Temperature Measurements
Temperature Sensing Techniques
Changes in Physical Dimensions
Liquid-in-glass thermometers
Bi-metallic thermometers
Constant-volume gas thermometers
[Link]
Changes in Electrical Properties
Thermocouples
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
Thermistors [Link]
Thermocouple_circuit_Ktype_including_voltmeter_temperature.[Link]
Integrated Circuitry (IC) Transistors and Diodes
Changes in Emitted thermal radiation
Infrared Pyrometers
393
Temperature Measurements
The different sensing techniques used to measure
temperature
The advantages/limitations of each technique
Properly select a temperature sensor for a given
measurement situation
Master the use of thermocouples, RTD s,
thermistors, etc .
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
The volumetric expansion of liquids and solids is used for
temperature measurement
Made of glass to see the expanding liquid clearly
It has a bulb with a long capillary tube to hold the liquid
Expansion observed is actually the difference between the expansion
of the liquid and of the glass
No need for additional indicator
Inexpensive, simple and portable
X Calibrated at a certain immersion depth
X Not suitable for distant reading
X Not suitable for surface temperature measurement
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Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
This liquid is usually mercury or alcohol.
Mercury:
Clearly visible with light silvery colour
Freezing point: - 37 C
Boiling point: 356 C
Accuracy ± 0.3 °C
Mercury does not evaporate easily -> more durable
than alcohol thermometer
Does not wet the wall of the thermometer -> Better
readability than alcohol
X Toxic if the bulb breaks and mercury leaks out
X Cannot measure cold temperatures
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Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
Alcohol, ethanol, toluene, kerosene, etc depending on the
range of temperature required.
Originally colourless -> dyed to give it a bright colour.
Suitable to measure low temperatures
Less toxic than mercury thermometer -> safer operation
Larger value of temperature coefficient of expansion than a
mercury -> larger sensitivity
Less expensive than a mercury thermometer.
X Less durable because alcohol evaporates faster than
mercury
X Cannot measure high temperature because of low boiling
point 397
Bimetallic Thermometer
Range of use: -65 to 430 °C
Accuracy: ± 0.5 to 12°C
Low cost
Low maintenance
Stable operation over time
X Response time is mechanical in nature
[Link]/wiki/Bimetallic_strip#/media/File:Bi
metal_coil_reacts_to_lighter.gif
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Bimetallic Thermometer
Two different metals with different coefficients of
thermal expansion are bonded together -> unequal
expansion of the two metals -> strip will curl
If one end is fixed the other end displaces in
response to temperature changes.
[Link]/help/e-components/Bimetal_Strip.gif
Can be directly used in on/off temperature
control (thermostats)
[Link]/BiMetal/Bimetal/[Link]
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Bimetallic Thermometer
Bimetal strips can be fabricated into coils, spirals, and
disks.
[Link]/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/[Link]
[Link]/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/bimetal-temperature-
[Link]
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Bimetallic Thermometer
r = Radius of curvature
t=total thickness
m = ratio of thicknesses
Low/high expansion materials
n=ratio of Young moduli of elasticity
Low/high expansion materials
1=lower coefficient of thermal expansion, 1/°C
2=higher coefficient of thermal expansion, 1/°C
T=Temperature, °C
To=Initial bonding temperature, °C
401
Constant-volume gas thermometer
A fluid filled bulb is connected to a pressure measuring
device via a capillary tube. As fluid is heated it tries to
expand -> pressure increases.
Pressure is linked to temperature.
Accuracy and range depends on fluid.
Advantages/Disadvantages
Low cost
Stable in operation
Widely used in industrial applications.
Remote readings are possible.
Transient response is a function of bulb size and capillary
tube length.
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Temperature Sensing Techniques
Changes in Physical Dimensions
Liquid in Glass Thermometers
Bimetallic Thermometers
Constant-volume gas thermometer
[Link]
Changes in Electrical Properties
Thermocouples
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDS)
Thermistors [Link]
Thermocouple_circuit_Ktype_including_voltmeter_temperature.[Link]
Integrated Circuitry (IC) Transistors and Diodes
Changes in Emitted thermal radiation
Infrared Pyrometers
403
Thermocouples
An electrical device consisting of two dissimilar metals forming
an electrical junction.
A thermocouple produces a voltage proportional to the difference
between its hot and cold temperatures -> this voltage can be used to
measure temperature.
Thermocouples are widely used for temperature measurements
[Link]
[Link]/docs/documents/496/[Link]
[Link]/370px-Thermocouple_circuit_Ktype_including_voltmeter_temperature.[Link]
404
Thermocouples: Grounded vs Ungrounded vs
Exposed Junctions
Grounded junctions -> improved thermal
conductivity -> quickest response time
Grounded junctions -> TC circuits more susceptible
to electrical noise [Link]
content/uploads/2015/01/[Link]
Ungrounded junctions -> Not susceptible to
electrical noise but slower dynamic response than
grounded junctions
Exposed junctions-> fastest response time but
limited to noncorrosive and non-pressurized
applications
[Link]/files/2017/12/[Link]
405
Thermocouples: Law of intermediate temperatures
If two junctions at temperatures T1 and T2 produce an output
voltage V12, and temperatures T2 and T3 produce voltage V23,
then temperatures T1 and T3 will produce a voltage V13 = V12 +
V23
[Link]
[Link]/370px-Thermocouple_circuit_Ktype_including_voltmeter_temperature.[Link]
Allows a thermocouple that is calibrated with a
[Link]
[Link] reference temperature (usually 0 C) to be used with
another reference temperature (usually the ambient
temperature), without the need to use an ice-bath
406
Thermocouples: Law of intermediate metals
A third metal may be inserted into a thermocouple system with
hot and cold temperatures T1 and T2 without affecting the [Link]/gavin/Instrument/Temperature/Laws%20of%20ThermoC_files/[Link]
output voltage as long as the two new junctions with the
third metal are kept at the same temperature T3
According to this law, voltmeter leads can
be added to the circuit without affecting the
output voltage from the thermocouple
[Link]
content/uploads/2016/05/instrumentationtools.com_law-of-intermediate-metals-
[Link]
407
The output voltage of a thermocouple system depends only on
the temperatures of the hot and cold junctions (T1 and T2) and is
independent of the temperatures of the wires connecting the
junctions.
If two thermocouple junctions are at T1
and T2, then the thermal emf generated
is independent and unaffected by any
temperature distribution along the wires.
According to this law, the leads connecting
the thermocouple to the voltmeter can be
exposed to temperature fluctuations
without affecting the measurement
[Link]
content/uploads/2016/05/instrumentationtools.com_law-[Link]
[Link]/gavin/Instrument/Temperature/Laws%20of%20ThermoC_files/im
[Link]
408
Signal conditioning in Thermocouples
Output signal from a thermocouple is:
Low output voltage + Low sensitivity -> thermocouple amplifier may
be used
Output voltage (Th Tc) -> cold-junction compensation is required
Non-linear output -> amplifier may be used
Analog signal -> Analog-to-digital conversion may be used [Link]
px-Thermocouple_circuit_Ktype_including_voltmeter_temperature.[Link]
[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/RTD_3Wire.svg
/730px-RTD_3Wire.[Link]
409
Signal Conditioning for Thermocouples
Cold Junction Compensation
Any error in reading the cold junction temperature will cause an error in the
final temperature measurement.
Many instruments have an internal temperature sensor (e.g., thermistor,
LT1025A solid state temperature measurement device) that measures the
actual cold junction temperature and implements cold junction compensation->
In this case, no ice-bath is required
OR: Measure the cold junction temperature and then apply the law of
intermediate temperatures
[Link]/docs/documents/496/[Link]
Cold junction MUST be at 0 C (ice-bath) because
calibration tables are provided at this reference
-> Must use an ice bath unless cold junction
compensation is used or a correction is made
[Link]
[Link]/370px-Thermocouple_circuit_Ktype_including_voltmeter_temperature.[Link] 410
Signal Conditioning for Thermocouples
Cold Junction Compensation
Proper use of thermocouple requires that the cold
junction must be kept at 0C This is inconvenient
Another solution is to use electronic cold junction
compensation or to apply the law of intermediate [Link]
[Link]
temperatures
[Link]
r_temperature.svg/370px-Thermocouple_circuit_Ktype_including_voltmeter_temperature.[Link] [Link]
[Link]
411
411
Signal Conditioning for Thermocouples:
AD954/AD595 Thermocouple
Instrumentation Amplifier
[Link]
nQesFnqPeWUS64bddJ8aHraHLof2UI968yqMntoWH42MI0iZm15B1XDwZrU3V1mUnPbJ
46Lb
412
412
Thermocouple Amplification of Thermocouple
Signals: Instrumentation Amplifiers
Instrumentation Amplifiers (in-amps) are very high gain
differential amplifiers which have a high input impedance and a
single ended output
Mainly used to amplify very small differential signals from strain
gauges or thermocouples
413
Standards for Thermocouples
IEC 60584-1 : Thermocouples: basic values of the thermoelectric
voltages
IEC 60584-2: Thermocouples: tolerance values of the thermoelectric
voltages
IEC 60584-3: Thermocouples: Thermocouple cables and
compensating cables
ASTM E230: Standard specification and temperature-electromotive
force (EMF) tables for standardised thermocouples
ASTM E2846- 20: Standard Guide for Thermocouple Verification
[Link]
414
Thermocouple Classes
[Link] 415
Thermocouples: Example #1
A type K thermocouple is used to measure the temperature in a
freezer compartment. The reference junction is connected properly
to an ice bath, and the voltage output from the thermocouple
circuit is - 2.721 mV.
Estimate the temperature in the freezer compartment.
416
Thermocouples: Example #2
Given: A type S thermocouple is placed into an oven to
measure the temperature. An ice bath is used as a reference
junction. The output voltage is 4.005 mV.
(a) Estimate the temperature of the oven
(b) If ambient air (20°C) was used as the reference junction
instead of the ice bath, what voltage would the thermocouple
read?
417
Thermocouples: Example #2
Given: A type S thermocouple is placed into an oven to
measure the temperature. An ice bath is used as a reference
junction. The output voltage is 4.005 mV.
(a) Estimate the temperature of the oven
(b) If ambient air (20°C) was used as the reference junction
instead of the ice bath, what voltage would the thermocouple
read?
418
Thermocouples: Advantages
Wide temperature range: Depending on the metal wires used, a
thermocouple is capable of measuring temperature in the range -
200°C to +2500°C -> wide temperature ranges, from cryogenics to
jet-engine exhaust
Rugged devices -> immune to shock and vibration and suitable for
use in hazardous environments.
Small with low thermal capacity -> fast dynamic response, especially
if the sensing junction is exposed.
Active devices -> No self heating -> not prone to self heating and are
intrinsically safe
Active devices -> intrinsically safe
[Link]/docs/documents/496/[Link]
419
Thermocouples: Limitations
X Complex signal conditioning: Cold junction compensation,
amplification and linearization
X Accuracy: inherent inaccuracies due to their metallurgical
properties + measurement is only as accurate as the reference [Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/UTP_cable.jpg/220px-
junction temperature can be measured, traditionally within 1°C to UTP_cable.jpg
2°C.
X Susceptibility to corrosion: Because thermocouples consist of two
dissimilar metals, in some environments corrosion over time may
result in deteriorating accuracy -> apply protection
X Small signal range -> susceptibility to noise.
Action plan: avoid noise from stray electrical and magnetic fields;
Twist the thermocouple wire pair to reduce magnetic field pickup;
Use a shielded cable or run the wires in metal conduit to reduce [Link]/s/files/1/0869/5892/files/shielded-cable-
electric field pickup; apply filtering (either in hardware or by [Link]?v=1499255103
software) with strong rejection of the line frequency (50 Hz/60 Hz)
and its harmonics.
420
Resistance Temperature Detectors RTDs
Nickel
R(250C)
Each metal has a specific resistivity, , which varies with
R(T)
temperature and is determined experimentally. Platinum
The change in resistance can be used to estimate the
temperature
Uses metal conductors (typically a fine platinum wire winding
or thin metallic layer applied to a substrate) T(0C)
Sensitivity = dR/dT
RTD: Metal resistance increases almost linearly with temperature
Positive coefficient of resistance
= o [1 + (T-To)+ ]
421
Resistance Temperature Detectors RTDs = o [1 + (T-To)]
Nickel
Wide operating range (-200 °C to 850 °C)
Platinum
High sensitivity (compared to thermocouples)
High accuracy (±0.0006 °C to 0.1°C)
T(0C)
High repeatability and stability (drift of 0.0025 °C/year in Sensitivity = dR/dT
lab models)
Industrial models drift < 0.1 °C/year
Slower response times than thermocouples
Sensitive to shock and vibration
[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/RTD_3Wire.svg
/730px-RTD_3Wire.[Link]
422
Resistance Temperature Detectors RTDs
To measure resistance must pass current
through sensor -> self-heating = I2R
Low resistance: 100 (most common) to 1000
> Hence lead wire issues
[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/RTD_3Wire.svg
/730px-RTD_3Wire.[Link]
423
Signal conditioning in RTDs
Output signal from a RTD is:
A change in resistance -> Wheatstone bridge and bridge excitation are
required
Low resistance (100 typical) -> resistances of lead wires are an issue
-> Four-wire or three-wire resistance measurements may be used
Low sensitivity -> amplifier may be used after the Wheatstone bridge
50/60 Hz may be present -> filter may be used after the amplifier
Analog signal -> Analog-to-digital conversion may be used after the
filter
Non-linear output -> Linearization may be employed
[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/RTD_3Wire.svg
/730px-RTD_3Wire.[Link]
424
Thermistors
Made from semiconductor materials
Resistance is highly nonlinear
Mostly negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
[Link]
425
Thermistors
Operating range is between -200 °C and 1000°C (using
different units)
High resistance 1 k to 100 k ->no lead resistance issues
Small physical size -> Fast response time
Lower cost than RTD s
Very high sensitivity and resolution -> Up to 1000 times more
sensitive than RTD s
Not sensitive to shock and vibration
X Highly non-linear resistance-to-temperature relationships
X Narrow operating range for a single unit
X More susceptible to internal/self heating issues than RTD s
X Less stable than RTD s
426
Thermistors
427
Signal Conditioning in Thermistors
Output signal from a thermistor is:
A change in resistance -> Wheatstone bridge and bridge excitation are
required to induce a change in voltage
Very non-linear output -> Linearization may be required
High sensitivity
High resistance -> resistances of the lead wires are not an issue
50/60 Hz may be present -> filter may be required
Analog signal -> Analog-to-digital conversion may be required
[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/RTD_3Wire.svg
/730px-RTD_3Wire.[Link]
428
Temperature Integrated Circuits
Semiconductor temperature sensors are produced
in the form of ICs.
Made of semiconductors with temperature-
sensitive voltage vs. current characteristics
The output is linearly proportional to the absolute
temperature.
An input voltage must be applied to the sensor -> [Link]/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Micr
hence a power supply is required -> passive sensor [Link]
The use of IC temperature sensors is limited to
applications where the temperature is within a
55° to 150°C range.
Widely used in on/off or alarm point control 429
Temperature Integrated Circuits
Can be used in cold junction compensating
temperature circuits.
Accuracy is about 0.5 °C
[Link]
[Link]/370px-Thermocouple_circuit_Ktype_including_voltmeter_temperature.[Link]
Lead-wire errors are minimal
Small, accurate, and inexpensive
Easy to interface with other devices such as
amplifiers, regulators, DSPs, and
microcontrollers
X Small measurement range as compared to that
of thermocouples and RTDs
430
Electric Temperature Sensing Techniques: Summary
431
Temperature Sensing Techniques
Changes in Physical Dimensions
Liquid-in-glass thermometers
Bi-metallic thermometers
Constant-volume gas thermometers
[Link]
Changes in Electrical Properties
Thermocouples
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDS)
Thermistors [Link]
Thermocouple_circuit_Ktype_including_voltmeter_temperature.[Link]
Integrated Circuitry (IC) Transistors and Diodes
Changes in Emitted thermal radiation
Infrared Pyrometers
432
Radiation and Infrared Pyrometers
All objects above zero Kelvin emits
radiation
Infra red pyrometers measures the radiant
heat and infers the temperature
Emissivity must be known
[Link]
commons/2/2a/1024_Pyrometer-
[Link]
433
Radiation and Infrared Pyrometers
Non-contact measurement
Moving objects can be studied
Pattern observation
Collection of large amounts of thermal data in a 2-D
plan
Measurement through hazardous atmospheres
[Link]/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/
Ir_girl.png
434
Temperature Sensors: Primary Calibration
435
Temperature Sensors: Selection Guides
Availability? Can provide a control action?
Stability and drift?
Cost? Remote reading?
Hysteresis?
Range? Analog/Digital display?
Dynamic response time?
Accuracy? Interface with other devices: Computers,
Heating issues?
Precision? Amplifiers, Regulators, Digital signal
Sensitivity? Rugged?
processors, and microcontrollers?
Resolution?
Moving objects?
Configurations?
Large amounts of measured data?
Signal-conditioning needed?
Hazardous atmospheres?
Linear output?
Self-powered? Sensitivity to shock and vibration?
Is excitation needed?
Is a reference required?
Lead-wire issues?
436