Networking

Part - 2

COMPUTER

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Internet Domain Name System

 When DNS was not discovered, used had to download a Host file consisting host
names and their relative IP address. But with jump in the number of hosts of
internet, the size of host file also increased. This created increased traffic on
downloading this file. To fix this problem the DNS system was developed.
 Domain Name System aids to resolve the host name to an address. It utilizes a
hierarchical naming scheme and distributed database of IP addresses and
associated names.

IP Address
 IP address is an exclusive logical address given to a device available on the
network. An IP address exhibits the given properties:
 IP address is the unique address assigned to each host present on Internet.
IP address is 32 bits (4 bytes) long.
 IP address consists of two components: network component and host
component.
 Each of the 4 bytes is represented by a number from 0 to 255, separated with
dots. For example [Link]
 IP address is 32-bit string while domain names are easy to remember
characters. For example, when we enter an email address we always enter a
symbolic string such as webmaster@[Link].

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Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

 Uniform Resource Locator (URL) means a web address which exclusively identifies
a document over the internet.
 This document may be a web page, image, audio, video or anything that available
on the web.
 For example, [Link]/courses/[Link] is an URL to the [Link]
which is stored on testbook web server under courses directory.
 URL Types
 There are two types of URL as given below:
 Absolute URL
 Relative URL

Absolute URL
 Absolute URL is the entire address of a resource available on the web. This
completed address consists of protocol utilized, server name, path name and file
name.
 For example http:// [Link]/[Link]. where:
 http is the protocol.
 [Link] is the server name.
 [Link] is the file name.
 The protocol side defines the web browser how to execute the file. Just like that we
have some different protocols also that can be utilized to create URL are:
 FTP
 https
 Gopher
 mailto
 News

Relative URL
 Relative URL is half of the address of a webpage. Different from an absolute URL,
the protocol and server part are neglected from relative URL.
 Relative URLs are useful for internal links i.e. to create links to file that are
component of same website as the Webpages on which user is creating the link.

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 For example, to link an image on [Link]/courses/IBPS_PO, we can use the

relative URL which can take the form like /courses/IBPS_PO.jpg.
 Difference between Absolute and Relative URL

Absolute URL Relative URL

for linking web pages on different websites For linking web pages within the same website.

Difficult to manage. Easy to Manage

transforms when the server name or directory Stays same even if we change the server name
name changes or directory name.

Take time to access Comparatively faster to access.

Domain Name System Architecture

The Domain name system comprises of Domain Names, Domain Name Space, Name
Server that have been described below:

Domain Names
 Domain Name is a symbolic string related with an IP address. There are different
domain names available; some of them are generic such as com, Edu, gov, net etc,
while some country level domain names such as au, in, za, us etc.
 The given table shows the Generic Top-Level Domain names:

Domain Name Meaning

Com Commercial business

Edu Education

Gov U.S. government agency

Int International entity

Mil U.S. military

Net Networking organization

Org Non profit organization

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 The given table shows the Country top-level domain names:

Domain Name Meaning

au Australia
in India
cl Chile
fr France
us United States
za South Africa
uk United Kingdom
jp Japan
es Spain
de Germany
ca Canada
ee Estonia
hk Hong Kong

Domain Name Space

 The domain name space means a hierarchy in the internet naming system. This
hierarchy has various levels (from 0 to 127), with a root node on the top. The given
diagram shows the domain name space hierarchy:

 Considering above diagram every sub tree reflects a domain. Every domain can be
segmented into sub domains and these can be further segmented and so on.

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Name Server
 Name server consists of DNS database. This database contains many names and
their corresponding IP addresses. As it is not possible for an individual server to
maintain entire DNS database, therefore, the information is shared among many
DNS servers.
 Hierarchy of server is the hierarchy of names.
 Whole name space is segmented into the zones

Zones
 Zone is aggregation of nodes
(sub domains) under the main
domain. The server keeps a
record of a database called
zone file for every zone.
 If the domain is not further
segmented into sub domains
then domain and zone reflects
the same thing.
 The information related to the
nodes in the sub domain is
saved in the servers at the lower levels. However, the initial server stores reference
to these lower levels of servers.

Types of Name Servers

Given are the three varieties of Name Servers that handles the entire Domain Name
System:
 Root Server
 Primary Server
 Secondary Server

Root Server
 Root Server is the topmost level server which contains the complete DNS tree. It
does not maintain the information related to domains but delegates the authority to
the other server.

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Primary Servers
 Primary Server maintains a file about its zone. It has authority to develop, maintain,
and update the zone file.

Secondary Server
 Secondary Server shifts entire information about a zone from another server which
can be primary or secondary server. The secondary server does not have
permission to create or update a zone file.

DNS Working
 DNS transforms the domain name into IP address automatically. Given steps will
take user through the steps included in domain resolution process:

 When we type [Link] into the browser, it asks the local DNS Server for
its IP address.

 This is the local DNS at ISP side:

 When the local DNS fails to find the IP address of requested domain name, it
transfers the request to the root DNS server and again enquires about IP address of
it.

 The root DNS server replies with delegation that I do not know the IP address of
[Link] but know the IP address of DNS Server.

 The local DNS server then asks the com DNS Server the same question.

 The com DNS Server replies the same that it does not know the IP address of
[Link] but knows the address of [Link].

 Then the local DNS asks the [Link] DNS server the same question.

 Then [Link] DNS server replies with IP address of [Link].

 Now, the local DNS sends the IP address of [Link] to the computer that
sends the request.

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Internet Connectivity
Internet Service Providers (ISP)
 Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a network company offering access to internet.
They offer different services:
 Internet Access
 Domain name registration
 Dial-up access
 Leased line access

ISP Types
 ISPs can broadly be categorised into six segments as shown in the given diagram:

Access Providers
 They provide accessibility to web through telephone lines, cable wi-fi or fiber optics.

Mailbox Providers
 Such providers offer mailbox hosting facilities.

Hosting ISPs
 Hosting ISPs provides e-mail, and other web hosting facilities such as virtual
machines, clouds etc.

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Virtual ISPs
 Such ISPs offer internet accessibility through other ISP services.

Free ISPs
 Free ISPs do not seek money for internet services.

Connection Types
 There are multiple methods to connect to the internet. Given are some of these
connection types available:
1. Dial-up Connection
2. ISDN
3. DSL
4. Cable TV Internet connections
5. Satellite Internet connections
6. Wireless Internet Connections

Dial - Up Connection
 Dial-up connection utilizes telephone line to let PC access the internet. It requires a
modem to establish dial-up connection. This modem acts as a mediator between PC
and the telephone line.
 There is also a communication program that aids the modem to process a calling
facility to specific number provided by an ISP.
 Dial-up connection uses following protocols:
1. Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
2. Point to Point Protocol (PPP)
 The given diagram shows the accessing internet using modem:

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ISDN
 ISDN is a short form of Integrated Services Digital Network. It creates the connection
using the phone lines which transfers digital signals in place of analog signals.
 There are two methods to deliver ISDN services:
1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
 Key points:
1. The BRI ISDN contains three distinct modes on a single ISDN line: one
64kbps B (Bearer) channel and one 16kbps D (Delta or Data) channels.
2. The PRI ISDN contains 23 B channels and one D channels with both have
working capacity of 64kbps uniquely making a total transmission bandwidth of
1.54Mbps.
 The given diagram shows accessing internet using ISDN connection:

DSL
 DSL is a short form of Digital Subscriber Line. It is a kind of broadband connection
as it facilitates connection over commonly used telephone lines.
 Given are the few versions of DSL methods available today:
1. Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
2. Symmetric DSL (SDSL)
3. High bit-rate DSL (HDSL)
4. Rate adaptive DSL (RDSL)
5. Very high bit-rate DSL (VDSL)
6. ISDN DSL (IDSL)

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 All of the above technologies varies in their upload and download bandwidth, bit
transfer rate and level of service.
 The given diagram shows that how we can connect to internet through DSL
technology:

Cable TV Internet Connection

 Cable TV Internet facility is provided via Cable TV lines. It utilizes coaxial cable
which is capable of transmitting data at much higher speed compared to common
telephone line.
 Key Points:
1. A cable modem is useful to access this facility, provided by the cable
operator.
2. The Cable modem consists of two connections: one for internet service and
another for Cable TV signals.
3. Since Cable TV internet connections comprises a fixed amount of bandwidth
with a group of customers, that is why, data transfer rate also fluctuates on
number of customers using the internet at the same time.
 The given diagram shows that how internet is used using Cable TV connection:

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Satellite Internet Connection

 Satellite Internet connection facilitates high bandwidth connection to the internet.
There are two kinds of satellite internet connection: one-way connection or two-way
connection.
 In one way connection, it is possible to only download data but if we need to upload,
we need a dialup access from ISP over telephone line.
 In two way connection, it is possible to download as well as upload the data using
the satellite. It does not need any dialup connection.
 The given diagram explains how internet is accessed through satellite internet
connection:

Wireless Internet Connection

 Wireless Internet Connection utilizes of radio frequency bands to connect to the
internet and facilitates a very high speed. The wireless internet connection can be
achieved through either Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.
 Key Points:
1. Wi-Fi wireless technology is uses IEEE 802.11 standards which permits the
electronic device to connect to the internet.
2. Bluetooth wireless technology utilizes of short-wavelength radio waves and
helps to establish personal area network (PAN).

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IP ADDREESS
 An IP address is a numerical label assigned to the devices connected to a computer
network that uses the IP for communication. IP address act as an identifier for a
specific machine on a particular network. It also helps you to develop a virtual
connection between a destination and a source.
 IP Full Form: The IP address stands for Internet Protocol address is also called IP
number or internet address. It helps you to specify the technical format of the
addressing and packets scheme. Most networks combine TCP with IP.
Types of IP address
 There are mainly four types of IP addresses:
 Public,
 Private,
 Static
 Dynamic.
 Public IP Addresses
 A public IP address is an address where one primary address is associated
with your whole network. In this type of IP address, each of the connected
devices has the same IP address.
 This type of public IP address is provided to your router by your ISP.

Private IP Address
A private IP address is an IP address that's reserved for internal use behind a router or
other Network Address Translation (NAT) device, apart from the public. Private IP
addresses are in contrast to public IP addresses, which are public and can't be used
within a home or business network. Sometimes a private IP address is also referred to
as a local IP address.

Dynamic IP address
 Dynamic IP addresses always keep changing. It is temporary and are allocated to a
device every time it connects to the web. Dynamic IPs can trace their origin to a
collection of IP addresses that are shared across many computers..

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 Dynamic IP addresses are another important type of internet protocol addresses. It

is active for a specific amount of time; after that, it will expire.
 Static IP Addresses
 A static IP address is an IP address that cannot be changed. In contrast, a dynamic
IP address will be assigned by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
server, which is subject to change. Static IP address never changes, but it can be
altered as part of routine network administration.
 Static IP addresses are consistent, which is assigned once, that stays the same
over the years. This type of IP also helps you procure a lot of information about a
device.
Version of IP address
Two types of IP addresses are 1)IPV4 and 2) IPV6.
IPV4
 IPv4 was the first version of IP. It was deployed for production in the ARPANET in
1983. Today it is the most widely used IP version. It is used to identify devices on a
network using an addressing system.
 The IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing to store 2^32 addresses, which is
more than 4 billion addresses. To date, it is considered the primary Internet
Protocol and carries 94% of Internet traffic.
IPV6
It is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol. Internet Engineer Taskforce
initiated it in early 1994. The design and development of that suite is now called IPv6.
This new IP address version is being deployed to fulfill the need for more Internet
addresses. It was aimed to resolve issues which are associated with IPv4. With 128-bit
address space, it allows 340 undecillion unique address space.

Different Classes of IP Address

Following are the different classes of IP address:
 Class A
 Class B
 Class C
 Class D
 Class E

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 Class A
 This Class IP address always has its first bit as 0, next 7 bits as a network address
and following 24 bits as the host address.
 The range of IP addresses is [Link] to [Link].
 This means that it allows 2^7 networks and 2^24 hosts per network.
 This class of IP address is used for a very large network. Ex. Big Organisation
Class B
 Class B IP address always has its first bits as 10, next 14 bits as a network address
and following 16 bits as the host address.
 The range of IP addresses is [Link] to [Link].
 This means that it allows 2^14 networks and 2^16 hosts per network.
 This class of IP address is used for a medium network like multinational companies.
Class C
 Class C IP address always has its first bits as 110, next 21 bits as a network ad-
dress and following 8 bits as the host address.
 The range of IP addresses is the first block from [Link] to [Link] and the
last block from [Link] to [Link].
 This means that it allows 2^21 networks and 2^8 hosts per network.
 This class is used for a small network such as small companies or colleges.
Class D
 Class D IP address always has its first bits as 1110.
 There is no segregation of host and network addresses.
 It allows multicast which means a datagram directed to multiple hosts.
Class E
 The address begins with 1111.
 It is reserved for future use, research, and development purpose.

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Different Types Of Network

Vulnerabilities
Network vulnerabilities come in many forms but the most common types are:
 Malware, short for malicious software, such as Trojans, viruses, and worms that are
installed on a user’s machine or a host server.
 Social engineering attacks that fool users into giving up personal information such
as a username or password.
 Outdated or unpatched software that exposes the systems running the application
and potentially the entire network.
 Misconfigured firewalls / operating systems that allow or have default policies
enabled.
Malware (Malicious Software)
 Malware, or malicious software, is any program or file that is harmful to a computer
user. Types of malware can include computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses and
spyware.
 These malicious programs can perform a variety of functions such as stealing,
encrypting or deleting sensitive data, altering or hijacking core computing
functions and monitoring users' computer activity.
 The most common types of malware include:
 Viruses
 Keyloggers
 Worms
 Trojans
 Ransomware
 Logic Bombs
 Bots/Botnets
 Adware & Spyware
 Rootkits
Viruses
 A computer virus, much like a flu virus, is designed to spread from host to host and
has the ability to replicate itself. Similarly, in the same way that viruses cannot
reproduce without a host cell, computer viruses cannot reproduce and spread
without programming such as a file or document.

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Keyloggers
Keyloggers are activity-monitoring software programs that give hackers access to your
personal data. The passwords and credit card numbers you type, the webpages you
visit – all by logging your keyboard strokes. The software is installed on your computer,
and records everything you type.
Worms
A computer worm is a type of malware that spreads copies of itself
from computer to computer. A worm can replicate itself without any human interaction,
and it does not need to attach itself to a software program in order to cause damage.
Trojans
A Trojan horse or Trojan is a type of malware that is often disguised as legitimate
software. Trojans can be employed by cyber-thieves and hackers trying to gain access
to users' systems. Users are typically tricked by some form of social engineering into
loading and executing Trojans on their systems.
Ransomware
Ransomware is malware that employs encryption to hold a victim's information at
ransom. A user or organization's critical data is encrypted so that they cannot access
files, databases, or applications. A ransom is then demanded to provide access.
Logic Bombs
A logic bomb is a program which has deliberately been written or modified to produce
results when certain conditions are met that are unexpected and unauthorized by
legitimate users or owners of the software. Logic bombs may be within stand-alone
programs or they may be part of worms or viruses.
Bots/Botnets
A bot is a computer that has been compromised through a malware infection and can
be controlled remotely by a cybercriminal. The cybercriminal can then use the bot (also
known as a zombie computer) to launch more attacks, or to bring it into a collection of
controlled computers, known as a botnet.
Adware & Spyware
Adware (or advertising software) is the term used for various pop-up advertisements
that show up on your computer or mobile device. Adware has the potential to become
malicious and harm your device by slowing it down, hijacking your browser and
installing viruses and/or spyware.
Rootkits
 Rootkits are a type of malware that are designed so that they can remain hidden on
your computer.

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 Rootkit is a term applied to a type of malware that is designed to infect a target PC

and allow an attacker to install a set of tools that grant him persistent remote
access to the computer. In recent years, a new class of mobile rootkits have
emerged to attack smartphones, specifically Android device.
 Introduction to basic Networking terminology
Interfaces
 Interfaces are networking communication points for your computer. Each interface
is associated with a physical or virtual networking device.
 Typically, your server will have one configurable network interface for each Ethernet
or wireless internet card you have.
 In addition, it will define a virtual network interface called the “loopback” or localhost
interface. This is used as an interface to connect applications and processes on a
single computer to other applications and processes. You can see this referenced
as the “lo” interface in many tools.
 Many times, administrators configure one interface to service traffic to the internet
and another interface for a LAN or private network.
 In DigitalOcean, in datacenters with private networking enabled, your VPS will have
two networking interfaces (in addition to the local interface). The “eth0” interface will
be configured to handle traffic from the internet, while the “eth1” interface will
operate to communicate with the private network.
Protocols
 Networking works by piggybacking a number of different protocols on top of each
other. In this way, one piece of data can be transmitted using multiple protocols
encapsulated within one another.
 We will talk about some of the more common protocols that you may come across
and attempt to explain the difference, as well as give context as to what part of the
process they are involved with.
 We will start with protocols implemented on the lower networking layers and work
our way up to protocols with higher abstraction.
Medium Access Control
 Medium access control is a communications protocol that is used to distinguish
specific devices. Each device is supposed to get a unique media access control
address (MAC address) during the manufacturing process that differentiates it from
every other device on the internet.

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 Addressing hardware by the MAC address allows you to reference a device by a

unique value even when the software on top may change the name for that specific
device during operation.
 Medium access control is one of the only protocols from the link layer that you are
likely to interact with on a regular basis.
IP
 The IP protocol is one of the fundamental protocols that allow the internet to work.
IP addresses are unique on each network and they allow machines to address
each other across a network. It is implemented on the internet layer in the IP/TCP
model.
 Networks can be linked together, but traffic must be routed when crossing network
boundaries. This protocol assumes an unreliable network and multiple paths to the
same destination that it can dynamically change between.
 There are a number of different implementations of the protocol. The most common
implementation today is IPv4, although IPv6 is growing in popularity as an
alternative due to the scarcity of IPv4 addresses available and improvements in the
protocols capabilities.
ICMP
 ICMP stands for internet control message protocol. It is used to send messages
between devices to indicate the availability or error conditions. These packets are
used in a variety of network diagnostic tools, such as ping and traceroute.
 Usually ICMP packets are transmitted when a packet of a different kind meets
some kind of a problem. Basically, they are used as a feedback mechanism for
network communications.
TCP
 TCP stands for transmission control protocol. It is implemented in the transport
layer of the IP/TCP model and is used to establish reliable connections.
 TCP is one of the protocols that encapsulates data into packets. It then transfers
these to the remote end of the connection using the methods available on the lower
layers. On the other end, it can check for errors, request certain pieces to be
resent, and reassemble the information into one logical piece to send to the
application layer.
 The protocol builds up a connection prior to data transfer using a system called a
three-way handshake. This is a way for the two ends of the communication to
acknowledge the request and agree upon a method of ensuring data reliability.

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 After the data has been sent, the connection is torn down using a similar four-way
handshake.
 TCP is the protocol of choice for many of the most popular uses for the internet,
including WWW, FTP, SSH, and email. It is safe to say that the internet we know
today would not be here without TCP.
UDP
 UDP stands for user datagram protocol. It is a popular companion protocol to TCP
and is also implemented in the transport layer.
 The fundamental difference between UDP and TCP is that UDP offers unreliable
data transfer. It does not verify that data has been received on the other end of the
connection. This might sound like a bad thing, and for many purposes, it is.
However, it is also extremely important for some functions.
 Because it is not required to wait for confirmation that the data was received and
forced to resend data, UDP is much faster than TCP. It does not establish a
connection with the remote host, it simply fires off the data to that host and doesn’t
care if it is accepted or not.
 Because it is a simple transaction, it is useful for simple communications like
querying for network resources. It also doesn’t maintain a state, which makes it
great for transmitting data from one machine to many real-time clients. This makes
it ideal for VOIP, games, and other applications that cannot afford delays.
HTTP
 HTTP stands for hypertext transfer protocol. It is a protocol defined in the
application layer that forms the basis for communication on the web.
 HTTP defines a number of functions that tell the remote system what you are
requesting. For instance, GET, POST, and DELETE all interact with the requested
data in a different way.
FTP
 FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It is also in the application layer and provides a
way of transferring complete files from one host to another.
 It is inherently insecure, so it is not recommended for any externally facing network
unless it is implemented as a public, download-only resource.
DNS
DNS stands for domain name system. It is an application layer protocol used to provide
a human-friendly naming mechanism for internet resources. It is what ties a domain
name to an IP address and allows you to access sites by name in your browser.

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SSH
 SSH stands for secure shell. It is an encrypted protocol implemented in the
application layer that can be used to communicate with a remote server in a secure
way. Many additional technologies are built around this protocol because of its end-
to-end encryption and ubiquity.
 There are many other protocols that we haven’t covered that are equally important.
However, this should give you a good overview of some of the fundamental
technologies that make the internet and networking possible.
TELNET
Telnet is an application protocol used on the Internet or local area network to provide a
bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a
virtual terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-band with Telnet control
information in an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP).
Telnet was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15, extended in RFC 855, and
standardized as Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Standard STD 8, one
of the first Internet standards. The name stands for "teletype network
Web log
It is a sort of online inventory (normally on a specialized topics) that consists of a series
of entries. These entries are arranged in opposite chronological order. The person who
maintains the weblog regularly update it with a new information.
Podcast
It is a digital file that normally contains audio or video record and is available on the
Internet as well.
Chat Rooms
It is a dedicated area on the Internet that facilitates users to communicate.
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
It is a technical expression for public telephone system.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
It is a set of communication standards that transmits voice, video, data, and other
network services simultaneously.
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
It is a sort of digital subscriber line (DSL) technology that facilitates faster data
transmission.
Download
It is a process that saves data from Internet onto a personal computer.
Upload
It is a process that transfers the saved data from a personal computer to Internet
server.

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Dial-up
It is a technique in which a phone line is used in order to connect to the Internet.
Broadband
It is a wide bandwidth data transmission that transports multiple signals and traffic
types swiftly.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
It is a Protocol, which is used especially for voice transfer over IP network. Likewise, it
facilitates users to make phone-calls by using internet.
Really Simple Syndication (RSS)
It is a technique, which is used for the dissemination of information, articles, etc. Users
normally subscribe to the RSS channel in order to receive news. After subscription,
users do not need to visit the respective website rather they receive emails regarding
the same.
ESSID
ESSID (extended service set identifier) An electronic marker or identifier that serves as
an identification and address for a computer or network device to connect and access
the Internet. It is an identifying name for all 802.11 wireless networks.
Digital signature
A digital code that is attached to an electronically transmitted message that uniquely
identifies the sender.
MAC address
A MAC address is a hardware identification number that uniquely identifies each
device on a network. The MAC address is manufactured into every network card, such
as an Ethernet card or Wi-Fi card, and therefore cannot be changed.
ARP
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is a network protocol used to find out the hardware
(MAC) address of a device from an IP address. ... The sending device uses ARP to
translate IP addresses to MAC addresses. The device sends an ARP request message
containing the IP address of the receiving device.
Cryptograph
Cryptography is a method of protecting information and communications through the
use of codes, so that only those for whom the information is intended can read and
process it. The prefix “crypt-” means “hidden” or “vault” — and the suffix “-graphy”
stands for “writing.”

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Encryption
Encryption is the process of taking plain text, like a text message or email, and
scrambling it into an unreadable format — called “cipher text.” This helps protect the
confidentiality of digital data either stored on computer systems or transmitted through
a network like the internet.
Decryption
Decryption is simply the reverse of encryption, the process by which ordinary data, or
plain text, is converted into a cipher. A cipher, often incorrectly identified as a code, is a
system in which every letter of a plain text message is replaced with another letter so
as to obscure its meaning. To decipher a message requires a key, an algorithm that
provides the method by which the message was encrypted.
Host
A network host is any device or a computer connected to a computer network. A
network host provides services, information resources, and applications to users or
other nodes on the network.
ICMP
ICMP is a network level protocol. ICMP messages communicate information about
network connectivity issues back to the source of the compromised transmission. It
sends control messages such as destination network unreachable, source route failed,
and source quench.
SMTP
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. SMTP is a set of communication
guidelines that allow software to transmit an electronic mail over the internet is called
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is a program used for sending messages to other
computer users based on e-mail addresses.
Post Office Protocol
 Post Office Protocol (POP) is a type of computer networking and Internet standard
protocol that extracts and retrieves email from a remote mail server for access by
the host machine.
 POP is an application layer protocol in the OSI model that provides end users the
ability to fetch and receive email.
Network Address Translation (NAT)
Network Address Translation (NAT) is designed for IP address conservation. It enables
private IP networks that use unregistered IP addresses to connect to the Internet. NAT
operates on a router, usually connecting two networks together, and translates the
private (not globally unique) addresses in the internal network into legal addresses,
before packets are forwarded to another network.

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NNTP
 Stands for "Network News Transfer Protocol." NNTP is the protocol used to connect
to Usenet servers and transfer newsgroup articles between systems over the
Internet. It is similar to the SMTP protocol used for sending email messages, but is
designed specifically for newsgroup articles.
RARP
 RARP is abbreviation of Reverse Address Resolution Protocol which is a protocol
based on computer networking which is employed by a client computer to request
its IP address from a gateway server’s Address Resolution Protocol table or cache.
The network administrator creates a table in gateway-router, which is used to map
the MAC address to corresponding IP address.
URL
 Also known as a internet address or web address, a URL (Uniform Resource
Locator) is a form of URI and standardized naming convention for addressing
documents accessible over the Internet and Intranet. An example of a URL is
[Link] which is the URL for the Computer Hope website
 virtual network
 A network that emulates a physical network and is a combination of hardware and
software network resources.
WAP
 WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol designed for micro-
browsers and it enables the access of internet in the mobile devices. It uses the
mark-up language WML (Wireless Markup Language and not HTML), WML is
defined as XML 1.0 application.
 It enables creating web applications for mobile devices. In 1998, WAP Forum was
founded by Ericson, Motorola, Nokia and Unwired Planet whose aim was to
standardize the various wireless technologies via protocols.

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