DNA Replication

Mode of replication, DNA synthesis:

DNA replicates semi-conservatively — each new DNA has one old and one
new strand. DNA polymerase synthesizes DNA in the 5′→3′ direction using
nucleotides.

Replication in prokaryotes and eukaryotes:

Prokaryotes have one origin of replication; eukaryotes have multiple origins.
Eukaryotic replication is slower and involves different polymerases.

Control of DNA synthesis:

Controlled by availability of primers, DNA polymerase activity, and cell cycle
checkpoints (mainly S-phase).

Inhibitors of replication:
Antibiotics like ciprofloxacin (targets DNA gyrase) and antiviral drugs (like
AZT) inhibit DNA replication.

Transcription

Introduction, regulation of transcription:

Transcription is RNA synthesis from a DNA template by RNA polymerase.
Regulation occurs through promoters, enhancers, and transcription factors.

Enhancers and terminators, RNA splicing and RNA processing:

Enhancers increase transcription efficiency; terminators signal stop. In
eukaryotes, introns are removed and exons joined by splicing; 5′ cap and 3′
poly-A tail added.

Post-transcriptional modifications, inhibitors:

Includes RNA editing, methylation, and polyadenylation. Actinomycin D and
rifampicin inhibit transcription.

Genetic Code

Characteristics:
Triplet, universal (mostly), non-overlapping, and degenerate (one amino acid
coded by many codons).

Specificity:
Each codon specifies one amino acid only.
Wobble hypothesis:
Third base of codon can pair flexibly with tRNA anticodon — explains code
degeneracy.

Translation

Protein synthesis:
mRNA guides ribosome to assemble amino acids into proteins. Steps:
initiation, elongation, termination.

Control of translation:
Regulated by initiation factors, mRNA stability, and ribosome activity.

Post-translational modifications:
Include phosphorylation, methylation, glycosylation, and folding for
functional activity.

Repair Mechanisms of DNA

Mechanism:
Includes base excision, nucleotide excision, mismatch repair, and SOS repair
to correct DNA damage.

Physical and chemical agents:

UV radiation, X-rays, and chemicals (like alkylating agents) cause DNA
mutations.

Nucleic Acid

General structure of nucleosides and nucleotides:

Nucleoside = base + sugar; Nucleotide = base + sugar + phosphate.

Chemistry of DNA:
DNA has deoxyribose sugar and bases (A, T, G, C); forms double helix via
hydrogen bonds (A-T, G-C).

Types and functions of RNA:

 mRNA – carries genetic message

 tRNA – brings amino acids

  rRNA – forms ribosome structure and catalyzes translation

BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION AND BIOENERGETICS

Biological energy and law of thermodynamics, Free energy:

Energy in cells follows thermodynamic laws. Free energy (ΔG) determines
reaction spontaneity; negative ΔG = spontaneous.

Entropy and heat content:

Entropy measures disorder. Biological systems maintain order by releasing
heat and increasing universal entropy.

Free energy changes and equilibrium constant:

ΔG° = –RT ln K_eq; when ΔG = 0, system is at equilibrium.

High energy compounds, The ATP cycle:

ATP stores energy in high-energy phosphate bonds. ATP → ADP + Pi releases
energy for cellular work.

Occurrence and properties of ATP, ADP, AMP:

ATP = main energy currency; ADP and AMP act as intermediates in energy
transfer.

ATP SYNTHESIS

Coupling with respiratory electron flow, chemiosmotic model:

Electron transport creates a proton gradient across the mitochondrial
membrane; ATP synthase uses this gradient to synthesize ATP.

Mitochondrial oxidation:
Oxidation of NADH and FADH₂ transfers electrons to O₂ forming water,
releasing energy for ATP production.

Energetics of electron transport:

Each NADH → 3 ATP; FADH₂ → 2 ATP (approximate values).

Inhibition of electron transport regulation:

Inhibitors like cyanide, rotenone, and antimycin block specific complexes,
stopping ATP formation.

OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION & DEPHOSPHORYLATION

Site of oxidative phosphorylation:
Inner mitochondrial membrane — contains the electron transport chain and
ATP synthase.

Mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation (Hypothesis):

Chemiosmotic hypothesis (Mitchell): proton gradient drives ATP synthesis via
ATP synthase.

Uncouplers and inhibitors:

Uncouplers (like DNP) dissipate proton gradient, preventing ATP synthesis.
Inhibitors block electron flow.

Definition and mechanism of dephosphorylation:

Dephosphorylation is removal of phosphate from molecules, catalyzed by
phosphatases; reverses phosphorylation effects.

BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION AND REDUCTION REACTION

Enzymes & Co-enzymes:

Oxidoreductases catalyze redox reactions. Coenzymes: NAD⁺, FAD, NADP⁺.

Aerobic and anaerobic dehydrogenases:

Aerobic – transfer electrons to oxygen. Anaerobic – transfer to other
acceptors like nitrates or sulfates.

Hydroperoxidase, Oxygenase, and Superoxide dismutase:

 Hydroperoxidase (Catalase/Peroxidase): Decomposes hydrogen

peroxide.

 Oxygenase: Incorporates oxygen into substrates.

 Superoxide dismutase (SOD): Converts superoxide radicals to

oxygen and hydrogen peroxide.

DRUGS

Drugs against common diseases:

Used to treat infections, inflammation, pain, and chronic disorders (e.g.,
antibiotics, analgesics, antipyretics).
Chemical synthesis:
Preparation of drugs using organic/inorganic chemical reactions in labs or
industries.

Physicochemical properties:
Include solubility, pH, partition coefficient, and stability — affect absorption
and action.

ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION

Intravascular, intramuscular, subcutaneous:

IV gives immediate effect, IM slower and longer action, SC slower absorption
(e.g., insulin).

Absorption and inhalation of drugs:

Inhalation gives rapid absorption via lungs; oral and topical routes depend on
drug solubility.

DRUG DISTRIBUTION

Binding of drugs with albumin:

Drugs bind to plasma proteins; only free drug is active and diffusible.

Passages of drugs:
Drugs move through membranes via passive diffusion, active transport, or
filtration.

PHARMACODYNAMICS

Mechanism of drug action:

Drugs act by stimulating or inhibiting enzymes, receptors, or ion channels.

Drug receptor, chemical properties:

Receptors are proteins that bind specific drugs; structure determines
specificity.

Classification of receptors and drug effects:

Ion-channel, G-protein-coupled, enzyme-linked, and nuclear receptors.
Relation between drug concentration and response:
Response increases with concentration until maximum effect (dose-response
curve).

Effect of protein binding:

High binding reduces free drug; influences duration and intensity of action.

DRUG METABOLISM

Biochemical pathways:
Mainly in liver: oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis (Phase I), and conjugation
(Phase II).

Inhibition of metabolic pathways:

Enzyme inhibitors slow metabolism, increasing drug action or toxicity.

Methods of studying metabolism:

Involve in vitro liver microsomes or in vivo studies.

New aspects:
Focus on pharmacogenomics — genetic factors affecting metabolism.

ROUTES OF ABSORPTION OF DRUGS

Mechanism of absorption:
Drugs pass biological membranes by diffusion, filtration, active or facilitated
transport.

Factors affecting absorption:

pH, lipid solubility, blood flow, surface area, and presence of food.

MAJOR ROUTES OF ELIMINATION OF DRUGS

Renal and biliary excretion:

Most drugs excreted via urine (glomerular filtration, secretion, reabsorption);
some via bile or feces.

Mechanism of action and therapeutic uses of some

chemotherapeutic agents
Sulfa drugs: Inhibit bacterial folic acid synthesis.
Antibiotics: Kill or inhibit bacterial growth (e.g., penicillin).
Antifungals: Disrupt fungal cell membrane (e.g., amphotericin B).
Steroids: Anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agents.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HORMONE SYSTEM

Introduction, functions, endocrine glands:

Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands; regulate
growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Target gland concept, feedback:

Hormones act on specific target cells. Feedback control:

 Negative feedback → maintains balance (e.g., thyroid hormones).

 Positive feedback → amplifies effect (e.g., oxytocin).

Hormone receptors and abnormalities:

Receptors are proteins on cell surfaces or inside cells. Abnormalities lead to
hormone resistance or over-sensitivity.

HORMONE ACTION

Classification:

 Peptide hormones: act via membrane receptors.

 Steroid hormones: act via intracellular receptors.

 Amino acid derivatives: e.g., epinephrine, thyroxine.

Mechanism:
Hormones bind receptors → trigger second messengers (cAMP, IP₃, Ca²⁺) →
cellular response.

PITUITARY AND HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES

Structure and synthesis:

 Hypothalamus: produces releasing/inhibiting hormones.

  Pituitary: secretes growth hormone (GH), TSH, ACTH, LH, FSH, and
prolactin.

Physiological and biochemical action:

Control growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress response.

THYROID AND PARATHYROID HORMONES

Structure and synthesis:

Thyroid secretes thyroxine (T₄) and triiodothyronine (T₃) using iodine.
Parathyroid secretes parathormone (PTH).

Mechanism and pathophysiology:

 Thyroid: regulates metabolism and growth. Hypo →

cretinism/myxedema; Hyper → goiter.

 Parathyroid: maintains blood calcium. Hypo → tetany; Hyper → bone

loss.

HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL CORTEX

Introduction:
Produces steroid hormones — glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and
androgens.

Biosynthesis and regulation:

From cholesterol under ACTH control.

Transport, mechanism of action:

Bind to plasma proteins → enter cells → affect gene transcription.

HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL MEDULLA

Introduction and biosynthesis:

Produces catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine) from tyrosine.

Metabolism and mechanism:

Act on adrenergic receptors — increase heart rate, glucose, and blood
pressure (fight-or-flight response).
HORMONES OF THE GONADS

Structure and biosynthesis:

 Testes: testosterone

 Ovaries: estrogen and progesterone

Metabolism and mechanism:

Regulate reproduction, secondary sexual traits, and menstrual cycle.

HORMONES OF THE PANCREAS

Structure and biosynthesis:

Islets of Langerhans produce:

 Insulin (β-cells) → lowers blood glucose

 Glucagon (α-cells) → raises glucose

 Somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptides → regulate secretion.

Mode of action:
Insulin promotes glucose uptake; glucagon stimulates glycogen breakdown.

GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES

Examples and functions:

 Gastrin: stimulates gastric acid.

 CCK: aids fat digestion.

 Secretin: increases bile and pancreatic juice.

 Glucagon-like peptide & GIP: regulate insulin release and digestion.

BIOTECHNOLOGY IN PLANT AND AGRICULTURE

Impact of Biotechnology in Agriculture:

Enhances crop yield, pest resistance, and nutritional quality; reduces
chemical use and supports sustainable farming.
List of Biotechnological Products:
Includes GM crops (Bt cotton, golden rice), biofertilizers, biopesticides, and
transgenic plants.

Uses and Methods in Crop Production:

Techniques like gene transfer, tissue culture, and molecular markers improve
crop productivity and stress resistance.

PLANT CELL CULTURE AND APPLICATIONS

In-vitro culture, methods of plant cell/tissue culture:

Growth of plant cells in sterile nutrient media for research and propagation.

Steps and types of cultures:

Explant → callus → organogenesis/embryogenesis. Types include meristem,
anther, embryo, and protoplast culture.

Callus formation:
Undifferentiated mass formed from explant under auxin and cytokinin
influence.

Organogenesis, root/shoot culture:

Regeneration of plant organs from callus; shoot culture used for cloning
plants.

Micropropagation and protoplast fusion:

Rapid multiplication of plants; protoplast fusion produces somatic hybrids or
cybrids.

PLANT GENETIC TRANSFORMATION

Techniques for transformation:

DNA is introduced into plant cells via physical (biolistic), chemical, or
biological (Agrobacterium) methods.

Agrobacterium-mediated and biolistic transfer:

 Agrobacterium tumefaciens transfers T-DNA into host genome.

 Biolistics use gene guns to shoot DNA-coated particles.

Promoters for transformation:

Tissue-specific and stress-inducible promoters control gene expression.
Gene silencing and chloroplast transformation:
RNA interference (RNAi) used to silence genes; chloroplast transformation
allows stable expression of transgenes.

Plants as bioreactors and vaccine production:

Plants produce recombinant proteins, antibodies, and vaccines safely and
economically.

GM crops, DNA markers, applications:

GM crops resist pests/herbicides; DNA markers aid in breeding and selection;
biosafety ensures environmental safety.

GENETIC MANIPULATION OF PLANTS AND PLANT RESISTANCE TO

STRESS

Iron rice, golden rice, herbicide composition:

 Golden rice enriched with β-carotene (vitamin A).

 Iron rice biofortified to prevent anemia.

 Herbicide-resistant crops tolerate specific weed killers.

Engineering of herbicide resistance:

Insertion of genes like EPSPS or bar gene; Cry proteins from Bacillus
thuringiensis provide insect resistance.

Cry protein and toxicity:

Cry toxins form pores in insect gut membranes, killing pests but safe for
humans.