• Alternator

The variation of voltage across the brushes

with the angular displacement of the loop
will be as shown in Fig. (1.6). This is not a
steady direct voltage but has a pulsating
character. It is because the voltage
appearing across the brushes varies from
zero to maximum value and back to zero
twice for each revolution of the loop. A
pulsating direct voltage such as is produced Fig. (1.6)
by a single loop is not suitable for many
commercial uses. What we require is the steady direct voltage. This can be
achieved by using a large number of coils connected in series. The resulting
arrangement is known as armature winding.

1.4 Construction of d.c. Generator

The d.c. generators and d.c. motors have the same general construction. In fact,
when the machine is being assembled, the workmen usually do not know
whether it is a d.c. generator or motor. Any d.c. generator can be run as a d.c.
motor and vice-versa. All d.c. machines have five principal components viz., (i)
field system (ii) armature core (iii) armature winding (iv) commutator (v)
brushes [See Fig. 1.7].

Fig. (1.7) Fig. (1.8)

(i) Field system

The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within
which the armature rotates. It consists of a number of salient poles (of course,
even number) bolted to the inside of circular frame (generally called yoke). The
yoke is usually made of solid cast steel whereas the pole pieces are composed of
stacked laminations. Field coils are mounted on the poles and carry the d.c.
exciting current. The field coils are connected in such a way that adjacent poles
have opposite polarity.

The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a magnetic flux that passes
through the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame (See Fig. 1.8).
Practical d.c. machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm. Since
armature and field systems are composed of materials that have high
permeability, most of the m.m.f. of field coils is required to set up flux in the air
gap. By reducing the length of air gap, we can reduce the size of field coils (i.e.
number of turns).

(ii) Armature core

The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field
poles. It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that
are stacked to form a cylindrical core as shown in Fig (1.9). The laminations
(See Fig. 1.10) are individually coated with a thin insulating film so that they do
not come in electrical contact with each other. The purpose of laminating the
core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The laminations are slotted to
accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding and to
give shorter air gap for the flux to cross between the pole face and the armature
“teeth”.

Fig. (1.9) Fig. (1.10)

(iii) Armature winding

The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a
suitable manner. This is known as armature winding. This is the winding in
which “working” e.m.f. is induced. The armature conductors are connected in
series-parallel; the conductors being connected in series so as to increase the
voltage and in parallel paths so as to increase the current. The armature winding
of a d.c. machine is a closed-circuit winding; the conductors being connected in
a symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of closed loops.

(iv) Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage
generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes. The
commutator is made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica
sheets and mounted on the shaft of the machine (See Fig 1.11). The armature
conductors are soldered to the commutator segments in a suitable manner to give
rise to the armature winding. Depending upon the manner in which the armature
conductors are connected to the commutator segments, there are two types of
armature winding in a d.c. machine viz., (a) lap winding (b) wave winding.

Great care is taken in building the commutator because any eccentricity will
cause the brushes to bounce, producing unacceptable sparking. The sparks may
bum the brushes and overheat and carbonise the commutator.

(v) Brushes
The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating
commutator and stationary external load circuit. The brushes are made of carbon
and rest on the commutator. The brush pressure is adjusted by means of
adjustable springs (See Fig. 1.12). If the brush pressure is very large, the friction
produces heating of the commutator and the brushes. On the other hand, if it is
too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator may produce sparking.

Fig. (1.11) Fig. (1.12)

Multipole machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-
pole machine has 4 brushes. As we go round the commutator, the successive
brushes have positive and negative polarities. Brushes having the same polarity
in the coils to a brush are either all directed towards the brush (positive brush) or
all directed away from the brush (negative brush). Further, the direction of
current in coil reverses as it passes the brush. Thus when the coil approaches the
contact with the brush, the current through the coil is in one direction; when the
coil leaves the contact with the brush, the current has been reversed. This
reversal of current in the coil as the coil passes a brush is called commutation
and fakes place while the coil is short-circuited by the brush. These changes
occur in every coil in turn. If, at the instant when the brush breaks contact with
the commutator segment connected to the coil undergoing commutation, the
current in the coil has not been reversed, the result will be sparking between the
commutator segments and the brush.

The criterion of good commutation is that it should be sparkless. In order to

have sparkless commutation, the brushes on the commutator should be placed at
points known as neutral point where no voltage exists between adjacent
segments. The conductors connected to these segments lie between the poles in
position of zero magnetic flux which is termed as magnetic neutral axis (M.N.A)

1.20 E.M.F. Equation of a D.C. Generator

We shall now derive an expression for the e.m.f. generated in a d.c. generator.
Let φ = flux/pole in Wb
Z = total number of armature conductors
P = number of poles
A = number of parallel paths = 2 ... for wave winding
= P ... for lap winding
N = speed of armature in r.p.m.
Eg = e.m.f. of the generator = e.m.f./parallel path
Flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the armature,
dφ = Pφ webers
Time taken to complete one revolution,
dt = 60/N second
dφ Pφ Pφ N
e.m.f generated/conductor = = = volts
dt 60 / N 60
e.m.f. of generator,
Eg = e.m.f. per parallel path
= (e.m.f/conductor) × No. of conductors in series per parallel path
Pφ N Z
= ×
60 A
Pφ ZN
∴ Eg =
60 A
where A=2 for-wave winding
 =P for lap winding

1.21 Armature Resistance (Ra)

The resistance offered by the armature circuit is known as armature resistance
(Ra) and includes:
(i) resistance of armature winding
(ii) resistance of brushes

The armature resistance depends upon the construction of machine. Except for
small machines, its value is generally less than 1Ω.

1.22 Types of D.C. Generators

The magnetic field in a d.c. generator is normally produced by electromagnets
rather than permanent magnets. Generators are generally classified according to
their methods of field excitation. On this basis, d.c. generators are divided into
the following two classes:
(i) Separately excited d.c. generators
(ii) Self-excited d.c. generators

The behaviour of a d.c. generator on load depends upon the method of field
excitation adopted.

1.23 Separately Excited D.C. Generators

A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied from an independent
external d.c. source (e.g., a battery etc.) is called a separately excited generator.
Fig. (1.32) shows the connections of a separately excited generator. The voltage
output depends upon the speed of rotation of armature and the field current (Eg =
Pφ ZN/60 A). The greater the speed and field current, greater is the generated
e.m.f. It may be noted that separately excited d.c. generators are rarely used in
practice. The d.c. generators are normally of self-excited type.

Fig. (1.32)