Highway & Railroad Engineering – Chapter 1 Study Notes (In-Depth)
CHAPTER I – Highway and Its Development
1.1 Brief History of Roads
- Early Roads:
• Mesopotamia (3500 BC): first hard surface roads.
• Crete (Mediterranean): stone surface roads.
• Mayans, Aztecs, Incas (Central & South America): similar road systems.
- Purposes:
1. Movement of armies (conquest/defense).
2. Transport of food and trade goods.
- Roman Roads:
• Expanded empire with vast road networks from Rome.
• Construction: three layers – (1) small stones, (2) stones + mortar, (3) massive stone blocks with
cement mortar.
• Many still exist after 2000 years.
- 17th Century France (Napoleon):
• Jerome Tresaguet (1716–1796): “Father of Modern Road Building.”
■ Improved crown, drainage, grade.
■ Reduced stone foundation depth to 25 cm.
■ Enabled Napoleon’s massive highway program.
- Scotland:
• Thomas Telford (1757–1834): founder of Institute of Civil Engineers.
■ Used stone foundation blocks (3” thick, 5” wide, 7” high).
■ Flat subgrade with slight crown.
■ Surface trued by breaking projections.
• John Loudon Macadam (1755–1836):
■ Developed Macadam Roads – compacted small stones.
■ Inexpensive, widely adopted worldwide.
■ Supported by invention of road building equipment:
– Stone crusher (Eli Blake, 1858).
– Steam road roller (France, 30 tons; later Aveling & Porter).
1.2 Early Laws Governing Roads
- Saxon Laws: citizens required to –
1. Repair roads and bridges.
2. Repair castles and garrisons.
3. Aid in repelling invasions.
- Norman Conquest of England:
• King’s highway is sacred – encroachment = offense against king.
• Roads are public property for use by all.
• Property owners adjoining roads:
– Must drain roadside.
– Clip bordering hedges.
– Not plow/plant trees close to road.
• Concept: Roads benefit public → public has duty to maintain/protect them.
1.3 Highway in the Philippines
- Early 1900s:
• Transport relied on trails, rivers, railroads, earth and partially graveled roads.
• Highways “non-existent” at this time.
- American Period:
• Introduced Macadam Roads connecting towns and provinces.
- Post-WWII:
• Reparations from Japan & U.S. aid.
• Macadam roads treated with hot bituminous asphalt.
- 1950s–1980s:
• Automobile Age – cars became vital (from luxury to necessity).
• Gov’t slogan: “This nation is on wheels.”
• Priority on road construction to improve farmer access (“get farmers out of the mud”).
- Modern Development:
• Expressways built with World Bank & IMF loans.
• Technical advances in soils, materials, design, construction, management revolutionized
highways.
1.4 Planning Difficulties
- Goals: roads must be safe, useful, attractive; include drainage, roadside improvement, erosion
control, noise abatement.
- Problems:
1. Financial – lack of funds, high foreign debt.
2. Political – projects amended/deferred for political interest; corruption in project listings &
contractor selection.
3. Technical – rapid traffic growth, urban congestion, transport role definition.
- Consequence: erosion of public confidence in gov’t and technical experts.
1.5 Highway Programming
- Inputs:
1. Economic – resource availability.
2. Financial – who pays/spends, how much, where.
3. Political/Administrative – decisions and approvals.
- Approaches:
• Projects prioritized by economic viability, financial feasibility, and political acceptability.
• Consider: legislative/administrative desires, traffic levels, continuity of routes, coordination with
other modes, labor/materials, climate, right-of-way, emergencies.
- Direct Effects:
A. Quantifiable Market Value – costs (planning, right-of-way, construction, maintenance, operation)
and user benefits (vehicle operating costs, travel time, accident reduction).
B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value – safety (pain/suffering), comfort, scenery.
C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value – non-commercial travel time savings.
1.6 The Planner
- Must coordinate, clarify, and mediate between stakeholders.
- Roles: technical support, receive input, integrate into planning.
- Functions:
1. Preliminary design (scope, objectives).
2. Explore alternatives (data collection).
3. Detailed analysis (community interaction plan).
4. Secure approval (official ratification).
- Ethics: planners must remain impartial, avoid imposing personal values, provide unbiased
information.
1.7 Community Involvement
- Public has the right to participate in planning & decision making.
- Problem: hearings often held after decisions.
- Ideal: involvement from the start.
- Steps:
• Gain cooperation of officials, NGOs, leaders.
• Special staff for coordination.
• Encourage continuous participation.
• Organize workshops, group meetings, hearings.
1.8 Highway Economy
- Tax-based system (“Pay as you go”):
• Road funding from taxes.
• Disadvantage: small scattered funds = slow progress.
- Borrowing/Loans:
• Pros: immediate infrastructure, visible progress, encourages investors.
• Cons: debt burden, mismanagement, interest costs, overbuilding risks.
- Expenditure purposes:
1. Boost economy.
2. Access to workplaces.
3. Facilitate services (police, fire, health, schools).
4. Increase land value.
5. Lower vehicle costs.
6. Save time.
7. Reduce accidents.
8. Comfort & ease of travel.
1.9 Computation & Survey
- Early: slide rules → calculators.
- Modern: computers used for:
• Traffic projections, statistics.
• Economic & financial analysis.
• Geometric design, bridges, pavements.
• Scheduling, earthworks, contractor payments.
• Accident analysis, environmental simulations.
- Advantage: accuracy, visualization, efficiency.
- Limitation: requires correct inputs and expert oversight.
1.10 Remote Sensing (Photogrammetry)
- Definition: measurement by aerial photographs.
- Uses: location, planning, design, right-of-way, traffic, drainage, soil, earthworks, material surveys.
- Highway Location:
• From trails → improved alignments.
• Aim: minimize curves, flatten grades, safe comfortable driving.
• Consider: cost estimates, traffic, community benefits, funding.
• Stages: reconnaissance (area), reconnaissance (routes), preliminary survey, staking/marking.
- Bridge Location:
• Purpose: convey traffic, integrate with alignment.
• Data needed: foundation, stream, waterway, adjacent structures.
• Prefer right-angle crossings, avoid skewed bridges (more expensive).
- Plans & Specifications:
• Plans = drawings; Specifications = legal written instructions.
• Types: Standard (common works), Special Provisions (unique project details).
• Specifications must be clear – careless writing = poor materials, disputes, cost overruns.
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