easy to access.
Despite the many differences, there is one common requirement for all device systems.
They must have power (energy or electricity) to operate.

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 The Sources of Power
Three common options to power an IoT system:

 Mains Electricity
For many applications, you may only need to plug in the connected device. Home automation
applications, such as connected light bulbs, can draw energy from existing wiring in the home.
Industrial applications are often fixed-location devices, hardwired to a power grid.

 Batteries
Found in everything from wearables to tools, batteries are a common solution for portable IoT
devices. Your application will determine if it makes sense to use rechargeable or one-time use
(primary) batteries.

 Harvesting
Several approaches for converting energy from ambient forms into electricity are becoming
popular. Solar cells, converting light to electricity, are most common. It is also possible to
convert air and fluid flow, heat, motion, RF and chemical energy to electricity.

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