• Life Processes

WHAT ARE LIFE PROCESSES?

• The maintenance functions of living organisms must go on even when they are
not doing anything particular.

• In the case of a single-celled organism, no specific organs for taking in food,

exchange of gases or removal of wastes may be needed because the entire
surface of the organism is in contact with the environment.

• But, in multi-cellular organisms, various body parts are specialised in the functions
they perform. For example: When chemical reactions use the carbon source and
the oxygen for energy generation, they create by-products (HARMFUL). These
wastes by products are needed to be removed from the body by a process
called excretion. A specialised tissue for excretion will be developed, which will
excrete the waste out.

• In particular, we conclude that the life processes are those basic functions of
living beings which are essential for their survival. They are same in all types of
living forms whether unicellular or multicellular plants or animals eg - nutrition ,
Respiration , Growth, Excretion [Link] some of the life processes

NCERT Question 1: Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirement of

multi cellular organisms?

Answer: Diffusion takes place in unicellular organisms like amoeba in which single cell
is in direct contact with the environment, so oxygen can easily pass through diffusion
inside the amoeba , but in complex multicellular organisms this is not possible as not
all the living cells are in direct contact with the external environment. Diffusion alone
cannot carry the oxygen to each and every cell and makes this process very slow.

NCERT Question 2: What criteria do we sometimes use to decide whether something

is alive or not?

Answer: The major criterion to decide whether something is alive is movement.

Besides movement the other criterion are Growth, Developement, Reproduction Self
repair etc.

NCERT Question 3: What are the outside raw materials used by an organism?
Answer: Food is the outside raw material for heterotrophic organisms, CO2, minerals
and water for autotrophic organisms.

NCERT Question 4: What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?

Answer: Following processes are considered essential for maintaining life:

1. Nutrition

2. Metabolism

3. Respiration

4. Exchange of materials

5. Transportation

6. Excretion
 NUTRITION

It is the process of intake of food , its digestion, absorption, distribution to different parts,
its utilisation and elimination of the waste.

Importance of Nutrition:

It is required for:

a) Providing energy to the body.

b) Growth.

c) Repair of tissues

d) Reproduction

Types of Nutrition:

Thre are two types of nutrition

[Link] nutrition

[Link] nutrition

Autotrophic Heterotrophic

1. It is the mode of nutrition in which an 1. It is the mode of nutrition in which an

orgnism synthesises its own food from cannot synthesise its own food from

simple inorganic materials like CO2 and simple inorganic materials.

H2O.

2. An external source ofenergy is required 2. An external source of energyis not

for synthesising food required for synthesising food

[Link] performing autotrophic 3. Organisms performing heterotrophic

nutrition function as producers function as consumers

4. Example : Green plants and some 4. Example: Animals

bacteria

• AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• Plants make their food by the process of photosynthesis in which they

synthesise complex carbohydrates and evolve molecular oxygen from
simple inorganic substances like CO2 and H2O with the help of Light
energy and Chlorophyll.

• Photosynthetic Equation

• ([Link]) STEPS/EVENTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

• Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.

• Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of

water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
 • Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates

Note:- Generally carbohydrates are produced in photosynthesis

which are utilised to produce energy. The carbohydrates (glucose) are
stored in the form of starch in plants which serve as internal energy reserve
to be used when photosynthesis does not take place. In animals glucose is
stored in the form of glycogen as energy reserve.

Question 5: Why desert plants ( Xerophytes ) take up CO2 at night?

Answer: Desert plants take up CO2 at night and prepare an intermediate

(malic acid) which is acted upon by the energy absorbed by the cholorophyll
during the [Link] it prevents tranpiration in the daytime and conserves water
for plants which is necessary as there is scarcity of water in the desert

ACTIVITIES:

• Activity 6.1
(To demonstrate that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.)

Procedure:

• Take a potted plant with variegated leaves – for example,

money plant or crotons.

• Keep the plant in a dark room for three days so that all the
starch gets used up.

• Now keep the plant in sunlight for about six hours.

• Pluck a leaf from the plant. Mark the green areas in it and trace
them on a sheet of paper.

• Dip the leaf in boiling water for a few minutes.

 •

• After this, immerse it in a beaker containing alcohol. ( as alcohol

will dissolve chlorophyll in it )

• Carefully place the above beaker in a water-bath and heat till

the alcohol begins to boil. (note : alcohol can't be heated
directly as it is highly inflammable )

• Gradually the solution will become green in colour (due to the

dissolution of chlorophyll ) and the leaf will turn colourless.

• Now dip the leaf in a dilute solution of iodine for a few minutes.

• Take out the leaf and rinse off the iodine solution.

• Observe the colour of the leaf and compare this with the
tracing of the leaf done in the beginning

Observations:

• The blue colour appears only in those parts of leaf which were originally green in
colour.

• The blue colour will not appear in variegated parts.

 • This shows that starch formation takes place only in green (chlorophyll
containing) parts of the leaf. Thus, the chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.

Conclusion: Hence, we conclude that chlorophyll plays a very vital role in

photosynthesis.

• Activity 6.2
(To demonstrate that CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis)

Procedure:

• Take two healthy potted plants which are nearly the same size.

• Keep them in a dark room for three days.

• Now place each plant on separate glass plates. Place a watch-glass containing
potassium hydroxide by the side of one of the plants. The potassium hydroxide is
used to absorb carbon dioxide.

• Cover both plants with separate bell-jars.

• Use Vaseline to seal the bottom of the jars to the glass plates so that the set-up is
air-tight.

• Keep the plants in sunlight for about two hours.

• Pluck a leaf from each plant and check for the presence of starch as in the
above activity.

Observations:

• Leaf exposed to the atmosphere is bluish black.

• Leaf exposed to KOH does not change to blue-black colour as KOH has
absorbed all the CO2 necessary for photosynthesis hence there is no formation of
starch in this leaf.

Conclusion:

• CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis

Crossection of a Leaf

STOMATA:
• They are tiny pores present on the surface of leaf.

• Main Function: Help in gaseous exchange in abundance.

• Note: Gaseous exchange can also occur across the surface of stems
(through lenticels ) and roots( through root hair )l.
 • Plant closes stomata when it does not need carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis. (As large amounts of water can also be lost through
these stomata.)

• The opening and closing of the pore is a function of the guard cells.

• The guard cells swell when water flows into it, causing the stomatal
pore to open.

• Similarly the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.

NOTE: Autotrophs also need other raw materials for building their body,
materials like nitrogen, phosphuros ,iron and magnesium are taken up
from the soil. Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of
proteins and other compounds. This is taken up in the form of inorganic
nitrates or nitrites. Or it is taken up as organic compounds which have
been prepared bybacteria from atmospheric nitrogen.

Heterotrophic Nutrition

The form of heterotrophic nutrition differs depending on the type and availability of
food material as well as how it is obtained by the organism. For example, whether the
food source is stationary ( like grass ) or mobile ( like deer ) ,would allow for differences
in how the food is accessed and what is the nutritive apparatus used by different
animals. There is a range of strategies by which the food is taken in and used by the
organism. They are as follows :

• Parasitic Nutrition:
• The parasitic nutrition is that nutrition in which an organism derives its food from the
body of other living organisms without killing it.
• A parasite is an organism (plant or animal) which feed on another living organism
called its host. parasite in return harms the host.
• Example: animal parasites like Plasmodium, roundworms,leech etc. plant parasite
like Cuscuta (amarbel).

• Saprophytic Nutrition:
• Saprotrophic nutrition is that nutrition in which an organism obtains its food from
dead and decaying organic matter.

• The organisms having saprotrophic mode of nutrition are called saprophytes.

• Example: Fungi (liker bread moulds, mushrooms), and many bacteria are
saprotrophs.

MECHANISM OF SAPROTROPHIC NUTRITION

Saprophytes pour digestive enzymes over the external organic substrate. The enzyme
causes breakdown of complex organic compounds into simpler and soluble substances
which can be absorbed by saprophytes.

• Holozoic Nutrition:
• The holozoic nutrition is that nutrition in which an organism takes the complex
organic food materials into its body by the process of ingestion; the ingested
food is digested and then absorbed and assimilated into the body cells of the
organism.

• Example: human beings and most of the animal.

Holozoic Nutrition in Amoeba (Phagocytosis)

• Ingestion : Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger-like extensions

(Pseudopodia) are used present on the cell surface which fuses
over the food particle forming a food-vacuole.

• Digestion: Inside the food vacuole, complex substances are broken down
into simpler ones

• Absorption: These simpler substances are diffuse into the cytoplasm.

 • Assimilation: Amoeba cell obtains energy fromthe absorbed food through
respiration and this food is utilised bythe amoeba for its growth and repair
of the body.

• Egestion: The remaining undigested material is moved to the surface of

cell and thrown out.

Nutrition in Paramoecium
• In Paramoecium, which is also a unicellular organism, the cell has a definite
shape and food is taken in at a specific spot. Food is moved to this spot by the
movement of cilia which cover the entire surface of the cell.
Nutrition in Human Beings

The nutrition in human beings takes place in the human digestive system, which consists
of the Alimentary canal (It is a long tube about 9m long.) and its associated glands . the
various organs of human digestive system in sequence are

Mouth, Oesophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine and Large Intestine

The associated glands of the human digestive system are

Salivary Glands, Liver and Pancreas

In human beings the mode of nutrition is holozoic mode of nutrition . The various steps of
holozoic nutrition are:

1. Ingestion - The human beings have a special organ for ingestion of the food its called
Mouth

2. Digestion

• Mouth
• Cavity (empty space) in the mouth is called the Buccal Cavity/Oral Cavity
/Mouth Cavity. The mouth contains a muscular tongue , teeth and salivary
glands for digestion of food.

• Salivary Glands : (Three pairs)

• Secrete saliva

Functions of saliva

• Saliva moistens the food

• And make the medium in the mouth ALKALINE to activate

digestive enzyme.
 • Enzyme' salivary amylase '(also known as ptyalin ) partially
digests starch ( complex carbohydrates ) into maltose
(simple carbohydrate ).

Question 6 : Why bread tastes sweet when chewed for a long time ?

Answer : When we chew the bread, saliva gets mixed with it. The enzyme salivary
amylase in saliva breaks down complex carbohydrates of bread (starch) into simple
sugar (maltose) , which makes the bread tastes sweet on chewing.

• Teeth :

Type Incisors Canines Premolars Molars

Number 08 04 08 12
Function Help in biting Help in tearing Help in help in
the food. the food. chewing ad chewing and
grinding of grinding of
food food.

Tongue: It is the muscular organ which helps in :-

1. Mixing of food with saliva so that food can easily be swallowed.

2. Tasting the quality of food with the help of taste buds on it.

3. It cleans the teeth.

• Oesophagus (Food Pipe):

• No digestion takes place here.

• It performs Peristalsis.

• Peristalsis: Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles to push the food

forward into the stomach.
 • Stomach: It is a J- Shaped organ on the left side of the abdomen. Various
glands are present on the lining of the stomach called gastric glands which
secrete a juice called gastric juice .

Stomach serves the following functions:-

1. Mechanical churning of food : stomach is a large organ which expands when food
enters in it. The muscular walls of stomach undergo periodic muscular contraction so
that the food gets churned and mixes thoroughly with the gastric juice.

2. Partial digestion : Gastric juice secreted fron gastric glands contains HCl , Mucus and
Pepsin
HCl Pepsin Enzyme Mucus
• Creates acidic • Partially digests • Prevents the lining of
medium to activate proteins. ( proteins stomach from
the enzyme pepsin. are converted into corrosive action of
• Kills the microbes peptones ) HCl.
present in food.
• Stops the action of
salivary amylase.

Note: Gastric juice also has gastric lipase , it partially breaks down fats (it is active
in infants)

3. Regulation of flow of food into samll intestine: The stomach regulates the flow of
partially digested food into the small intestine with the help of sphincter muscles.
After digestion in the stomach the partially digested pulpy mass is called Chyme

Note: Food stays in the stomach from 1-6 hrs depending on the type of food ,
carbohydrate rich(1-2hrs) , protein rich(2-3 hrs), fat rich(3-6 hrs)

• Small Intestine:
It is the longest part of the alimentary canal (about 6.5mts in adults). Though the
small intesting is very long its called so because it is very narrow, it is arranged in the
form of a coil in the abdomen.

Question7: Why herbivores have longer small intestine than carnivores?

Answer: Since herbivores eat a diet which is rich in cellulose ,which is a

carbohydrate that is digested with difficulty, hence herbivore animals like cows
that eat grass need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose present in grass
 to be digested completely. While meat is a food which is easier to digest in
carnivores ,so animals like tigers have a smaller small intestine.

• Small intestine is divided into three parts that perform digestion:

Duodenum

Jejunum

ileum

• Duodenum
• Liver:
• It secrets bile juice stored in the gall bladder temporarily.

• When food enters in the intestine gall bladder gives bile juice to the small
intestine through bile duct.

• Bile juice contains bile salts and bile pigments.

• Bile pigments give yellow colour to the bile juice.

• Bile performs two functions:

• Makes the acidic food coming from the stomach alkaline so that
pancreatic enzymes can act on it.

• Bile salts break bigger globules of fat into smaller globules. This is called
emulsification of fat. This increases the surface area of fat for the action
of lipase enzyme.

• So, even bile juice does not contain any enzyme yet it is important for the
digestion of fat.
 • Pancreas:
• Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the small intestine through pancreatic
duct which contains various enzymes for further digestion.

• Following are the transformations that take place by the action of Pancreatic
Juice:
• Enzyme Trypsin - for digestion of proteins.

• Enzyme Pancreatic amylase - for further digestion of carbohydrates.

• Enzyme pancreatic lipase - for further digestion of emulsifed fat.

Note

Bicarbonate ions present in pancreatic juice and bile juice from liver neutralize the
acid present in the food coming from stomach and also activate pancreatic enzymes.

• Jejunum
• The walls of small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice. The
enzymes present in it finally complete the digestion by converting the following :

• starch into Glucose

• Proteins into Amino Acids

• Fats into Fatty Acids and Glycerol

Absorption
ileum ( part of small intestine )

• It has finger-like projections called Villi which are richely supplied with blood
cappilaries.

• They increase surface area for absorption of digested food in blood.

Assimilation
 The digested absorbed food reaches to each and every cell of the body by
blood and gets utilised there to obtain energy. This distribution of food by the
blood to the various cells of the body is called Assimilation.

• Large Intestine
Egestion
• Large intestine is shorter but wider than small intestine.

• The undigested food is sent into the large intestine where water is absorbed from
undigested food through villi.

• Waste materials (faeces) are collected in the rectum and thrown out through
anus. This process called egestion.

• The exit of the waste material is regulated by anal sphincter.

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