​CHP 14: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM & BODY​

​METABOLISM​ ​Mouth (Oral Cavity)​

​Digestion​ ​●​ ​Lips (labia)​​– protect the anterior opening​
​●​ ​Breakdown of ingested food​ ​●​ ​Cheeks​​– form the lateral walls​
​●​ ​Absorption of nutrients into the blood​ ​●​ ​Hard palate​​– forms the anterior roof​
​Metabolism​ ​●​ ​Soft palate​​– forms the posterior roof​
​●​ ​Production of cellular energy (ATP)​ ​●​ ​Uvula​​– fleshy projection of the soft palate​
​●​ ​Constructive and degradative cellular activities​ ​●​ ​Vestibule​ ​–​ ​space​ ​between​ ​lips​ ​externally​ ​and​
​Digestive System – Overview Notes​ ​teeth and gums internally​
​●​ ​Break​ ​down​ ​the​ ​food​ ​you​ ​eat​ ​into​ ​nutrients​ ​●​ ​Oral cavity​​– area contained by the teeth​
​needed​​for​​metabolic​​processes​​such​​as​​making​ ​●​ ​Tongue​​–​​attached​​at​​hyoid​​and​​styloid​​processes​
​ATP.​ ​of​ ​the​ ​skull,​​and​​by​​the​​lingual​​frenulum;​​occupies​
​●​ ​It​​also​​rids​​the​​body​​of​​materials​​that​​cannot​​be​ ​the floor of the mouth​
​used​​, such as fiber.​ ​●​ ​Lingual​ ​frenulum​ ​–​ ​fold​ ​of​ ​mucous​ ​membrane​
​●​ ​Chewing​ ​breaks​ ​food​ ​into​ ​small​ ​pieces,​ ​making​ ​it​ ​securing​​tongue​​to​​the​​mouth​​floor​​&​​and​​limits​​its​
​easier for enzymes to access.​ ​posterior movements​
​●​ ​Enzymes​ ​chemically​ ​digest​​food​​into​​nutrients​ ​●​ ​Tonsils​
​that​ ​are​ ​actively​ ​transported​ ​into​ ​the​ ​blood​ ​and​ ​○​ ​Palatine​ ​tonsils​ ​–​ ​paired​ ​masses​ ​of​
​delivered to cells around the body.​ ​lymphatic​​tissue​​at​​the​​posterior​​end​​of​​the​
​●​ ​Essential​​for​​providing​​the​​energy​​and​​building​ ​oral cavity​
​blocks needed to maintain life.​ ​○​ ​Lingual​ ​tonsil​ ​–​ ​covers​ ​the​ ​base​ ​of​
​Functions​ ​tongue.​
​1.​ ​Ingestion​​– taking food into the body.​ ​○​ ​The​ ​tonsils,​ ​along​ ​with​ ​other​ ​lymphatic​
​2.​ ​Digestion​ ​–​ ​breaking​ ​down​ ​food​ ​into​ ​nutrient​ ​tissues,​ ​are​ ​part​ ​of​ ​the​ ​body’s​ ​defense​
​molecules​ ​system​
​3.​ ​Absorption​ ​–​ ​nutrients​ ​are​ ​absorbed​ ​into​ ​the​ ​○​ ​When​ ​the​ ​tonsils​ ​become​ ​inflamed​ ​and​
​bloodstream.​ ​enlarge,​ ​they​ ​partially​ ​block​ ​the​ ​entrance​
​4.​ ​Defecation​ ​–​ ​elimination​ ​of​ ​indigestible​ ​wastes​ ​into​ ​the​ ​throat​ ​(pharynx),​ ​making​
​from the body.​ ​swallowing difficult and painful.​
​●​ ​Functions:​
​14.1 Anatomy of the Digestive​
​●​ ​As​ ​food​ ​enters​ ​the​ ​mouth,​ ​it​ ​is​ ​mixed​ ​with​ ​saliva​
​System​
​and masticated (chewed).​
​Two main groups​
​●​ ​cheeks​ ​and​ ​closed​​lips​​hold​​the​​food​​between​​the​
​1.​ ​Alimentary​ ​canal​ ​–​ ​continuous​ ​coiled​ ​hollow​
​teeth during chewing.​
​tube​
​●​ ​Tongue​ ​mixes​ ​food​ ​with​ ​saliva​ ​and​ ​initiates​
​●​ ​performs​ ​the​ ​whole​ ​menu​ ​of​ ​digestive​ ​functions:​
​swallowing.​
​ingests,​ ​digests,​ ​absorbs,​ ​and​ ​defecates​ ​as​ ​food​
​●​ ​breakdown​ ​of​ ​food​ ​begins​ ​before​ ​it​ ​has​ ​even​ ​left​
​moves along its length.​
​the mouth.​
​2.​ ​Accessory​ ​digestive​ ​organs​ ​–​ ​include​ ​teeth,​
​Processes of the Mouth​
​tongue,​ ​and​ ​large​ ​digestive​ ​glands,​ ​which​ ​assist​
​●​ ​Mastication (chewing) of food​
​digestion in various ways.​
​●​ ​Mixing masticated food with saliva​
​Organs of the Alimentary Canal​
​●​ ​Initiation of swallowing by the tongue​
​●​ ​Also called the​​gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut.​
​●​ ​Allowing for the sense of taste​
​●​ ​A​ ​continuous,​ ​coiled,​ ​hollow​ ​muscular​ ​tube​ ​that​
​Pharynx​
​winds​ ​through​ ​the​ ​ventral​ ​body​​cavity​​from​​mouth​
​●​ ​Food​ ​passes​ ​from​ ​the​ ​mouth​ ​→​ ​oropharynx​ ​→​
​to anus.​
​laryngopharynx,​ ​both​ ​of​ ​which​ ​are​ ​common​
​●​ ​Organs:​ ​mouth,​ ​pharynx,​ ​esophagus,​ ​stomach,​
​passageways for food, fluids, and air.​
​small intestine, large intestine, and anus.​
​●​ ​subdivided into:​
​●​ ​About​ ​9​ ​meters​ ​(30​ ​feet)​ ​long​ ​in​ ​a​ ​cadaver,​ ​but​
​●​ ​Nasopharynx​ ​–​ ​not​ ​part​ ​of​ ​the​ ​digestive​
​shorter in living persons due to muscle tone.​
​system;​ ​respiratory passageway​
​●​ ​Food​ ​inside​ ​the​ ​canal​ ​is​ ​technically​ ​outside​ ​the​
​●​ ​Oropharynx – posterior to oral cavity​
​body, as it only contacts the lining cells.​
 ​●​ L ​ aryngopharynx​ ​–​ ​below​ ​the​ ​oropharynx​ ​and​
​connected to the esophagus​
​●​ ​Function​
​●​ ​Serves as a passageway for air and food​
​●​ ​Food​ ​is​ ​propelled​ ​to​ ​the​ ​esophagus​ ​by​ ​two​
​muscle layers​
​●​ ​Longitudinal inner layer​​(outer layer)​
​●​ ​Circular​ ​outer​ ​layer​ ​(inner​ ​layer;​ ​circular​
​constrictor muscles.)​
​●​ ​Food​ ​movement​ ​is​ ​by​ ​alternating​​contractions​
​of the muscle layers (peristalsis)​
​Esophagus​
​●​ ​Runs​ ​from​ ​pharynx​ ​to​ ​stomach​ ​through​ ​the​
​diaphragm​
​●​ ​Conducts​ ​food​ ​by​ ​peristalsis​ ​(slow​ ​rhythmic​
​squeezing)​
​●​ ​Passageway​ ​for​ ​food​ ​only​ ​(respiratory​​system​
​branches off after the pharynx)​
​●​ ​About 25 cm (10 inches) long,​

​Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs​

​1.​ ​Mucosa​
​●​ ​Innermost layer​
​●​ ​Moist membrane lining the lumen.​
​○​ ​Surface epithelium​
​○​ ​Small amount of connective tissue​
​(lamina propria)​
​○​ ​Small smooth muscle layer​
​●​ ​Beyond​ ​the​ ​esophagus,​ ​which​ ​has​ ​a​
​friction-resisting​ ​stratified​ ​squamous​ ​epithelium,​
​the epithelium is mostly simple columnar​
​2.​ ​Submucosa​
​●​ ​Just beneath the mucosa​
​●​ ​Soft​ ​connective​ ​tissue​ ​with​ ​blood​ ​vessels,​
​nerve​ ​endings,​ ​and​ ​lymphatics,​ ​&​
​mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT),​
​3.​ ​Muscularis externa – smooth muscle​
​●​ ​Inner circular layer​
​●​ ​Outer longitudinal layer​
​4.​ ​Serosa​
​●​ ​Outermost layer – visceral peritoneum​
​●​ ​Layer of serous fluid-producing cells​
​●​ ​Outermost layer of the wall of the digestive tract.​
​●​ ​Part of a serous membrane pair.​
​○​ ​The visceral peritoneum:​
 ​a.​ M ​ ade​ ​up​ ​of​ ​a​ ​single​ ​layer​ ​of​ ​flat,​ ​serous​ ​○​ B ​ ody​ ​–​ ​midportion;​ ​Greater​ ​curvature​
​fluid–producing cells.​ ​(convex​ ​lateral​ ​surface),​ ​and​ ​lesser​
​b.​ ​Covers​ ​the​ ​outer​ ​surfaces​ ​of​ ​digestive​ ​curvature (concave medial surface)​
​organs.​ ​○​ ​Pyloric​ ​antrum​ ​→​ ​Phylorus​ ​–​
​c.​ ​The​ ​visceral​​peritoneum​​is​​continuous​​with​ ​funnel-shaped​ ​terminal​ ​end;​ ​continuous​
​the​ ​parietal​ ​peritoneum,​ ​which​ ​lines​ ​the​ ​with​ ​the​ ​small​ ​intestine​ ​through​​the​​pyloric​
​abdominopelvic cavity.​ ​sphincter, or pyloric valve​
​●​ ​Food​ ​empties​ ​into​ ​the​ ​small​ ​intestine​ ​at​ ​the​
​●​ C ​ onnection​ ​between​ ​the​ ​two​ ​peritoneal​ ​layers​ ​pyloric sphincter​
​forms​ ​a​ ​membrane​ ​extension​ ​called​ ​the​ ​●​ ​Size:​ ​15–25​ ​cm​ ​(6–10​ ​in);​ ​diameter​ ​and​ ​volume​
​mesentery.​ ​depend​​on​​how​​much​​food​​it​​contains.​​When​​full,​​it​
​●​ ​A​ ​mesentery​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​when​ ​two​ ​layers​ ​of​ ​can​​hold​​about​​4​​liters​​(1​​gallon)​​of​​food.​​When​​it​​is​
​peritoneum fuse together.​ ​empty,​​it​​collapses​​inward​​on​​itself,​​and​​its​​mucosa​
​●​ ​Between​​these​​fused​​layers​​are​​routes​​for​​nerves,​ ​is thrown into Rugae​
​blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels.​ ​​
● ​Rugae – internal folds of the mucosa​
​●​ ​Functions of the mesentery:​ ​●​ ​External regions​
​○​ ​Anchors digestive organs in place.​ ​○​ ​Lesser curvature​
​○​ ​Stores fat for cushioning and energy.​ ​○​ ​Greater curvature​
​Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses​ ​●​ ​Layers of peritoneum attached to the stomach​
​●​ ​All are part of the autonomic nervous system​ ​○​ ​Lesser​ ​omentum​ ​–​ ​attaches​ ​the​ ​liver​​to​
​●​ ​Three separate networks of nerve fibers​ ​the lesser curvature​
​●​ ​Submucosal nerve plexus​ ​○​ ​Greater​​omentum​​–​​attaches​​the​​greater​
​●​ ​Myenteric nerve plexus​ ​curvature​ ​to​ ​the​ ​posterior​ ​body​ ​wall;​
​●​ ​Subserous plexus​ ​drapes​ ​downward​ ​and​ ​covers​ ​the​
​These​ ​networks​ ​of​ ​nerve​ ​fibers​ ​are​ ​actually​ ​part​ ​of​ ​the​ ​abdominal​ ​organs​ ​like​ ​a​ ​lacy​​apron​​before​
​autonomic​ ​nervous​ ​system.​ ​They​ ​help​ ​regulate​ ​the​ ​attaching to the posterior body wall​
​mobility and secretory activity of GI tract organs.​ ​■​ ​Contains​ ​fat​ ​to​ ​insulate,​ ​cushion,​
​and protect abhas large​
​■​ ​collections​ ​of​ ​lymphoid​ ​follicles​
​containing​ ​macrophages​ ​and​
​defensive​ ​cells​ ​of​ ​the​ ​immune​
​[Link] organs.​

​Stomach​
​●​ ​Located​ ​on​ ​the​ ​left​ ​side​ ​of​ ​the​ ​abdominal​
​cavity;​ ​C-shaped​ ​and​ ​nearly​ ​hidden​ ​by​ ​the​ ​liver​
​and diaphragm.​ ​Functions:​
​●​ ​Food​​enters​​at​​the​​cardioesophageal​​sphincter​ ​●​ ​Acts as a storage tank for food​
​(​ ​through​ ​which​ ​food​​enters​​the​​stomach​​from​​the​ ​●​ ​Site of food breakdown​
​esophagus)​ ​●​ ​Besides​​the​​usual​​longitudinal​​and​​circular​​muscle​
​●​ ​Regions of the stomach​ ​layers,​​its​​wall​​contains​​a​​third,​​obliquely​​arranged​
​○​ ​Cardiac​ ​region​ ​–​ ​near​ ​the​ ​heart​​;​ ​layer​ ​in​ ​the​ ​muscularis​​externa.​​This​​arrangement​
​surrounds the cardioesophageal sphincter.​ ​allows​ ​the​ ​stomach​ ​not​ ​only​ ​to​ ​move​ ​food​ ​along​
​○​ ​Fundus​ ​–​ ​expanded​ ​portion​ ​lateral​ ​to​ ​the​ ​tract,​ ​but​ ​also​ ​to​ ​churn,​ ​mix,​ ​and​ ​pummel​​the​
​cardia.​
 ​food,​ ​physically​ ​breaking​ ​it​ ​down​ ​into​ ​smaller​ ​●​ I​t​ ​is​ ​the​ ​longest​ ​section​ ​of​ ​the​ ​alimentary​ ​canal,​
f​ragments.​ ​about​ ​2​ ​to​ ​4​ ​meters​ ​(7​ ​to​ ​13​ ​feet)​​long​​in​​a​​living​
​●​ ​Chemical breakdown of protein begins​ ​person.​
​●​ ​Delivers​ ​chyme​ ​(processed​ ​food)​ ​to​ ​the​ ​small​ ​●​ ​Location​
​intestine​ ​-​ ​The​ ​initial​ ​part​ ​mostly​ ​lies​ ​in​ ​a​ ​retroperitoneal​
​Specialized Mucosa of the Stomach​ ​position (posterior to the parietal peritoneum).​
​●​ ​Simple​​columnar​​epithelium​​of​​mucous​​cells​​that​ ​-​ ​The​ ​rest​ ​of​ ​the​ ​small​ ​intestine​ ​hangs​ ​in​
​produce​ ​bicarbonate-rich​ ​alkaline​​mucus​​(protects​ ​sausagelike​ ​coils​ ​suspended​ ​by​ ​the​ ​fan-shaped​
​stomach wall).​ ​mesentery.​
​●​ ​Contains​ ​gastric​​pits​​leading​​to​​gastric​​glands​​that​ ​-​ ​The​ ​large​​intestine​​encircles​​and​​frames​​the​​small​
​secrete gastric juice.​ ​intestine in the abdominal cavity.​
​○​ ​Mucous​ ​neck​ ​cells​ ​–​ ​produce​ ​a​ ​sticky​ ​Subdivisions of the Small Intestine​
​alkaline mucus​ ​1.​ ​Duodenum​
​○​ ​Gastric glands – secrete gastric juice​ ​●​ ​Attached to the stomach​
​○​ ​Chief​ ​cells​ ​–​ ​produce​ ​protein-digesting​ ​●​ ​Curves around the head of the pancreas​
​enzymes (pepsinogens)​ ​●​ ​“twelve​ ​finger​ ​widths​ ​long”​ ​(about​ ​5%​ ​of​ ​total​
​○​ ​Parietal​ ​cells​ ​–​ ​produce​ ​hydrochloric​ ​length)​
​acid,​​),​​which​​makes​​the​​stomach​​contents​ ​2.​ ​Jejunum​
​acidic​​and​​activates​​the​​enzymes,​​as​​in​​the​ ​●​ ​Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum​
​conversion of pepsin ogen to pepsin.​ ​●​ ​“empty” (nearly 40%)​
​○​ ​Endocrine cells – produce gastrin​ ​3.​ ​Ileum​
​●​ ​Gastric pits formed by folded mucosa​ ​●​ ​Extends from jejunum to large intestine​
​●​ ​Glands​ ​and​ ​specialized​ ​cells​​are​​in​​the​​gastric​ ​●​ ​“twisted intestine” (almost 60%)​
​gland region​ ​●​ ​The​ ​ileum​ ​joins​​the​​large​​intestine​​at​​the​​ileocecal​
​valve.​
​Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine​
​●​ ​Source of enzymes that are mixed with chyme​
​○​ ​Intestinal cells​
​○​ ​Pancreas​
​●​ ​Bile enters from the gall bladder​
​Chemical Digestion​
​●​ ​Chemical​ ​digestion​ ​of​ ​foods​ ​begins​ ​in​ ​earnest​ ​in​
​the small intestine.​
​●​ ​The​ ​small​ ​intestine​ ​can​ ​process​ ​only​ ​a​ ​small​
​amount of food at one time.​
​●​ ​The pyloric sphincter (“gatekeeper”)​
​○​ ​Controls​ ​the​ ​movement​ ​of​ ​chyme​​from​​the​
​​ M
● ​ ost digestion occurs in the pyloric region.​ ​stomach into the small intestine.​
​●​ ​After​ ​processing,​ ​food​ ​becomes​ ​chyme​ ​(thick,​ ​○​ ​Prevents​ ​the​ ​small​ ​intestine​ ​from​ ​being​
​creamy​ ​mass)​ ​that​ ​passes​​into​​the​​small​​intestine​ ​overwhelmed.​
​via the pyloric sphincter.​ ​Duodenum and Enzymes​
​Small Intestine​ ​●​ ​In​ ​the​ ​C-shaped​ ​duodenum,​ ​some​ ​enzymes​ ​are​
​●​ ​The body’s major digestive organ​ ​produced by the​​intestinal cells.​
​●​ ​Site of nutrient absorption into the blood​ ​●​ ​More​ ​importantly,​ ​enzymes​​from​​the​​pancreas​​are​
​●​ ​Muscular​ ​tube​ ​extending​ ​from​ ​the​ ​pyloric​ ​delivered​ ​to​​the​​duodenum​​through​​the​​pancreatic​
​sphincter to the ileocecal valve​ ​ducts.​
​●​ ​Suspended​ ​from​ ​the​ ​posterior​ ​abdominal​ ​wall​ ​●​ ​These​​enzymes​​complete​​the​​chemical​​breakdown​
​by the mesentery​ ​of foods in the small intestine.​
​●​ ​Within​ ​its​ ​twisted​ ​passageways,​ ​usable​ ​nutrients​ ​Bile and Ducts​
​are prepared for absorption into body cells.​ ​●​ ​Bile,​ ​formed​ ​by​ ​the​ ​liver,​ ​enters​ ​the​ ​duodenum​
​●​ ​It​ ​is​ ​a​ ​muscular​ ​tube​ ​extending​ ​from​ ​the​ ​pyloric​ ​through the bile duct.​
​sphincter to the large intestine.​
 ​●​ T ​ he​ ​main​ ​pancreatic​​duct​​and​​bile​​duct​​join​​at​​the​ ​Additional Details​
​duodenum​​to​​form​​the​​hepatopancreatic​​ampulla​ ​●​ ​Villi,​ ​microvilli,​ ​and​ ​circular​ ​folds​ ​decrease​ ​in​
​(“liver-pancreatic enlargement”).​ ​number toward the end of the small intestine.​
​●​ ​From​ ​the​ ​ampulla,​ ​bile​ ​and​​pancreatic​​juice​​travel​ ​●​ ​Peyer’s​ ​patches​ ​(collections​​of​​lymphatic​​tissue​​in​
​through​ ​the​ ​duodenal​ ​papilla​ ​and​ ​enter​ ​the​ ​the​ ​submucosa)​ ​increase​ ​in​ ​number​ ​toward​ ​the​
​duodenum together.​ ​end.​
​Nutrient Absorption​ ​●​ ​This​ ​reflects​ ​the​ ​fact​ ​that​ ​the​ ​remaining​
​●​ ​Nearly​ ​all​ ​nutrient​ ​absorption​ ​occurs​ ​in​ ​the​ ​small​ ​(undigested)​ ​food​​residue​​in​​the​​intestine​​contains​
​intestine.​ ​huge​ ​numbers​ ​of​ ​bacteria,​ ​which​ ​must​ ​be​
​●​ ​The​ ​small​ ​intestine​ ​is​ ​well​ ​suited​ ​for​ ​absorption​ ​prevented​ ​from​ ​entering​ ​the​ ​bloodstream​ ​if​ ​at​ ​all​
​because​​its​​wall​​has​​three​​structures​​that​​increase​ ​possible​
​absorptive surface area tremendously:​ ​Large Intestine​
​1.​ ​Vili​ ​–​ ​Fingerlike​ ​structures​ ​formed​ ​by​ ​the​ ​●​ ​Larger​ ​in​ ​diameter,​ ​but​ ​shorter​ ​than​ ​the​ ​small​
​mucosa​ ​intestine​​(about 1.5 m or 5 feet).​
​●​ ​Give the small intestine more surface area​ ​●​ ​Frames the internal abdomen​
​●​ ​Each​ ​villus​ ​contains​ ​a​ ​rich​ ​capillary​ ​bed​ ​and​ ​a​ ​●​ ​It extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus.​
​lacteal (lymphatic capillary).​ ​●​ ​Function:​
​●​ ​Nutrients​ ​are​ ​absorbed​​through​​mucosal​​cells​​into​ ​-​ ​Absorption of water​
​both capillaries and lacteals.​ ​-​ ​Eliminates​ ​indigestible​ ​food​ ​from​ ​the​ ​body​ ​as​
​2.​ ​Microvilli​ ​–​ ​Small​ ​projections​ ​of​ ​the​ ​plasma​ ​feces​
​membrane​​of mucosal cells​ ​-​ ​Does not participate in digestion of food​
​●​ ​Found on absorptive cells​ ​-​ ​Goblet​ ​cells​ ​produce​ ​mucus​ ​to​ ​act​ ​as​ ​a​
​●​ ​Give​ ​the​ ​surface​ ​a​ ​fuzzy​ ​“brush​ ​border”​ ​lubricant​
​appearance​ ​●​ ​It​​frames​​the​​small​​intestine​​on​​three​​sides​​and​​has​
​●​ ​Bear​ ​brush​ ​border​ ​enzymes​ ​that​ ​complete​ ​the​ ​these​ ​subdivisions:​ ​cecum,​ ​appendix,​ ​colon,​
​digestion of proteins and carbohydrates.​ ​rectum, and anal canal.​
​Structures of the Large Intestine​
​●​ ​Cecum – saclike first part of the large intestine​
​●​ ​Appendix​
​○​ ​Accumulation​ ​of​ ​lymphatic​ ​tissue​ ​that​
​sometimes​ ​becomes​ ​inflamed​
​(appendicitis)​
​○​ ​Hangs from the cecum​
​○​ ​wormlike​ ​structure​ ​that​ ​hangs​ ​from​ ​the​
​cecum.​
​○​ ​The​ ​appendix​ ​can​ ​easily​ ​become​
​obstructed,​​allowing​​bacteria​​to​​accumulate​
​and​ ​multiply,​ ​leading​ ​to​ ​inflammation​
​Structures Involved in Absorption of Nutrients​ ​(appendicitis).​
​●​ ​Absorptive cells​ ​●​ ​Colon​
​●​ ​Blood capillaries​ ​○​ ​Ascending​ ​–​ ​travels​ ​up​ ​the​ ​right​ ​side​ ​of​
​●​ ​Lacteals (specialized lymphatic capillaries)​ ​the abdominal cavity.​
​Folds of the Small Intestine​ ​○​ ​Transverse​​–​​crosses​​the​​abdominal​​cavity​
​●​ ​Called circular folds or plicae circulares​ ​after​ ​turning​ ​at​ ​the​ ​right​ ​colic​ ​(hepatic)​
​●​ ​Deep folds of the mucosa and submucosa​ ​flexure.​
​●​ ​Do not disappear when filled with food​ ​○​ ​Descending​​–​​goes​​down​​the​​left​​side​​after​
​●​ ​The​ ​submucosa​ ​has​ ​Peyer’s​ ​patches​ ​turning at the left colic (splenic) flexure.​
​(collections of lymphatic tissue)​ ​○​ ​S-shaped​ ​sigmoidal​ ​–​ ​located​ ​in​ ​the​
​●​ ​Form​ ​an​ ​internal​ ​“corkscrew​ ​slide”​ ​to​ ​increase​ ​pelvis.​
​surface​ ​area​ ​and​ ​force​ ​slow​ ​chyme​ ​movement,​ ​■​ ​The​ ​sigmoid​ ​colon,​ ​rectum,​ ​and​
​allowing more efficient absorption.​ ​anal canal all lie in the pelvic region.​
​●​ ​Rectum​
 ​●​ ​Anus – external body opening​ ​●​ ​Classification of Teeth​
​Anal Canal and Sphincters​ ​○​ ​Incisors​​– chisel-shaped, for cutting.​
​●​ ​The​ ​anal​ ​canal​ ​ends​ ​at​ ​the​ ​anus,​ ​which​​opens​​to​ ​○​ ​Canines​ ​(eyeteeth)​ ​–​ ​fanglike,​ ​for​ ​tearing​
​the exterior.​ ​or piercing.​
​●​ ​It has two sphincters (valves):​ ​○​ ​Premolars​ ​(bicuspids)​ ​and​ ​molars​ ​–​
​1.​ ​External​​anal​​sphincter​​–​​made​​of​​skeletal​​muscle;​ ​broad​ ​crowns​ ​with​ ​rounded​ ​cusps,​ ​for​
​voluntary control.​ ​crushing and grinding.​
​2.​ ​Internal​ ​anal​ ​sphincter​ ​–​​made​​of​​smooth​​muscle;​ ​○​ ​Molars​
​involuntary control.​ ​Regions of a Tooth​
​●​ ​These​ ​sphincters​ ​act​ ​like​ ​purse​ ​strings,​ ​opening​ ​1.​ ​Crown – exposed part​​above the gum (gingiva).​
​only during defecation to eliminate feces.​ ​●​ ​Outer enamel​
​Internal Structure and Mucosa​ ​●​ ​Dentin​ ​–​ ​bonelike​ ​material​ ​that​ ​forms​ ​the​ ​bulk​ ​of​
​●​ ​By​ ​the​ ​time​ ​material​ ​reaches​ ​the​ ​large​ ​intestine,​ ​the tooth and underlies enamel.​
​most​​nutrients​​have​​already​​been​​absorbed,​​so​​no​ ​●​ ​Pulp​​cavity​​–​​surrounded​​by​​dentin;​​central​​space​
​villi are present.​ ​containing​ ​connective​ ​tissue,​ ​blood​ ​vessels,​ ​and​
​●​ ​The​ ​mucosa​ ​contains​ ​many​ ​goblet​ ​cells​ ​that​ ​nerves (collectively called pulp).​
​produce alkaline (bicarbonate-rich) mucus.​ ​○​ ​Pulp​ ​provides​ ​teeth​ ​with​ ​nutrients​ ​and​
​●​ ​This​ ​mucus​ ​lubricates​ ​the​ ​passage​ ​of​ ​feces​ ​sensations.​
​through the digestive tract.​ ​○​ ​Extending​ ​into​ ​the​ ​root​ ​thus​ ​becomes​ ​the​
​Modifications​ ​to​ ​the​ ​Muscularis​ ​Externa​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Large​ ​root​​canal,​​which​​provides​​a​​route​​for​​blood​
​Intestine​ ​vessels,​ ​nerves​ ​and​ ​other​ ​pulp​ ​structures​
​●​ ​Smooth​ ​muscle​ ​is​ ​reduced​ ​to​​three​​bands​​(teniae​ ​to​ ​enter​ ​the​ ​pulp​ ​cavity.​ ​allows​ ​blood​
​coli)​ ​vessels and nerves to enter.​
​●​ ​Muscle bands have some degree of tone​ ​●​ ​Covered​​with​​enamel,​​a​​ceramic-like​​substance​​as​
​●​ ​Walls​ ​are​ ​formed​ ​into​ ​pocketlike​ ​sacs​ ​called​ ​thick​ ​as​ ​a​ ​dime,​ ​that​ ​directly​ ​bears​ ​the​ ​force​ ​of​
​haustra​ ​chewing,​​the​​hardest​​substance​​in​​the​​body,​​highly​
​Accessory Digestive Organs​ ​mineralized with calcium salts.​
​●​ ​Salivary glands​ ​2.​ ​Neck​
​●​ ​Teeth​ ​●​ ​Region in contact with the gum​
​●​ ​Pancreas​ ​●​ ​Connects crown to roo​​t​
​●​ ​Liver​ ​3.​ ​Root​​– embedded in the jawbone.​
​●​ ​Gall bladder​ ​●​ ​Periodontal membrane attached to the bone​
​Teeth​ ​●​ ​Root canal carrying blood vessels and nerves​
​●​ ​The role is to masticate (chew) food​ ​●​ ​Outer​ ​surface​ ​covered​ ​by​​cement,​​which​​attaches​
​●​ ​The​ ​tongue​ ​and​ ​cheek​ ​muscles​ ​keep​ ​food​ ​the​​tooth​​to​​the​​periodontal​​ligament​​(holds​​tooth​​in​
​between the teeth while chewing.​ ​place).​
​●​ ​Teeth​ ​tear​ ​and​ ​grind​ ​food,​ ​breaking​​it​​into​​smaller​
​fragments.​
​●​ ​Humans have two sets of teeth​​form by age 21:​
​1.​ ​Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth​
​●​ ​20 teeth are fully formed by age two​
​●​ ​Begin​​to​​erupt​​around​​6​​months​​(first​​to​​appear​​are​
​lower central incisors).​
​2.​ ​Permanent teeth​
​●​ ​Replace​ ​deciduous​ ​teeth​ ​(roots​​are​​reabsorbed)​
​beginning between the ages of 6 to 12​
​●​ ​A​ ​full​ ​set​ ​is​ ​32​ ​teeth,​ ​but​ ​some​ ​people​ ​do​​not​
​have wisdom teeth​
​●​ ​All​ ​but​ ​the​ ​third​ ​molars​ ​(wisdom​ ​teeth)​ ​have​
​erupted by the end of adolescence.​
​●​ ​Wisdom​ ​teeth​ ​emerge​ ​at​ ​ages​ ​17–25;​​sometimes​
​fail to erupt or are absent.​
 ​●​ S ​ erous​ ​fluid​ ​–​ ​contains​ ​salivary​ ​amylase,​ ​an​
​enzyme that begins starch digestion in the mouth.​
​●​ ​Contains​​lysozyme​​and​​antibodies​​(IgA)​​that​​inhibit​
​bacteria, providing protection.​
​Pancreas​
​●​ ​Produces​ ​a​ ​wide​ ​spectrum​ ​of​ ​digestive​
​enzymes that break down all categories of food​
​●​ ​Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum​
​●​ ​Alkaline​ ​fluid​ ​introduced​ ​with​ ​enzymes​
​neutralizes acidic chyme​
​●​ ​Has​ ​an​ ​endocrine​ ​function;​ ​Endocrine​ ​products​
​of pancreas​
​○​ ​Insulin​
​○​ ​Glucagons​
​●​ ​A​ ​soft,​ ​pink,​ ​triangular​ ​gland​ ​extending​ ​from​ ​the​
​spleen to the duodenum.​
​●​ ​Lies​ ​mostly​ ​posterior​ ​to​ ​the​ ​parietal​ ​peritoneum​
​hence its location is referred to as retroperitoneal.​
​Liver​
​●​ ​Largest gland in the body​
​●​ ​Located​​on​​the​​right​​side​​of​​the​​body​​under​​the​
​diaphragm​
​●​ ​Consists​ ​of​ ​four​ ​lobes​ ​suspended​ ​from​ ​the​
​diaphragm​​and​​abdominal​​wall​​by​​the​​falciform​
​ligament​
​●​ ​Connected​ ​to​ ​the​​gall​​bladder​​via​​the​​common​
​hepatic duct​
​●​ ​Main digestive function: to produce bile.​
​○​ ​Bile​ ​leaves​ ​the​ ​liver​ ​through​ ​the​ ​common​
​hepatic​ ​duct​ ​→​ ​enters​ ​the​ ​duodenum​ ​via​
​the bile duct.​
​Bile​
​●​ ​Produced by cells in the liver​
​Salivary Glands​ ​●​ ​Composition​
​●​ ​Saliva-producing glands​ ​○​ ​Bile salts (derived from cholesterol)​
​●​ ​Three​ ​pairs​ ​of​ ​salivary​ ​glands​ ​secrete​ ​saliva​ ​into​ ​○​ ​Bile​ ​pigment​ ​(mostly​ ​bilirubin​ ​from​ ​the​
​the mouth:​ ​breakdown of hemoglobin)​
​○​ ​Parotid​ ​glands​ ​–​ ​located​ ​anterior​ ​to​ ​○​ ​Cholesterol​
​ears;​​inflammation causes mumps.​ ​○​ ​Phospholipids​
​○​ ​Submandibular​ ​glands​ ​–​ ​empty​ ​their​ ​○​ ​Electrolytes​
​secretions​ ​(saliva)​ ​into​ ​the​ ​floor​ ​of​ ​the​ ​●​ ​Yellow-green watery solution​
​mouth through tiny ducts.​ ​●​ ​Only​ ​Bile​ ​salts​​and​​phospholipids​​aid​​digestion​​by​
​○​ ​Sublingual​ ​glands​ ​–​ ​same​ ​function​ ​as​ ​emulsifying​ ​fats​ ​(breaking​ ​large​ ​fat​ ​globules​ ​into​
​submandibular glands.​ ​smaller​ ​ones)​ ​→​ ​increases​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​for​ ​the​
​Saliva​ ​fat-digesting enzymes to work on.​
​●​ ​Mixture of mucus and serous fluids​ ​●​ ​Bile does not contain enzymes.​
​●​ ​Helps to form a food bolus​ ​Gall Bladder​
​●​ ​Contains​ ​salivary​ ​amylase​ ​to​ ​begin​ ​starch​ ​●​ ​Sac found in hollow fossa of liver​
​digestion​ ​●​ ​Stores​ ​bile​ ​from​ ​the​ ​liver​ ​by​ ​way​ ​of​​the​​cystic​
​●​ ​Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted​ ​duct​
​●​ ​Mucus​​–​​moistens​​food​​and​​binds​​it​​into​​a​​bolus​​for​ ​●​ ​Bile​ ​is​ ​introduced​ ​into​ ​the​ ​duodenum​ ​in​ ​the​
​easier chewing and swallowing.​ ​presence of fatty food​
 ​​ G
● ​ allstones can cause blockages​ ​●​ S ​ ucrose,​ ​maltose,​ ​and​ ​lactose​ ​are​ ​referred​ ​to​ ​as​
​●​ ​A small, thin-walled green sac​ ​disaccharides,​ ​or​ ​double​ ​sugars,​ ​because​ ​each​
​●​ ​When​ ​digestion​ ​is​ ​not​ ​occurring,​ ​bile​ ​flows​ ​back​ ​consists of two simple sugars linked together.​
​through​ ​the​ ​cystic​ ​duct​ ​into​ ​the​ ​gallbladder​ ​for​ ​●​ ​Starch​ ​=​ ​a​ ​polysaccharide​​made​​of​​many​​glucose​
​storage.​ ​units.​
​●​ ​While​​stored,​​bile​​becomes​​concentrated​​as​​water​ ​●​ ​Cellulose​ ​and​ ​other​ ​indigestible​ ​polysaccharides​
​is removed.​ ​provide fiber to aid movement in the GI tract​
​●​ ​When​ ​fatty​ ​food​ ​enters​ ​the​ ​duodenum,​ ​hormones​ ​Proteins​
​signal​ ​the​ ​gallbladder​ ​to​ ​contract​ ​and​​release​​bile​ ​●​ ​Broken down into amino acids.​
​into the duodenum.​ ​●​ ​Intermediate product: polypeptides.​
​14.2 Functions of the Digestive System​ ​Lipids (Fats)​
​●​ m ​ ajor​ ​functions​ ​of​ ​the​ ​digestive​ ​tract:​ ​Digestion​​&​ ​●​ ​Broken down into fatty acids and glycerol.​
​absorption.​ ​●​ ​Incomplete​ ​digestion​ ​may​ ​leave​ ​monoglycerides​
​○​ ​However,​ ​many​ ​of​ ​its​ ​specific​ ​activities​ ​and fatty acids.​
​(such​ ​as​ ​smooth​ ​muscle​ ​activity)​ ​and​ ​Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA)​
​certain​ ​regulatory​ ​events​ ​are​ ​not​ ​really​ ​●​ ​Pancreatic nucleases break them into nucleotides.​
​covered by either term​ ​●​ ​Nucleosidases​ ​and​ ​phosphatases​ ​(in​ ​the​ ​brush​
​Processes of the Digestive System​ ​border) further break nucleotides into:​
​1.​ ​Ingestion – getting food into the mouth​ ​○​ ​Nitrogen bases​
​●​ ​active, voluntary process.​ ​○​ ​5-carbon sugars​
​2.​ ​Propulsion​ ​–​​moving​​foods​​from​​one​​region​​of​ ​○​ ​Phosphate ions​
​the digestive system to another​ ​5.​ ​Absorption​
​●​ ​Peristalsis – alternating waves of contraction​ ​●​ ​End​ ​products​ ​of​ ​digestion​​are​​absorbed​​in​​the​
​●​ ​Segmentation​ ​–​ ​moving​ ​materials​ ​back​ ​and​ ​blood or lymph​
​forth to aid in mixing​ ​●​ ​To​ ​occur:​ ​Food​ ​must​ ​enter​ ​mucosal​ ​cells​ ​(by​
​3.​ ​Mechanical digestion​ ​active/passive​ ​transport)​ ​and​ ​then​ ​into​ ​blood​ ​or​
​●​ ​Physically​ ​breaks​ ​food​ ​into​ ​smaller​ ​particles​ ​to​ ​lymph capillaries​
​increase​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​and​ ​preparing​ ​food​ ​for​ ​●​ ​transport​​of​​digestive​​end​​products​​from​​the​​lumen​
​further degradation by enzymes.​ ​of the GI tract to the blood or lymph.​
​●​ ​Examples:​ ​●​ ​small intestine is the major absorptive site​
​●​ ​Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue​ ​6.​ ​Defecation​
​●​ ​Churning of food in the stomach​ ​●​ ​Elimination​​of​​indigestible​​substances​​as​​feces​
​●​ ​Segmentation​ ​in​ ​the​ ​small​ ​intestine​ ​—​ ​moves​ ​from the GI tract via the anus​
​food back and forth, mixing it with digestive juices.​ ​“Disassembly Line” Concept​
​●​ ​Segmentation​ ​mainly​ ​aids​ ​mechanical​ ​digestion,​ ​●​ ​The​ ​digestive​ ​tract​ ​acts​ ​like​ ​a​ ​disassembly​ ​line,​
​not propulsion.​ ​where​ ​food​ ​is​ ​gradually​ ​broken​ ​down,​ ​processed,​
​4.​ ​Chemical Digestion​ ​and absorbed at different stages.​
​●​ ​Enzymes​​(protein​​molecules​​that​​act​​as​​catalysts)​ ​Homeostasis and Control​
​break​ ​down​ ​food​ ​molecules​ ​into​​their​​building​ ​●​ ​The​​lumen​​of​​the​​GI​​tract​​is​​technically​​outside​​the​
​blocks​ ​body,​ ​and​ ​its​ ​conditions​ ​are​ ​optimized​ ​for​
​●​ ​Each major food group uses different enzymes​ ​digestion.​
​○​ ​Carbohydrates​ ​are​ ​broken​ ​to​ ​simple​ ​Control of Digestive Activity​
​sugars​ ​●​ ​Mostly​ ​controlled​ ​by​ ​reflexes​ ​via​ ​the​
​○​ ​Proteins are broken to amino acids​ ​parasympathetic division​
​○​ ​Fats​ ​are​ ​broken​ ​to​ ​fatty​ ​acids​ ​and​ ​●​ ​Chemical​ ​and​ ​mechanical​ ​receptors​ ​are​
​alcohols​ ​located in organ walls that trigger reflexes​
​Carbohydrates​ ​●​ ​Stimuli include:​
​●​ ​Broken​ ​down​ ​into​ ​monosaccharides​ ​(simple​ ​○​ ​Stretch of the organ​
​sugars):​ ​glucose​ ​(most​ ​important),​ ​fructose​ ​(most​ ​○​ ​pH of the contents​
​abundant sugar in fruits), galactose (found in milk).​ ​○​ ​Presence of breakdown products​
​●​ ​Digestible​ ​carbs:​ ​sucrose​ ​(table​ ​sugar),​ ​lactose​ ​●​ ​Reflexes include:​
​(milk sugar), maltose (malt sugar), and starch.​
 ​○​ A ​ ctivation​ ​or​ ​inhibition​ ​of​ ​glandular​ ​​
● ​ uccal phase​
B
​secretions​ ​●​ ​Voluntary​
​○​ ​Smooth muscle activity​ ​●​ ​Occurs in the mouth​
​In the walls of the digestive organs are sensors called:​ ​●​ ​Food is formed into a bolus​
​●​ ​Mechanoreceptors​​–​​detect​​stretching​​of​​the​​organ​ ​●​ ​The​ ​bolus​ ​is​ ​forced​ ​into​ ​the​ ​pharynx​ ​by​ ​the​
​walls (as food enters).​ ​tongue​
​●​ ​Chemoreceptors​​–​​detect​​chemical​​changes,​​such​ ​●​ ​As​ ​food​ ​enters​ ​the​ ​pharynx,​ ​it​ ​passes​ ​out​ ​of​ ​our​
​as​ ​pH​ ​levels​ ​or​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of​ ​digested​ ​food​ ​control and into the realm of reflex activity.​
​particles.​ ​2.​​Pharyngeal-esophageal phase​
​●​ ​When​ ​these​ ​receptors​ ​sense​ ​changes,​ ​they​ ​send​ ​●​ ​Involuntary transport of the bolus​
​signals that cause reflex responses, such as:​ ​●​ ​All​ ​passageways​ ​except​ ​to​ ​the​ ​stomach​ ​are​
​1.​ ​Activating​​or​​inhibiting​​glands​​→​​controls​​secretion​ ​blocked​
​of digestive juices or hormones.​ ​○​ ​Tongue blocks off the mouth​
​2.​ ​Stimulating​ ​or​ ​relaxing​ ​smooth​ ​muscles​ ​→​ ​mixes​ ​○​ ​Soft​ ​palate​ ​(uvula)​ ​blocks​ ​the​
​and propels food through the digestive tract.​ ​nasopharynx​
​Digestive Activities of the Mouth​ ​○​ ​Epiglottis blocks the larynx​
​●​ ​Mechanical breakdown​ ​●​ ​Peristalsis​ ​moves​ ​the​ ​bolus​ ​toward​ ​the​
​○​ ​Food is physically broken down by chewing​ ​stomach​
​●​ ​Chemical digestion​ ​●​ ​The​ ​cardioesophageal​ ​sphincter​ ​is​ ​opened​
​○​ ​Food is mixed with saliva​ ​when food presses against it​
​○​ ​Breaking​ ​of​ ​starch​​into​​maltose​​by​​salivary​ ​●​ ​Controlled​ ​by​ ​the​ ​parasympathetic​ ​division​ ​of​ ​the​
​amylase​ ​autonomic​ ​nervous​ ​system,​ ​mainly​ ​the​ ​vagus​
​Food Ingestion and Breakdown​ ​nerve.​
​●​ ​Once​​food​​is​​placed​​in​​the​​mouth,​​mechanical​​and​ ​●​ ​Food​ ​is​ ​moved​ ​downward​ ​by​ ​wavelike​ ​peristaltic​
​chemical processing begins.​ ​contractions​ ​—​ ​first​ ​the​ ​longitudinal,​ ​then​ ​the​
​●​ ​Mechanical​ ​breakdown:​ ​food​ ​is​ ​physically​ ​broken​ ​circular muscles contract.​
​into smaller particles as it is chewed.​ ​●​ ​If​ ​you​ ​talk​ ​or​ ​laugh​ ​while​ ​swallowing,​ ​food​ ​may​
​●​ ​Chemical​ ​digestion:​ ​salivary​ ​amylase​ ​in​ ​saliva​ ​enter​​the​​respiratory​​passages,​​triggering​​coughing​
​begins​ ​the​ ​digestion​ ​of​ ​starch,​ ​breaking​ ​it​ ​down​ ​to expel it.​
​into maltose.​ ​●​ ​When​ ​food​ ​reaches​ ​the​ ​end​ ​of​ ​the​ ​esophagus,​ ​it​
​●​ ​Chewing​​bread​​for​​a​​while​​causes​​it​​to​​taste​​sweet​ ​presses​ ​against​ ​the​ ​cardioesophageal​ ​sphincter,​
​as sugars are released.​ ​opening it and allowing food to enter the stomach.​
​●​ ​Saliva​ ​is​ ​continuously​​secreted​​to​​keep​​the​​mouth​ ​●​ ​Food​ ​transport​ ​through​ ​the​ ​pharynx​ ​and​
​moist,​ ​but​ ​secretion​ ​increases​ ​greatly​ ​when​ ​food​ ​esophagus​ ​is​ ​automatic​ ​and​ ​does​ ​not​ ​depend​ ​on​
​enters the mouth.​ ​gravity​ ​—​ ​even​ ​in​ ​zero​ ​gravity,​ ​food​ ​reaches​ ​the​
​●​ ​Pressure​ ​or​ ​chewing​ ​actions​ ​(even​ ​with​ ​objects​ ​stomach​
​like gum) can also stimulate saliva release.​ ​Food Breakdown in the Stomach​
​●​ ​Emotional​​stimuli,​​such​​as​​the​​thought​​of​​delicious​ ​●​ ​Gastric​ ​juice​ ​is​ ​regulated​ ​by​ ​neural​ ​and​
​food, can cause salivation.​ ​hormonal factors​
​●​ ​These​ ​reflexes​ ​are​ ​controlled​ ​by​ ​parasympathetic​ ​●​ ​The​ ​sight,​ ​smell,​ ​and​ ​taste​ ​of​ ​food​ ​trigger​
​fibers in cranial nerves VII and IX.​ ​parasympathetic​ ​reflexes​ ​that​ ​increase​ ​gastric​
​●​ ​No​ ​food​ ​absorption​ ​occurs​ ​in​ ​the​ ​mouth​ ​(except​ ​juice secretion.​
​certain​ ​drugs​ ​like​ ​nitroglycerine​ ​absorbed​​through​ ​●​ ​Presence​ ​of​ ​food​ ​or​ ​falling​ ​pH​ ​causes​ ​the​
​the oral mucosa).​ ​release of gastrin​
​Activities of the Pharynx and Esophagus​ ​●​ ​Gastrin​ ​causes​ ​stomach​ ​glands​ ​to​ ​produce​
​●​ ​These organs have no digestive function​ ​protein-digesting enzymes​
​●​ ​Serve as passageways to the stomach​ ​●​ ​Gastrin signals gastric glands to produce:​
​Deglutition (Swallowing)​ ​○​ ​Protein-digesting​ ​enzymes​ ​(e.g.,​
​●​ ​a​ ​complex​ ​process​ ​involving​ ​the​ ​tongue,​ ​soft​ ​pepsinogen)​
​palate, pharynx, and esophagus.​ ​○​ ​Mucus​
​●​ ​2 major phases:​ ​○​ ​Hydrochloric acid (HCl)​
 ​●​ T ​ he​​stomach​​produces​​about​​2​​to​​3​​liters​​of​​gastric​ ​●​ T ​ he​​rest​​of​​the​​chyme​​is​​pushed​​backward​​into​​the​
​juice per day.​ ​stomach​ ​for​ ​further​ ​mixing​ ​—​ ​this​ ​is​ ​called​
​●​ ​Hydrocholoric​ ​acid​ ​makes​ ​the​ ​stomach​ ​retropulsion​​.​
​contents very acidic​ ​●​ ​When​ ​the​ ​duodenum​ ​fills​ ​with​ ​chyme,​ ​the​
​●​ ​Helps​ ​break​ ​down​ ​food,​ ​but​​can​​also​​damage​​the​ ​enterogastric reflex occurs:​
​stomach if mucus protection fails (causing ulcers).​ ​○​ ​It slows gastric activity by:​
​Necessity​ ​of​ ​an​ ​Extremely​ ​Acid​ ​Environment​ ​in​ ​the​ ​■​ ​Inhibiting the vagus nerve​
​Stomach​ ​■​ ​Tightening the pyloric sphincter​
​Hydrochloric​ ​acid​ ​makes​ ​stomach​ ​contents​ ​very​ ​acidic,​ ​●​ ​This​ ​allows​ ​the​ ​small​ ​intestine​ ​time​ ​to​ ​process​
​which:​ ​food.​
​●​ ​Activates​ ​pepsinogen​ ​to​ ​pepsin​ ​for​ ​protein​
​digestion​
​●​ ​Provides​ ​a​ ​hostile​ ​environment​ ​for​
​microorganisms​
​Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach​
​●​ ​Protein digestion enzymes​
​○​ ​Pepsin​ ​–​ ​an​ ​active​ ​protein​ ​digesting​
​enzyme​
​○​ ​Rennin​ ​–​ ​works​ ​on​ ​digesting​ ​milk​ ​Chyme Breakdown and Absorption​
​protein​​,​ ​converting​ ​it​ ​into​ ​a​ ​curdy​ ​●​ ​When​​chyme​​reaches​​the​​small​​intestine,​​it​​is​​only​
​substance.​ ​partially digested.​
​●​ ​The​​only​​absorption​​that​​occurs​​in​​the​​stomach​ ​●​ ​Carbohydrate​​and​​protein​​digestion​​has​​begun,​​but​
​is of alcohol and aspirin​ ​fats and nucleic acids have not yet been digested.​
​●​ ​Except​ ​for​ ​protein​ ​digestion,​ ​little​ ​chemical​ ​●​ ​Lingual​ ​lipase​ ​(mouth)​ ​and​ ​gastric​ ​lipase​
​digestion occurs in the stomach.​ ​(stomach) play only minor roles in lipid digestion.​
​●​ ​As​ ​food​ ​fills​ ​the​ ​stomach,​​its​​walls​​stretch​​(gastric​ ​●​ ​In​ ​the​ ​small​ ​intestine,​ ​chemical​ ​digestion​ ​is​
​juice​ ​is​ ​also​ ​secreted)​ ​and​ ​the​ ​muscle​ ​layers​ ​accelerated​ ​during​ ​its​ ​3–6​ ​hour​ ​journey​ ​through​
​become​ ​active.​ ​They​ ​compress​ ​and​ ​pummel​ ​the​ ​the coiled intestine.​
​food,​ ​breaking​ ​it​ ​apart​ ​physically,​ ​all​ ​the​ ​while​ ​●​ ​By​ ​the​ ​end​ ​of​ ​the​ ​small​ ​intestine,​ ​digestion​ ​is​
​continuously​ ​mixing​ ​the​ ​food​ ​with​ ​the​ ​complete​ ​and​ ​nearly​ ​all​ ​food​ ​absorption​ ​has​
​enzyme-containing​ ​gastric​ ​juice​ ​so​ ​that​ ​the​ ​thick​ ​occurred.​
​fluid​​chyme​​is formed.​ ​Digestion in the Small Intestine​
​Propulsion in the Stomach​ ​●​ ​The​ ​microvilli​ ​of​ ​small​ ​intestine​ ​cells​ ​have​ ​brush​
​●​ ​Food must first be well mixed​ ​border enzymes​
​●​ ​Rippling​ ​peristalsis​ ​occurs​ ​in​ ​the​ ​lower​ ​●​ ​Enzymes from the brush border​
​stomach​ ​○​ ​Break double sugars into simple sugars​
​●​ ​The​ ​pylorus​ ​meters​ ​out​ ​chyme​ ​into​ ​the​ ​small​ ​○​ ​Complete some protein digestion​
​intestine (30 ml of chyme at a time)​ ​●​ ​Intestinal​ ​juice​ ​is​ ​relatively​ ​enzyme-poor,​ ​but​
​●​ ​The​ ​stomach​ ​empties​ ​in​ ​four​ ​(​after​ ​a​ ​normal​ ​protective mucus is its most important secretion.​
​meal)​​to six hours (​​if the meal is high in fat)​ ​●​ ​Foods entering the small intestine are mixed with:​
​●​ ​Once​​food​​is​​mixed,​​peristalsis​​begins​​in​​the​​upper​ ​○​ ​Enzyme-rich​ ​pancreatic​ ​juice​ ​(from​ ​the​
​stomach.​ ​pancreas).​
​●​ ​Contractions​ ​increase​ ​in​ ​strength​ ​near​ ​the​ ​pyloric​ ​○​ ​Bile (from the liver).​
​valve, grinding food into chyme.​ ​●​ ​Pancreatic​ ​enzymes​ ​play​ ​the​ ​major​ ​digestive​
​●​ ​The​ ​pylorus​ ​of​ ​the​ ​stomach​ ​acts​​like​​a​​meter​​that​ ​function​
​allows​​only​​liquids​​and​​very​​small​​particles​​to​​pass​ ​○​ ​Help​ ​complete​ ​digestion​ ​of​ ​starch​
​through​ ​the​ ​pyloric​ ​sphincter.​ ​Because​ ​the​​pyloric​ ​(pancreatic amylase)​
​sphincter​ ​barely​ ​opens,​ ​each​ ​contraction​ ​of​ ​the​ ​○​ ​Carry​ ​out​ ​about​ ​half​ ​of​ ​all​ ​protein​
​stomach​​muscle​​squirts​​3​​ml​​or​​less​​of​​chyme​​into​ ​digestion​ ​(trypsin,​ ​chymotrypsin,​
​the small intestine​ ​carboxypeptidase)​
​○​ ​Responsible for fat digestion (lipase)​
​○​ ​Digest nucleic acids (nucleases)​
 ​○​ A ​ lkaline​ ​content​ ​neutralizes​ ​acidic​ ​Absorption in the Small Intestine​
​chyme​​due to its bicarbonate ions (pH ~8)​ ​●​ ​Water​ ​is​ ​absorbed​ ​along​ ​the​ ​length​ ​of​ ​the​ ​small​
​○​ ​The​ ​ions​ ​also​ ​create​ ​proper​ ​environment​ ​intestine​
​for​ ​activation​ ​and​ ​activity​ ​of​ ​intestinal​ ​and​ ​●​ ​End products of digestion​
​pancreatic digestive enzymes​ ​○​ ​Most​ ​substances​ ​are​ ​absorbed​ ​by​ ​active​
​Stimulation of the Release of Pancreatic Juice​ ​transport through cell membranes​
​The​ ​release​ ​of​ ​pancreatic​ ​juice​ ​into​ ​the​ ​duodenum​ ​is​ ​○​ ​Lipids are absorbed by diffusion​
​stimulated by:​ ​●​ ​Substances​ ​are​ ​transported​ ​to​ ​the​ ​liver​ ​by​ ​the​
​●​ ​Vagus nerve​ ​hepatic portal vein or lymph​
​●​ ​Local hormones​ ​End of Small Intestine​
​○​ ​Secretin​ ​●​ ​By the end of the ileum, what remains:​
​○​ ​Cholecystokinin​ ​○​ ​Water​
​●​ ​When​ ​chyme​ ​enters​ ​the​ ​small​ ​intestine,​ ​the​ ​○​ ​Indigestible materials (like cellulose)​
​mucosa releases two hormones:​ ​○​ ​Large amounts of bacteria​
​○​ ​Secretin​ ​●​ ​This​​debris​​passes​​into​​the​​large​​intestine​​through​
​○​ ​Cholecystokinin (CCK)​ ​the ileocecal valve.​
​Their functions:​ ​Propulsion in the Small Intestine​
​●​ ​influence the release of pancreatic juice and bile.​ ​●​ ​Peristalsis is the major means of moving food​
​●​ ​Both​​stimulate​​the​​pancreas​​to​​release​​its​​enzyme-​ ​●​ ​It​ ​consists​ ​of​ ​waves​ ​of​​contraction​​and​​relaxation,​
​and bicarbonate-rich juice.​ ​pushing food like toothpaste through a tube.​
​●​ ​Secretin​ ​→​ ​causes​ ​the​ ​liver​ ​to​ ​increase​ ​bile​ ​●​ ​Segmental​ ​movements​ ​create​​local​​constrictions​
​production.​ ​that​
​●​ ​CCK​ ​→​ ​causes​ ​the​ ​gallbladder​ ​to​ ​contract​ ​and​ ​○​ ​Mix chyme with digestive juices​
​release​ ​stored​ ​bile​ ​into​ ​the​ ​bile​ ​duct,​ ​so​ ​bile​ ​and​ ​○​ ​Aid in propelling food​
​pancreatic juice enter the small intestine together.​ ​Food​ ​Breakdown​ ​and​ ​Absorption​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Large​
​Role of Bile​ ​Intestine​
​●​ ​Not an enzyme, but acts as a detergent.​ ​●​ ​No digestive enzymes are produced​
​●​ ​It​ ​emulsifies​ ​fats—breaks​ ​large​ ​fat​ ​globules​ ​into​ ​●​ ​Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients​
​tiny​ ​droplets—creating​ ​more​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​for​ ​the​ ​○​ ​Produce some vitamin K and B​
​pancreatic lipases to work on​ ​○​ ​Release gases​
​●​ ​needed​ ​for​ ​absorption​ ​of​ ​fats​ ​and​ ​fat-soluble​ ​●​ ​Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed​
​vitamins (K, D, E, A).​ ​●​ ​Remaining materials are eliminated via feces​
​●​ ​What​ ​enters​ ​the​ ​large​ ​intestine​ ​contains​ ​few​
​nutrients but stays there for 12 to 24 hours.​
​●​ ​The​ ​resident​ ​bacteria​ ​(normal​ ​flora​ ​or​ ​microbiota)​
​in​ ​the​ ​colon​ ​metabolize​ ​remaining​ ​nutrients,​
​releasing​ ​gases​ ​(methane​ ​and​ ​hydrogen​ ​sulfide)​
​that cause flatulence and the odor of feces.​
​●​ ​About​ ​500​ ​ml​ ​of​ ​gas​ ​(flatus)​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​daily,​
​more​ ​when​ ​carbohydrate-rich​ ​foods​ ​(like​ ​beans)​
​are eaten.​
​●​ ​These​ ​bacteria​ ​also​ ​produce​ ​vitamins,​ ​especially​
​vitamin K and some B vitamins.​
​●​ ​Absorption in the large intestine is limited to:​
​○​ ​Vitamins made by bacteria​
​○​ ​Some ions​
​○​ ​Most of the remaining water​
​●​ ​Feces​ ​(delivered​ ​to​ ​the​ ​rectum)​ ​contain:​
​Undigested​ ​food​ ​residues,​ ​Mucus,​ ​Millions​ ​of​
​bacteria, Just enough water for smooth passage​
​Propulsion in the Large Intestine​ ​ ​ ​Immune system development​
○
​●​ ​When​ ​presented​ ​with​ ​food​ ​residue,​ ​the​ ​colon​ ​○​ ​Energy usage​
​begins​​sluggish peristalsis​ ​○​ ​Allergies and autoimmunity​
​●​ ​Haustral contractions:​ ​Microbiota and Health​
​○​ ​movements​ ​most​ ​seen​ ​in​ ​the​ ​colon;​ ​Slow,​ ​●​ ​Healthy​ ​“cross​ ​talk”​ ​between​ ​microbes​ ​and​ ​the​
​segmenting​ ​movements​ ​(last​ ​~1​ ​minute,​ ​immune​ ​system​ ​allows​ ​good​ ​protection​ ​without​
​occur every 30 min).​ ​allergies.​
​○​ ​Each​​haustra​​fills​​with​​residue​​→​​distension​ ​●​ ​This​ ​happens​ ​when​ ​microbes​ ​influence​ ​gene​
​stimulates​ ​contraction,​​pushing​​contents​​to​ ​expression in gut mucosal cells.​
​the next haustrum.​ ​●​ ​Research​ ​is​ ​exploring​ ​replacement​ ​therapies​ ​to​
​○​ ​Helps mix residue for water absorption.​ ​restore healthy microbiota (e.g., for food allergies).​
​●​ ​Mass movements​ ​●​ ​The​​challenge:​​How​​to​​establish​​new​​microbes​​in​​a​
​○​ ​Slow, powerful movements​ ​gut​ ​that​ ​already​ ​has​ ​an​ ​existing​ ​microbial​
​○​ ​Occur three to four times per day​ ​community.​
​○​ ​Triggered​ ​during​ ​or​ ​after​ ​eating​ ​when​ ​the​ ​●​ ​Understanding​ ​microbiota​ ​is​ ​still​ ​growing,​ ​but​
​stomach and small intestine fill.​ ​evidence shows it can:​
​○​ ​Fiber​ ​(bulk)​ ​increases​ ​strength​ ​of​ ​○​ ​Protect health, or​
​contractions​ ​and​ ​softens​ ​stool,​ ​helping​​the​ ​○​ ​Contribute​​to​​disease,​​depending​​on​​which​
​colon function efficiently.​ ​microbes are present.​
​●​ ​Presence​ ​of​ ​feces​ ​in​ ​the​ ​rectum​ ​causes​ ​a​ ​●​ ​Future​​studies​​aim​​to​​use​​the​​microbiome’s​​power​
​defecation reflex​ ​to treat diseases like:​
​○​ ​Internal anal sphincter is relaxed​ ​○​ ​Autoimmune diseases​
​○​ ​Defecation​​occurs​​with​​relaxation​​of​​the​ ​○​ ​Diabetes​
​voluntary (external) anal sphincter​ ​○​ ​Obesity​
​●​ ​A spinal reflex (in the sacral region) causes:​ ​14.3 Nutrition​
​○​ ​Sigmoid colon and rectum walls to contract​
​●​ A ​ ​ ​certain​ ​fraction​ ​of​ ​nutrients​ ​is​ ​used​ ​to​ ​build​
​●​ ​Signals​ ​reach​ ​the​ ​brain,​ ​letting​ ​us​ ​control​ ​the​
​cellular​ ​molecules​ ​and​ ​structures​ ​and​ ​to​ ​replace​
​external anal sphincter (voluntary).​
​worn-out parts.​
​●​ ​If​ ​not​ ​convenient​ ​to​ ​defecate,​ ​the​ ​reflex​ ​stops​
​●​ ​Food​ ​is​ ​oxidized​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​ATP​ ​(adenosine​
​temporarily and the rectal walls relax.​
​triphosphate), the body’s main energy source.​
​●​ ​When​ ​the​ ​next​​mass​​movement​​occurs,​​the​​reflex​
​●​ ​The​ ​energy​ ​value​ ​of​ ​food​ ​is​ ​measured​ ​in​
​restarts.​
​kilocalories (kcal) or Calories (C).​
​The Microbiota​
​●​ ​Nutrient​ ​–​ ​substance​ ​used​ ​by​ ​the​ ​body​ ​for​
​●​ ​The​ ​human​ ​body​ ​contains​ ​tens​ ​of​ ​trillions​​of​​cells​
​growth, maintenance, and repair​
​and even more microbes.​
​●​ ​Categories of nutrients​
​●​ ​The​ ​Human​ ​Microbiome​ ​Project​ ​found​ ​that​ ​the​
​○​ ​Carbohydrates (major)​
​microbial​ ​residents​ ​(microbiota)​ ​may​ ​outnumber​
​○​ ​Lipids (major)​
​human cells 10 to 1.​
​○​ ​Proteins (major)​
​●​ ​The microbiota (normal flora) includes:​
​○​ ​Vitamins (minor)​
​○​ ​Bacteria, Viruses, Parasites, & Fungi​
​○​ ​Mineral (minor)​
​●​ ​Each person’s microbial population varies widely.​
​○​ ​Water(major;​ ​accounts​ ​for​ ​60%​ ​of​ ​the​
​●​ ​contains as many as 10,000 different species.​
​volume of the food we eat)​
​●​ ​Microbiome​ ​–​ ​intersection​ ​of​ ​the​​human​​body,​​the​
​MyPlate (2011, USDA)​
​microbiota​ ​and​ ​all​ ​of​ ​their​ ​genes,​ ​and​ ​our​
​●​ ​Issues​ ​by​ ​the​ ​United​ ​states​ ​department​ ​of​
​environment​ ​along​ ​with​ ​how​ ​these​ ​factors​
​agriculture​
​influence human health.​
​●​ ​Shows​ ​healthy​ ​food​ ​proportions​ ​using​ ​a​ ​plate​
​Functions of the Microbiota​
​model:​
​●​ ​Makes vitamins the body needs.​
​○​ ​Half​ ​the​ ​plate:​ ​fruits​ ​and​​vegetables​​(more​
​●​ ​Outcompetes​ ​potential​ ​pathogens​ ​(helps​ ​prevent​
​vegetables).​
​infection).​
​○​ ​Other​ ​half:​ ​grains​ ​and​ ​proteins​ ​(more​
​●​ ​Influences mood and diet.​
​grains).​
​●​ ​Affects:​
​○​ ​A glass represents dairy.​
 ​●​ ​MyPlate replaced the older Food Pyramid (1992).​ ​●​ T​ race​ ​minerals:​ ​Small​ ​amounts​ ​of​ ​others​ ​also​
​Basic Dietary Principles​ ​needed.​
​●​ ​Eat less overall.​ ​●​ ​Poor sources: Fats, sugars, and most grains.​
​●​ ​Eat plenty of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.​ ​14.4 Metabolism​
​●​ ​Avoid junk food.​
​Metabolism​
​●​ ​Exercise regularly.​
​●​ ​Chemical reactions necessary to maintain life​
​Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients​
​○​ ​Catabolism​ ​–​ ​substances​ ​are​ ​broken​
​1.​ ​Carbohydrates​
​down to simpler substances​
​●​ ​Most are derived from plants​
​○​ ​Anabolism​ ​–​ ​larger​ ​molecules​ ​are​ ​built​
​●​ ​Exceptions:​ ​lactose​ ​from​ ​milk​ ​and​ ​small​
​from smaller ones​
​amounts of glycogens from meats​
​○​ ​Energy​ ​is​ ​released​ ​during​ ​catabolism​​,​
​●​ ​Sugars: From fruits, sugar cane, milk.​
​and​ ​captured​ ​to​ ​make​ ​adenosine​
​●​ ​Starches: From grains, legumes, root vegetables.​
​triphosphate​ ​(ATP),​ ​the​ ​energy-rich​
​●​ ​Cellulose:​ ​Found​ ​in​ ​vegetables,​ ​not​ ​digested​ ​by​
​molecule​ ​used​ ​to​ ​power​ ​all​ ​cellular​
​humans,​ ​but​ ​provides​ ​fiber​​for​​stool​​bulk​​and​​aids​
​activities (including catabolic reactions).​
​defecation​
​14.4a​​Carbohydrate,​​Fat,​​and​​Protein​​Metabolism​​in​​Body​
​2.​ ​Lipids​
​Cells​
​●​ ​Saturated fats from animal products​
​Not all food types are treated the same way by body cells​
​●​ ​Unsaturated​ ​fats​ ​from​ ​nuts,​ ​seeds,​ ​and​
​vegetable oils​ ​Nutrient​ ​Main function​
​●​ ​Cholesterol​ ​from​ ​egg​ ​yolk,​ ​meats,​ ​and​ ​milk​
​Carbohydrates​ ​ sually broken down to​
U
​products​
​make ATP.​
​●​ ​Most common form: Triglycerides (neutral fats).​
​3.​ ​Proteins​ ​Fats​ ​ sed to build cell​
U
​●​ ​Complete​ ​proteins​ ​–​ ​contain​ ​all​ ​essential​ ​membranes, make myelin​
​amino acids​ ​sheaths, and insulate the​
​○​ ​Most are from animal products​ ​body; also serve as the​
​main fuel for ATP when​
​●​ ​Legumes​​and​​beans​​also​​have​​proteins,​​but​​are​
​carbs are low.​
​incomplete​
​●​ ​Essential​​amino​​acids:​​8​​amino​​acids​​that​​the​​body​ ​Proteins​ ​ ajor structural materials​
M
​cannot produce; must come from the diet.​ ​used to build cell​
​4.​ ​Vitamins​ ​structures.​
​●​ ​Most​ ​vitamins​ ​are​ ​used​ ​as​ ​cofactors​ ​and​ ​act​
​with enzymes​ ​Carbohydrate Metabolism​
​●​ ​Found​ ​in​ ​all​ ​major​ ​food​ ​groups,​ ​but​ ​no​ ​single​ ​●​ ​Cells​ ​use​ ​carbohydrates,​ ​the​ ​body’s​ ​preferred​
​food provides all vitamins.​ ​source to produce cellular energy (ATP)​
​●​ ​Organic nutrients needed in small amounts.​ ​●​ ​Glucose​ ​(blood​​sugar)​​is​​the​​major​​breakdown​
​●​ ​Function​​mostly​​as​​coenzymes​​(assist​​enzymes​​in​ ​product and fuel to make ATP​
​chemical reactions).​ ​●​ ​The​ ​liver​ ​is​ ​an​ ​exception;​ ​it​ ​often​ ​uses​ ​fats,​
​●​ ​A balanced diet ensures complete vitamin intake.​ ​conserving glucose for other cells.​
​●​ ​Some​ ​vitamins​ ​(A,​ ​C,​ ​E)​ ​may​ ​have​ ​anticancer​ ​Cellular Respiration​
​effects.​ ​●​ ​Oxygen-using​​events​​take​​place​​within​​the​​cell​
​●​ ​Vegetables​ ​like​ ​broccoli,​ ​cabbage,​ ​and​ ​brussels​ ​to create ATP from ADP​
​sprouts are rich in vitamins A and C.​ ​●​ ​Carbon leaves cells as carbon dioxide (CO2)​
​5.​ ​Minerals​ ​●​ ​Hydrogen​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​combined​​with​​oxygen​​to​
​●​ ​Play many roles in the body​ ​form water​
​●​ ​Most​ ​mineral-rich​ ​foods​ ​are​ ​vegetables,​ ​●​ ​Energy​ ​produced​ ​by​ ​these​ ​reactions​ ​adds​ ​a​
​legumes, milk, and some meats​ ​phosphorus to ADP to produce ATP​
​●​ ​Inorganic nutrients essential for body functions.​ ​●​ ​ATP​​can​​be​​broken​​down​​to​​release​​energy​​for​
​●​ ​Major​ ​minerals​ ​(7):​ ​Calcium,​ ​phosphorus,​ ​cellular use​
​potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, magnesium.​ ​●​ ​The​ ​process​ ​occurs​ ​through​​three​​main​​metabolic​
​pathways:​
 ​ ​ ​Glycolysis​
○ ​ nergy​ ​gradually.​ ​This​ ​prevents​ ​excess​ ​loss​ ​of​
e
​○​ ​Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)​ ​energy as heat and light.​
​○​ ​Electron transport chain​ ​Blood Glucose Homeostasis​
​Oxidation in Cellular Respiration​ ​●​ ​Because​ ​glucose​ ​is​ ​the​ ​major​ ​fuel​ ​for​ ​ATP,​
​●​ ​Oxidation​ ​through​ ​the​ ​removal​​of​​hydrogen​​atoms​ ​maintaining a stable blood glucose level is critical.​
​is​ ​a​ ​major​ ​role​ ​of​ ​glycolysis​ ​and​ ​the​ ​citric​ ​acid​ ​●​ ​When Glucose Is High (Hyperglycemia)​
​cycle.​ ​○​ ​Some​​glucose​​is​​stored​​as​​glycogen​​in​​liver​
​●​ ​These​ ​hydrogens​ ​are​ ​temporarily​ ​passed​ ​to​ ​and muscle cells.​
​vitamin-containing coenzymes.​ ​○​ ​If still excessive, it is converted into fat.​
​Glycolysis​ ​○​ ​Eating​ ​too​ ​much​ ​sugar​ ​or​ ​candy​ ​causes​
​●​ ​Occurs in the cytosol (cytoplasm).​ ​rapid fat storage in adipose tissues.​
​●​ ​Purpose:​ ​Energizes​ ​each​ ​glucose​ ​molecule​ ​so​ ​it​ ​●​ ​When Glucose Is Low (Hypoglycemia)​
​can​ ​be​ ​split​ ​into​ ​two​ ​pyruvic​ ​acid​ ​molecules​ ​and​ ​○​ ​The​​liver​​breaks​​down​​stored​​glycogen​​into​
​produces a small amount of ATP in the process​ ​glucose.​
​●​ ​Free oxygen is not involved.​ ​○​ ​This​ ​glucose​ ​is​ ​released​ ​into​ ​the​​blood​​for​
​Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)​ ​cellular use (energy production).​
​●​ ​Takes place in the mitochondria.​ ​Fat Metabolism​
​●​ ​Produces​ ​virtually​ ​all​ ​of​ ​the​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​(CO₂)​ ​Role of the Liver​
​made during cell respiration.​ ​●​ ​The​​liver​​handles​​most​​lipid​​(fat)​​metabolism​​in​​the​
​●​ ​Yields​ ​a​ ​small​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​ATP​ ​by​ ​transferring​ ​body.​
​high-energy​ ​phosphate​ ​groups​ ​directly​ ​from​ ​●​ ​Liver cells:​
​phosphorylated​ ​substances​ ​to​ ​ADP​ ​—​ ​a​ ​process​ ​○​ ​Use​ ​some​ ​fats​ ​to​​make​​ATP​​(for​​their​​own​
​called substrate-level phosphorylation.​ ​energy).​
​●​ ​Free oxygen is not directly involved.​ ​○​ ​Use​ ​some​ ​to​ ​make:​ ​Lipoproteins,​
​Electron Transport Chain (ETC) – “The Big Payoff”​ ​Thromboplastin​ ​(a​ ​clotting​ ​protein),​ ​&​
​●​ ​The final and major step in ATP production.​ ​Cholesterol​
​●​ ​Hydrogen​ ​atoms​ ​removed​ ​during​ ​glycolysis​ ​and​ ​●​ ​Release​ ​the​ ​rest​ ​into​ ​the​ ​blood​ ​as​ ​fat-breakdown​
​the citric acid cycle are loaded with energy.​ ​products.​
​●​ ​These​​hydrogens​​are​​carried​​by​​coenzymes​​NADH​ ​Use of Fats in the Body​
​and​ ​FADH₂​ ​to​ ​the​ ​protein​ ​carriers​ ​of​ ​the​ ​electron​ ​●​ ​Body​ ​cells​ ​remove​ ​fat​ ​products​ ​and​ ​cholesterol​
​transport​​chain​​located​​in​​the​​mitochondrial​​cristae​ ​from the blood to:​
​membranes.​ ​○​ ​Build​ ​cell​ ​membranes​ ​and​ ​steroid​
​Process in the Electron Transport Chain​ ​hormones.​
​1.​ ​Hydrogen​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​split​ ​into​ ​hydrogen​ ​ions​ ​(H⁺)​ ​○​ ​Form myelin sheaths (around neurons).​
​and electrons (e⁻).​ ​○​ ​Create​ ​fatty​ ​cushions​ ​protecting​ ​body​
​2.​ ​Electrons​ ​“fall​ ​down​ ​an​ ​energy​ ​hill”,​ ​passing​ ​from​ ​organs.​
​one carrier to another, each of lower energy.​ ​●​ ​Stored​ ​fats​ ​are​ ​the​ ​body’s​ ​most​ ​concentrated​
​3.​ ​The​​movement​​of​​electrons​​powers​​proton​​pumps,​ ​energy source.​
​creating​ ​a​ ​hydrogen​ ​ion​ ​(H⁺)​ ​gradient​ ​across​ ​the​ ​●​ ​1​ ​gram​ ​of​ ​fat​ ​=​ ​2x​ ​more​ ​energy​ ​than​ ​1​ ​gram​ ​of​
​membrane.​ ​carbohydrate or protein.​
​4.​ ​Hydrogen​ ​ions​ ​travel​ ​back​ ​down​ ​their​ ​gradient​ ​ATP Production from Fats​
​through​​ATP​​synthase,​​which​​adds​​a​​phosphate​​to​ ​●​ ​Fats must first be broken down into acetic acid.​
​ADP → forming ATP.​ ​●​ ​Inside​ ​the​ ​mitochondria,​ ​acetic​ ​acid​ ​is​ ​oxidized​​to​
​5.​ ​Finally,​ ​oxygen​​acts​​as​​the​​final​​electron​​acceptor,​ ​form:​
​combining​​with​​H⁺​​ions​​and​​electrons​​to​​form​​water​ ​○​ ​Carbon dioxide (CO₂)​
​(H₂O).​ ​○​ ​Water (H₂O)​
​6.​ ​This​​process​​produces​​a​​large​​amount​​of​​ATP​​and​ ​○​ ​ATP​
​is called oxidative phosphorylation.​ ​When Glucose Is Low​
​Significance of Oxidative Phosphorylation​ ​●​ ​If glucose is insufficient, cells use fats for ATP.​
​●​ ​Unlike​​the​​explosive​​burning​​of​​fuels​​(combining​​O₂​ ​●​ ​Fast​ ​but​ ​incomplete​ ​oxidation​ ​produces​
​with​ ​hydrogen​ ​directly),​ ​this​ ​process​ ​releases​ ​intermediate products like:​
​○​ ​Acetoacetic acid​
 ​○​ ​Acetone​ ​​ A
● ​ mmonia is toxic, especially to nerve cells.​
​●​ ​These build up in the blood, causing:​ ​●​ ​The​ ​liver​ ​converts​ ​ammonia​ ​into​ ​a​ ​less​ ​harmful​
​○​ ​Acidosis​ ​or​ ​ketoacidosis​ ​(blood​ ​becomes​ ​substance​
​acidic).​ ​14.4b The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism​
​○​ ​Fruity-smelling​ ​breath​ ​(from​​acetone​​in​​the​ ​●​ ​The​ ​liver​ ​is​ ​one​ ​of​ ​the​ ​most​ ​versatile​ ​and​ ​vital​
​lungs).​ ​organs—without​​it,​​life​​cannot​​continue​​beyond​​24​
​Causes of Ketoacidosis​ ​hours.​
​●​ ​No-carbohydrate diets​ ​●​ ​Its​ ​digestive​​role​​is​​bile​​production,​​but​​it​​performs​
​●​ ​Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus​ ​many other metabolic and regulatory functions.​
​●​ ​Starvation​​(when​​the​​body​​relies​​almost​​entirely​​on​ ​Main Functions of Liver Cells​
​fats)​ ​●​ ​Detoxify drugs and alcohol​
​Cholesterol​ ​●​ ​Degrade hormones​
​●​ ​Not used as cellular fuel.​ ​●​ ​Synthesize vital substances:​
​●​ ​Important​ ​for​ ​making​ ​functional​ ​molecules​ ​and​ ​○​ ​Cholesterol​
​body structures.​ ​○​ ​Blood proteins (albumin, clotting proteins)​
​Fat Storage​ ​○​ ​Lipoproteins​
​●​ ​Excess​ ​fats​ ​are​ ​stored​ ​in​ ​fat​ ​deposits:​ ​Hips,​ ​●​ ​play​ ​a​ ​central​ ​role​ ​in​ ​metabolism​ ​as​​they​​process​
​abdomen, breasts, and subcutaneous tissues.​ ​nearly every class of nutrient​
​●​ ​Functions:​ ​●​ ​The liver can regenerate rapidly if damaged.​
​○​ ​Provides insulation for deeper organs.​ ​Hepatic Portal Circulation​
​○​ ​Too​ ​much​ ​fat​ ​can​ ​restrict​ ​movement​ ​and​ ​●​ ​brings​ ​nutrient-rich​ ​blood​ ​draining​ ​from​ ​the​
​strain the circulatory system.​ ​digestive viscera directly to the liver.​
​Protein Metabolism​ ​○​ ​This​ ​ensures​ ​that​ ​the​ ​liver’s​ ​metabolic​
​●​ ​Proteins make up the bulk of cellular structures.​ ​needs are met first.​
​●​ ​Ingested proteins are broken down to amino acids.​ ​●​ ​As blood circulates slowly through the liver:​
​●​ ​The​ ​liver​ ​processes​ ​amino​ ​acids​ ​from​ ​the​ ​blood​ ​○​ ​Liver​​cells​​remove​​glucose,​​fatty​​acids,​​and​
​draining the digestive tract, taking what it needs.​ ​amino​​acids​​from​​blood​​for​​storage​​for​​later​
​●​ ​The​ ​remaining​ ​amino​ ​acids​ ​then​​circulate​​to​​body​ ​use​ ​or​ ​processing.​ ​for​ ​storage​ ​or​
​cells and use them to build new proteins for:​ ​processing.​
​○​ ​Own​ ​use​ ​(enzymes,​ ​membranes,​ ​mitotic​ ​●​ ​Hepatic​ ​macrophages​ ​(liver’s​ ​phagocytic​ ​cells)​
​spindle proteins, muscle proteins)​ ​destroy​​bacteria​​that​​have​​managed​​to​​get​​through​
​○​ ​Export (mucus, hormones, and others).​ ​the walls of the digestive tract and into the blood​
​Active Uptake of Amino Acids​ ​General Metabolic Functions of the Liver​
​●​ ​Cells​ ​use​ ​ATP​ ​to​ ​actively​ ​transport​ ​amino​ ​acids​ ​1.​ ​Carbohydrate Metabolism​
​inside—even if they already have plenty.​ ​●​ ​liver​ ​is​ ​vitally​ ​important​ ​in​ ​helping​ ​to​ ​maintain​ ​the​
​●​ ​This​ ​ensures​ ​all​ ​20​ ​amino​ ​acids​ ​are​ ​available​ ​for​ ​blood​ ​glucose​ ​level​ ​within​ ​the​ ​normal​ ​range​
​protein synthesis.​ ​(around 100 mg glucose/100 ml of blood).​
​●​ ​Cells​ ​cannot​ ​make​ ​essential​​amino​​acids,​​so​​they​ ​●​ ​Glycogenesis — “Glycogen formation​
​must come from the diet.​ ​○​ ​After​ ​a​ ​carbohydrate-rich​ ​meal,​ ​glucose​ ​is​
​●​ ​This​ ​“cellular​ ​greed”​ ​ensures​ ​enough​ ​supply​ ​for​ ​combined​ ​to​ ​form​ ​glycogen​ ​for​ ​storage​ ​in​
​current and future protein needs.​ ​the liver.​
​Amino Acids as Energy​ ​●​ ​Glycogenolysis — “Glycogen splitting”​
​●​ ​Amino​ ​acids​ ​are​ ​used​ ​for​ ​ATP​ ​production​ ​only​ ​○​ ​When​​blood​​glucose​​drops,​​liver​​cells​​break​
​when:​ ​down​ ​glycogen​ ​into​ ​glucose​ ​and​​release​​it​
​○​ ​Proteins are excessive, or​ ​into the blood.​
​○​ ​Carbohydrates and fats are unavailable.​ ​●​ ​Gluconeogenesis — “Formation of new sugar”​
​●​ ​During oxidation for energy:​ ​○​ ​The​ ​liver​ ​makes​ ​glucose​ ​from​
​○​ ​The​ ​amine​ ​group​ ​(NH₂)​ ​is​ ​removed​ ​as​ ​noncarbohydrate​ ​sources​ ​(fats​ ​and​
​ammonia (NH₃).​ ​proteins) when needed.​
​○​ ​The​ ​rest​ ​of​ ​the​ ​molecule​ ​enters​ ​the​ ​citric​ ​●​ ​Hormones​​vitally​​important​​in​​controlling​​the​​blood​
​acid cycle.​ ​sugar​ ​level​ ​and​ ​in​ ​the​ ​handling​ ​of​ ​glucose​ ​in​ ​all​
​body cells : Thyroxine, Insulin, and Glucagon​
 ​2.​ ​Fat Metabolism​ ​ .​ H
2 ​ DL (High-Density Lipoproteins)​
​Fats and fatty acids are:​ ​●​ ​Carry​ ​cholesterol​ ​from​ ​tissues​​to​​liver​​for​​disposal​
​●​ ​Oxidized​ ​for​ ​ATP​ ​production​ ​for​ ​use​ ​by​ ​the​ ​liver​ ​in bile​
​cells​ ​themselves.​ ​The​ ​rest​ ​are​ ​broken​ ​down​ ​to​ ​●​ ​high​ ​HDL​ ​level​ ​is​ ​considered​ ​“good”​ ​because​ ​the​
​simpler​ ​substances​ ​such​ ​as​ ​acetic​ ​acid​ ​and​ ​cholesterol​ ​is​ ​destined​ ​to​ ​be​ ​broken​ ​down​ ​and​
​acetoacetic​ ​acid​ ​and​ ​then​ ​are​ ​released​ ​into​ ​the​ ​eliminated from the body.​
​blood or stored as fat reserves in the liver​ ​14.4c Body Energy Balance​
​The liver also:​ ​●​ ​When​​any​​fuel​​is​​burned,​​it​​consumes​​oxygen​​and​
​●​ ​Makes cholesterol​ ​liberates heat.​
​●​ ​secretes cholesterol’s break down products in bile.​ ​●​ ​The​ ​“burning”​ ​of​ ​food​ ​fuels​ ​by​ ​body​ ​cells​ ​follows​
​3.​ ​Protein Metabolism​ ​the same rule.​
​●​ ​Liver​ ​cells​ ​pick​ ​up​ ​amino​ ​acids​ ​from​ ​the​ ​blood​ ​to​ ​●​ ​Energy​ ​cannot​ ​be​ ​created​ ​or​ ​destroyed—only​
​make:​ ​converted from one form to another.​
​○​ ​Blood proteins (like albumin)​ ​●​ ​Therefore,​ ​a​ ​dynamic​ ​balance​ ​exists​ ​between​​the​
​○​ ​Clotting factors​ ​body’s energy intake and energy output:​
​○​ ​Nonessential amino acids​ ​○​ ​Energy​​intake​​=​​total​​energy​​output​​(heat​​+​
​●​ ​Completed​ ​proteins​ ​are​ ​then​ ​released​ ​back​ ​into​ ​work + energy storage)​
​the blood to travel throughout the circulation.​ ​●​ ​Energy​ ​intake​ ​is​ ​the​ ​energy​ ​liberated​ ​during​ ​food​
​●​ ​Albumin​ ​(most​ ​abundant​ ​protein​ ​in​ ​blood)​ ​oxidation—from​ ​glycolysis,​ ​the​ ​citric​ ​acid​ ​cycle,​
​maintains fluid balance in the bloodstream.​ ​and the electron transport chain.​
​○​ ​Low​ ​albumin​ ​→​ ​fluid​ ​leaks​ ​into​ ​tissues​ ​→​ ​●​ ​Energy output includes:​
​edema​ ​○​ ​Heat (≈ 60% of total energy)​
​●​ ​Ammonia detoxification:​ ​○​ ​Energy​ ​used​ ​to​ ​do​ ​Work​ ​(energy​ ​used​ ​by​
​○​ ​The​ ​liver​​converts​​toxic​​ammonia​​into​​urea​ ​ATP)​
​by​​combining​​with​​carbon​​dioxide,​​which​​is​ ​○​ ​Energy storage (fat or glycogen)​
​excreted in urine.​ ​●​ ​Energy​ ​storage​ ​is​ ​important​ ​only​ ​during​ ​growth​
​4.​ ​Nutrient and Waste Management​ ​and fat deposition.​
​●​ ​Nutrients​ ​not​ ​needed​ ​and​ ​metabolic​ ​byproducts​ ​Regulation of Food Intake​
​are​ ​released​ ​into​ ​the​ ​blood​ ​via​ ​the​ ​hepatic​ ​vein,​ ​●​ ​Stable​ ​body​ ​weight​ ​occurs​ ​when​ ​energy​ ​intake​
​entering systemic circulation for body use.​ ​equals energy output.​
​Cholesterol Metabolism and Transport​ ​●​ ​Imbalance leads to weight gain or loss.​
​Functions of Cholesterol​ ​●​ ​The​ ​body’s​ ​weight​ ​control​ ​systems​ ​seem​ ​more​
​●​ ​Not used for energy.​ ​designed​ ​to​ ​prevent​ ​weight​ ​loss​ ​than​ ​to​ ​avoid​
​●​ ​Serves as:​ ​weight gain.​
​○​ ​Base for steroid hormones​ ​How is food intake controlled?​
​○​ ​Precursor of vitamin D​ ​●​ ​The​ ​exact​ ​mechanism​ ​is​​not​​fully​​understood—no​
​○​ ​Component of plasma membranes​ ​single receptor detects total calorie content.​
​Sources​ ​●​ ​The​​hypothalamus​​releases​​peptides​​that​​influence​
​●​ ​Only ~15% of blood cholesterol comes from diet.​ ​feeding behavior.​
​●​ ​The remaining 85% is produced by the liver.​ ​●​ ​Control involves:​
​●​ ​Cholesterol​ ​leaves​​the​​body​​when​​secreted​​in​​bile​ ​○​ ​Neural signals from the digestive tract​
​salts and eliminated in feces.​ ​○​ ​Bloodborne signals related to energy stores​
​Lipoproteins​ ​○​ ​Hormones​
​●​ ​Since​ ​cholesterol​ ​and​ ​fats​ ​are​ ​insoluble​ ​in​ ​water,​ ​○​ ​Signals from normal microbiota​
​they​ ​are​ ​carried​ ​in​ ​the​ ​blood​ ​as​ ​lipoproteins​ ​○​ ​Body​ ​temperature​ ​and​ ​psychological​
​(lipid–protein complexes).​ ​factors (minor roles)​
​1.​ ​LDL (Low-Density Lipoproteins)​ ​○​ ​Feedback to the Brain​
​●​ ​Carry cholesterol to body cells​ ​●​ ​Feeding centers in the brain receive input from:​
​●​ ​If​ ​large​ ​amounts​ ​of​ ​LDLs​ ​are​ ​circulating,​ ​the​ ​○​ ​Thermoreceptors​
​chance​ ​that​ ​fatty​ ​substances​ ​will​ ​be​​deposited​​on​ ​○​ ​Chemoreceptors (for glucose, insulin, etc.)​
​the arterial walls, initiating atherosclerosis, is high​ ​○​ ​Leptin receptors​
​●​ ​“bad lipoproteins​
 ​●​ P ​ ossible​ ​peripheral​ ​sensors​ ​include​ ​the​ ​liver​ ​and​ ​●​ E ​ ven​ ​slight​ ​skeletal​ ​muscle​ ​activity​ ​can​ ​cause​ ​a​
​gut (alimentary canal).​ ​large increase in metabolic rate.​
​Metabolic Rate and Heat Production​ ​●​ ​For​ ​a​ ​well-trained​ ​athlete,​ ​vigorous​ ​exercise​ ​may​
​●​ ​When​ ​nutrients​ ​are​ ​broken​ ​down​ ​for​ ​ATP​ ​raise​ ​TMR​ ​to​ ​15–20​ ​times​ ​normal,​ ​and​​it​​remains​
​production,​ ​they​ ​release​ ​different​ ​amounts​ ​of​ ​elevated for several hours afterward.​
​energy.​ ​Energy Balance and Weight Maintenance​
​●​ ​Energy is measured in kilocalories (kcal).​ ​●​ ​When​​kilocalories​​consumed​​=​​TMR,​​homeostasis​
​○​ ​Carbohydrates → 4 kcal/gram​ ​is maintained and body weight remains constant.​
​○​ ​Proteins → 4 kcal/gram​ ​●​ ​If​ ​more​ ​calories​ ​are​ ​eaten​ ​than​ ​needed,​ ​excess​
​○​ ​Fats → 9 kcal/gram​ ​energy is stored as fat deposits.​
​●​ ​Most meals are mixtures of these nutrients.​ ​●​ ​If​​a​​person​​is​​very​​active​​and​​does​​not​​eat​​enough,​
​●​ ​The​​caloric​​value​​of​​a​​meal​​depends​​on​​the​​grams​ ​the​​body​​breaks​​down​​fat​​and​​even​​tissue​​proteins​
​of each nutrient or type of foodstuff it contains.​ ​to satisfy energy needs.​
​Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)​ ​●​ ​This principle is the basis of weight-loss diets:​
​●​ ​BMR​​=​​heat​​produced​​by​​the​​body​​per​​unit​​time​​at​ ​○​ ​Daily​ ​calorie​ ​needs​​are​​calculated​​by​​body​
​rest (basal conditions).​ ​size and age.​
​●​ ​Reflects​ ​the​ ​energy​ ​needed​ ​for​ ​essential​ ​life​ ​○​ ​Then,​ ​20%​ ​or​ ​more​ ​is​ ​cut​ ​from​ ​the​ ​daily​
​activities: breathing, heartbeat, kidney function.​ ​diet.​
​●​ ​Average​ ​BMR:​ ​60–72​ ​kcal/hour​ ​for​ ​a​ ​70-kg​ ​(154​ ​○​ ​Exercise​ ​increases​ ​TMR,​ ​causing​ ​faster​
​lb) adult.​ ​weight loss.​
​●​ ​Factors Influencing BMR​ ​Body Temperature Regulation​
​○​ ​Surface​​area:​​smaller,​​thinner​​individuals​​→​ ​●​ ​Foods​ ​are​ ​“burned”​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​ATP,​ ​but​ ​most​
​higher BMR​ ​energy is released as heat.​
​○​ ​Gender:​ ​males​ ​usually​ ​have​ ​higher​ ​BMR​ ​●​ ​Less​​than​​40%​​of​​food​​energy​​forms​​ATP;​​the​​rest​
​than females​ ​escapes as heat.​
​○​ ​Age:​ ​●​ ​Heat​ ​warms​ ​the​ ​tissues​ ​and​ ​blood,​ ​maintaining​
​Children​ ​&​ ​adolescents​ ​→​ ​high​ ​BMR​ ​homeostatic temperatures for efficient metabolism​
​(growth)​ ​●​ ​Body​ ​temperature​ ​reflects​ ​the​ ​balance​ ​between​
​Old​ ​age​ ​→​ ​BMR​ ​decreases​ ​(muscle​ ​heat production and heat loss.​
​atrophy)​ ​●​ ​The​ ​body’s​ ​thermostat​ ​is​ ​in​ ​the​ ​hypothalamus,​
​●​ ​Thyroxine​​(thyroid​​hormone)​​is​​the​​most​​important​ ​which​ ​regulates​ ​temperature​ ​via​ ​the​ ​autonomic​
​factor influencing BMR.​ ​nervous system.​
​●​ ​More​ ​thyroxine​ ​→​ ​higher​ ​oxygen​ ​consumption,​ ​●​ ​Normal​​set​​point:​​around​​37°C​​(98.6°F),​​fluctuating​
​ATP use, and metabolic rate​ ​between 35.6°C and 37.8°C (96°–100°F).​
​○​ ​Called the “metabolic hormone.”​ ​●​ ​The hypothalamus maintains this by triggering:​
​●​ ​Modern​ ​thyroid​ ​activity​​is​​now​​measured​​by​​blood​ ​○​ ​Heat-promoting mechanisms or​
​tests instead of BMR tests.​ ​○​ ​Heat-loss mechanisms​
​Total Metabolic Rate (TMR)​ ​Heat-Promoting Mechanisms​
​●​ ​When​ ​we​ ​are​ ​active,​ ​the​ ​body​ ​must​​oxidize​​more​ ​●​ ​When​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​is​ ​cold​ ​or​ ​blood​
​glucose to provide energy for additional activities.​ ​temperature drops:​
​●​ ​Digesting​ ​food​ ​and​ ​even​ ​modest​ ​physical​ ​activity​ ​●​ ​The body must produce and conserve heat.​
​increase​ ​the​ ​body’s​ ​caloric​ ​requirements​ ​●​ ​Short-term responses include:​
​dramatically.​ ​○​ ​Vasoconstriction​ ​of​ ​skin​ ​blood​ ​vessels​ ​→​
​●​ ​These​ ​energy​ ​needs​ ​are​​in​​addition​​to​​the​​energy​ ​blood​ ​bypasses​ ​the​ ​skin​ ​and​ ​stays​ ​in​
​required for the basal state.​ ​deeper organs.​
​●​ ​Total​ ​Metabolic​ ​Rate​ ​(TMR)​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​total​ ​○​ ​Shivering​ ​→​ ​involuntary​ ​muscle​
​amount​ ​of​ ​kilocalories​ ​the​ ​body​ ​must​ ​consume​​to​ ​contractions​​that​​generate​​large​​amounts​​of​
​fuel all ongoing activities.​ ​heat.​
​Factors Affecting TMR​ ​Heat-Loss Mechanisms​
​●​ ​Muscular​ ​work​ ​is​ ​the​ ​major​ ​activity​​that​​increases​ ​●​ ​When the body becomes too warm:​
​TMR.​ ​●​ ​It​ ​must​ ​release​ ​excess​ ​heat,​ ​mainly​ ​through​ ​the​
​skin by: Radiation and Evaporation.​
 ​​ W
● ​ hen temperature rises:​ ​Infancy​
​●​ ​Skin​ ​blood​ ​vessels​ ​dilate,​ ​and​ ​capillaries​ ​fill​ ​with​ ​●​ ​The​ ​developing​ ​infant​ ​receives​ ​all​ ​its​ ​nutrients​
​warm blood, allowing heat to radiate from the skin.​ ​through the placenta.​
​●​ ​If​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​is​ ​hotter​ ​than​ ​the​ ​body,​ ​heat​ ​●​ ​At​​this​​stage,​​obtaining​​and​​processing​​nutrients​​is​
​loss can occur only by evaporation of sweat.​ ​no​ ​problem​ ​(assuming​ ​the​ ​mother​ ​is​ ​adequately​
​●​ ​Evaporation​ ​is​ ​efficient​ ​in​ ​dry​ ​air​ ​but​ ​slows​ ​in​ ​nourished).​
​humid air, making us feel hot and uncomfortable.​ ​●​ ​Obtaining​​nutrition​​is​​the​​most​​important​​activity​​of​
​Fever (Controlled Hyperthermia)​ ​the newborn baby.​
​●​ ​Fever​​is​​a​​form​​of​​controlled​​hyperthermia,​​usually​ ​●​ ​Several reflexes help with feeding:​
​due​ ​to​ ​infection,​ ​but​ ​may​ ​also​ ​result​ ​from​​cancer,​ ​○​ ​Rooting​ ​reflex​ ​–​ ​helps​ ​the​ ​infant​ ​find​ ​the​
​allergic reactions, or CNS injuries.​ ​nipple (mother’s or bottle).​
​●​ ​Macrophages,​ ​WBCs,​ ​and​ ​injured​ ​cells​ ​release​ ​○​ ​Sucking​​reflex​​–​​helps​​the​​infant​​hold​​on​​to​
​pyrogens,​ ​which​ ​act​ ​on​​the​​hypothalamus,​​raising​ ​the nipple and swallow.​
​the body’s thermostat.​ ​●​ ​The​ ​stomach​ ​of​ ​a​ ​newborn​ ​is​ ​very​ ​small,​ ​so​
​●​ ​Fever Stages​ ​feeding must be frequent (every 3 to 4 hours).​
​1.​ ​Thermostat​​reset​​to​​higher​​level​​→​​heat-promoting​ ​●​ ​Peristalsis​ ​is​ ​inefficient,​ ​and​ ​vomiting​ ​is​ ​not​
​mechanisms start.​ ​unusual.​
​a.​ ​Vasoconstriction → skin becomes cool.​ ​Childhood​
​b.​ ​Shivering​ ​begins​ ​→​ ​generates​ ​heat​ ​(“the​ ​●​ ​Teething​ ​begins​ ​around​ ​6​ ​months​ ​and​ ​continues​
​chills”).​ ​until about 2 years of age.​
​2.​ ​Body​ ​temperature​ ​rises​ ​to​ ​the​ ​new​ ​set​ ​point​ ​and​ ​●​ ​During​ ​this​ ​period,​ ​the​ ​infant​ ​progresses​ ​to​ ​more​
​stays there until the infection subsides.​ ​solid​ ​foods​ ​and​ ​is​ ​usually​ ​eating​ ​an​ ​adult​ ​diet​ ​by​
​3.​ ​When healing occurs:​ ​toddlerhood.​
​a.​ ​The​ ​thermostat​ ​resets​ ​to​ ​normal​ ​→​ ​●​ ​Appetite​​decreases​​in​​the​​elementary​​school-aged​
​heat-loss mechanisms activate.​ ​child,​ ​then​ ​increases​ ​again​ ​during​ ​adolescence​
​b.​ ​Sweating​ ​and​ ​flushed​ ​skin​ ​appear​ ​→​ ​due to rapid growth.​
​signals that the fever has “broken.”​ ​●​ ​The​ ​digestive​ ​system​ ​operates​ ​with​​few​​problems​
​Fever Effects​ ​unless disrupted by:​
​●​ ​Increases metabolic rate, speeding healing.​ ​○​ ​Contaminated food​
​●​ ​Inhibits bacterial growth.​ ​○​ ​Spicy​ ​or​ ​irritating​ ​foods​ ​→​ ​may​ ​cause​
​●​ ​Danger:​ ​excessively​ ​high​ ​fevers​ ​can​ ​denature​ ​gastroenteritis​ ​(inflammation​ ​of​ ​the​
​body​ ​proteins​ ​and​ ​cause​ ​permanent​ ​brain​ ​gastrointestinal tract).​
​damage.​ ​●​ ​Appendicitis​ ​is​ ​common​​in​​teenagers​​for​​unknown​
​PART III: DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE​ ​reasons.​
​DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND METABOLISM​ ​Middle Age​
​●​ ​Between​ ​middle​ ​age​ ​and​ ​early​ ​old​ ​age,​ ​the​
​Embryonic Development​
​metabolic rate decreases by 5–8% every 10 years.​
​●​ ​The​ ​very​ ​young​ ​embryo​ ​is​ ​flat​ ​and​
​●​ ​Weight​ ​gain​ ​and​ ​obesity​ ​often​ ​occur​ ​during​ ​this​
​pancake-shaped.​
​time.​
​●​ ​It​ ​soon​ ​folds​ ​to​ ​form​ ​a​ ​cylindrical​ ​body,​ ​and​ ​its​
​●​ ​To​​maintain​​weight,​​caloric​​intake​​must​​be​​reduced​
​internal​ ​cavity​ ​becomes​ ​the​ ​cavity​ ​of​ ​the​
​to match the decline in metabolism.​
​alimentary canal.​
​●​ ​Common digestive problems include:​
​●​ ​By​ ​the​ ​fifth​ ​week​ ​of​ ​development,​ ​the​ ​alimentary​
​○​ ​Ulcers​
​canal​ ​is​ ​a​ ​continuous​ ​tubelike​​structure​​extending​
​○​ ​Gallbladder​ ​problems​ ​(inflammation​ ​or​
​from the mouth to the anus.​
​gallstones)​
​●​ ​Shortly​ ​after,​ ​the​ ​digestive​ ​glands—salivary​
​●​ ​Irritable​ ​bowel​ ​syndrome​ ​(IBS)​ ​is​ ​becoming​ ​more​
​glands,​ ​liver,​ ​and​ ​pancreas—bud​ ​out​ ​from​ ​the​
​prevalent​ ​in​ ​adults,​ ​characterized​ ​by​ ​alternating​
​mucosa of the alimentary tube.​
​diarrhea​ ​and​ ​constipation,​ ​though​ ​its​ ​cause​ ​is​
​●​ ​These​ ​glands​ ​retain​ ​their​​connections​​(ducts)​​and​
​unclear.​
​can​ ​easily​ ​empty​ ​their​ ​secretions​ ​into​ ​the​
​Old Age​
​alimentary canal to promote digestive functions.​
​●​ ​Activity of the GI tract declines.​
​●​ F ​ ewer​ ​digestive​ ​juices​ ​are​ ​produced,​ ​and​
​peristalsis slows.​
​●​ ​Taste​ ​and​ ​smell​ ​become​ ​less​ ​acute,​ ​and​
​periodontal disease often develops.​
​●​ ​Many elderly individuals:​
​○​ ​Live alone or on a reduced income,​
​○​ ​Have physical disabilities,​
​○​ ​Experience​ ​decreased​ ​appetite​ ​and​
​inadequate nutrition.​
​●​ ​Common digestive issues include:​
​○​ ​Diverticulosis​ ​–​ ​bulging​ ​of​ ​the​ ​mucosa​
​outward into the colon wall.​
​○​ ​Cancer​ ​of​ ​the​ ​gastrointestinal​ ​tract,​
​especially stomach and colon cancers.​
​●​ ​These​ ​cancers​ ​rarely​ ​show​ ​early​ ​signs​ ​and​ ​often​
​progress​ ​before​ ​detection,​ ​but​ ​are​ ​treatable​ ​if​
​found early.​
​●​ ​A​​diet​​high​​in​​plant​​fiber​​and​​low​​in​​fat​​may​​reduce​
​colon cancer incidence.​
​●​ ​Most​​colorectal​​cancers​​arise​​from​​benign​​mucosal​
​tumors (polyps), which increase with age.​
​●​ ​Colonoscopy​ ​screenings​ ​should​ ​begin​ ​at​ ​age​ ​50​
​and be repeated every 10 years.​
​●​ ​Fecal​ ​occult​ ​blood​ ​tests​ ​(to​ ​detect​ ​blood​ ​in​ ​stool)​
​should be done annually.​