ANALOG ELECTRONICS

MODULE 2
1.​ Draw and explain the frequency response characteristics of RC coupled amplifier.​

It is understood that the frequency rolls off or decreases for the frequencies below 50Hz and for
the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage gain for the range of frequencies between
50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.
​ Xc = 1/2πfC
​ At low frequencies below 50Hz, f low - Xc high, so input signal will not pass through,
applicable for CE (by pass emitter). Thus voltage gain low.
​ At high frequencies above 20KHz, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high
frequencies. As a result of this, the loading effect of the next stage increases, which reduces the
voltage gain.
​ At frequencies between 50Hz to 20KHz, the voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained
constant in this range of frequencies.

2.​ Draw the frequency response of CE amplifier and explain the concept of bandwidth.
Same as above
3.​ With a neat diagram, explain the constructional features of n-channel JFET.

​ In an N-channel JFET, the material is of P-type, and the substrate is [Link] is made of a long
channel of semiconductor material. Ohmic contacts are provided at each end of the semiconductor
channels to form source and drain connections. If the JFET contains a large number of electrons, it is
called an N-type JFET.

4.​ With necessary graphs and equations, explain the transfer characteristics of JFET.
​
​ The curve is plotted between gate-source voltage, VGS and drain current, [Link] can be observed that:
(i) Drain current decreases with the increase in negative gate-source bias
(ii) Drain current, ID = IDSS when VGS = 0
(iii) Drain current, ID = 0 when VGS = VD

5.​ For a JFET connected in voltage divider biasing circuit, calculate ID, VDS and VGS with VDD=24V,
R1= 910kΩ, R2= 110kΩ, RD= 22kΩ, RS= 1.1kΩ, IDSS=10mA and pinch-off voltage of the JFET is
3.5V.
 6.​ Define the following JFET parameters: (a)Transconductance (b)Dynamic output resistance.
Transconductance: The control that the gate-source voltage has over the drain current, ID is
measured by transconductance. It is denoted by gm. It may be defined as the ratio of change in
drain current to the change in gate-source voltage at constant drain-source voltage.

​ ​ ​ ​
Dynamic output resistance: The ratio of change in drain-source voltage to the change in drain
current, indicating how the JFET responds to voltage changes.

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​
7.​ Mention any four applications of FET.

FETs are widely used as input amplifiers in oscilloscopes, electronic voltmeters and other
measuring and testing equipment because of their high input [Link] applications of
FETs are it is used in RF amplifiers in FM tuners and communication equipment’s for the low
noise [Link] applications of FETs are it is used as voltage variable resistors (VVRs) in
operational amplifiers and tone controllers etc. because it is a voltage controlled [Link] are
used in mixer circuits in FM and TV receivers, and communication equipment’s because of their
low intermodulation [Link] are used in low frequency amplifiers in hearing aids and
inductive transducers because of the small coupling [Link] applications of FETs are it
is used in digital circuits in computers, LSI and memory circuits because of very small size.

8.​ With suitable circuit diagrams, explain the effect of internal capacitance during high frequency
operation of CE amplifier.

​ At high frequencies, coupling and bypass capacitors act as short circuit and do not
affect the amplifier frequency response. At high frequencies, internal capacitances, commonly
known as junction capacitances. The following figure shows the junction capacitances for both
BJT and FET in figure. Incase of BJT, Cbe is the base emitter junction capacitance, and Cbc is the
base collector junction capacitance. At high frequencies, internal transistor junction capacitances
 do come into play, reducing an amplifier's gain and introducing phase shift as the signal frequency
increases. As the frequency goes up, the internal capacitive reactance's go down, and at some
point they begin to have a significant effect on the transistor's gain.

9.​ Explain the operation of E-type MOSFET.

The construction of enhancement MOSFET is shown below. This MOSFET includes three layers
gate, drain, and source. The body of MOSFET is known as a substrate that is connected internally
to the source. In the MOSFET, the metallic gate terminal from the semiconductor layer is insulated
through a silicon dioxide layer otherwise a dielectric [Link] EMOSFET is constructed with two
materials like P-type and N-type semiconductors. A substrate gives physical support to the device.
A thin SiO layer and an outstanding electrical insulator simply cover the region in between the
source & drain terminals. On the oxide layer, a metallic layer forms the gate electrode.

10.​ Draw a neat typical output characteristics (ID vs VDS) of JFET for variations in gate source
voltage (VGS) and clearly marking the various regions, Knee point and breakdown point.

11.​ A JFET has pinched-off voltage (Vp) of -4.5 V, with maximum saturation current (IDSS) at 10 mA
and drain-source current (IDS) at 2.5 mA. Determine the transconductance.
12.​ Sketch the transfer characteristics of an n channel JFET given IDSS = 15mA and Vp = -6V.
Transfer characteristics (2 marks), Marking IDSS and Vp (1 mark)

13.​ What is Barkhausen’s criterion? Explain.

The total phase shift around a loop as the signal proceeds from input through amplifier,
feedback network back to the input again, completing a loop, is precisely 0° or 360° or of course
an integral multiply of 2π radians. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the
amplifier (A) and the feedback factor β is unity i.e. |Aβ|=1 If satisfying these conditions, the
circuit works as an oscillator producing sustained oscillations of constant frequency and amplitude.
In reality no input is needed to start the oscillation.

14.​ Draw the circuit of crystal oscillator.

 In this circuit, the crystal is connected as a series element in the feedback path from
collector to the base. The resistors R1, R2 and RE provide a voltage-divider stabilized d.c. bias
circuit. The capacitor CE provides a.c. bypass of the emitter resistor and RFC (radio frequency
choke) coil provides for d.c. bias while decoupling any a.c. signal on the power lines from
affecting the output signal. The coupling capacitor C has negligible impedance at the circuit
operating frequency. But it blocks any d.c. between collector and base.
The circuit frequency of oscillation is set by the series resonant frequency of the crystal
and its value is given by the relation,fo =1/2π√L.C. It may be noted that the changes in supply
voltage, transistor device parameters etc. have no effect on the circuit operating frequency, which
is held stabilized by the crystal.

15.​ With a neat circuit diagram, explain RC phase shift oscillator using BJT. Derive an expression for
frequency of oscillation.

​ The basic RC Oscillator which is also known as a Phase-shift Oscillator, produces a sine wave
output signal using regenerative feedback obtained from the resistor-capacitor (RC) ladder network. This
regenerative feedback from the RC network is due to the ability of the capacitor to store an electric charge,
(similar to the LC tank circuit).
This resistor-capacitor feedback network can be connected as shown above to produce a
leading phase shift (phase advance network) or interchanged to produce a lagging phase shift
(phase retard network) the outcome is still the same as the sine wave oscillations only occur at the
frequency at which the overall phase-shift is 360°.

By varying one or more of the resistors or capacitors in the phase-shift network, the
frequency can be varied and generally this is done by keeping the resistors the same and using a
3-ganged variable capacitor because capacitive reactance (XC) changes with a change in
frequency as capacitors are frequency-sensitive components. However, it may be required to
re-adjust the voltage gain of the amplifier for the new frequency.

If the three resistors, R are equal in value, that is R1 = R2 = R3, and the capacitors, C in
the phase shift network are also equal in value, C1 = C2 = C3, then the frequency of oscillations
produced by the RC oscillator is simply given as:

f = 1/2πsqrt RC
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16.​ With the help of neat figures, explain the operation of Colpitt’s oscillator. What are the factors to
be considered for ensuring sustained oscillations in it?

The resistors R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor
Ce provides a.c. ground thereby providing any signal degeneration. This also provides
temperature stabilization.
The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path. The radio
frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency currents which means it
 shorts for d.c. and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps a.c. currents
out of d.c. supply source.
Tank Circuit
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of
variable capacitors C1 and C2 along with an inductor L. The junction of C1 and C2 are earthed. The
capacitor C1 has its one end connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via Ce. the voltage
developed across C1 provides the regenerative feedback required for the sustained oscillations.
Operation
When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or
tank circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across C1 which are
applied to the base emitter junction and appear in the amplified form in the collector circuit and
supply losses to the tank circuit.
If terminal 1 is at positive potential with respect to terminal 3 at any instant, then terminal
2 will be at negative potential with respect to 3 at that instant because terminal 3 is grounded.
Therefore, points 1 and 2 are out of phase by 180o.
As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, it makes 360o phase shift
between the input and output voltages. Hence, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous
Undamped oscillations. When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one,
oscillations are sustained in the circuit.
Frequency
The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as

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CT is the total capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series.

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17.​ Draw and explain Wein bridge oscillator circuit with neat diagram.
From Notes
18.​ Compare positive and negative feedback in amplifiers.
19.​ A feedback amplifier has a voltage gain of 300 without feedback. Determine the voltage gain with
feedback if feedback ratio is 0.2.
Af = A/(1+A𝝱)
​ A= 300, 𝝱 = 0.2
​ Af = 300/ (1+ 300x0.2) = 4.918