CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY; BASIC CONCEPTS

Psychology

Psychology is the science that studies mental processes. The word

comes from the Greek: psycho- (soul or mental activity) and -logy (study). This
discipline analyzes the three dimensions of the mentioned processes: cognitive,
affective and behavioral.

Modern psychology has taken on the task of gathering facts about the
behavior and human experience, organizing them systematically and
elaborating theories for its understanding. These studies allow explaining the
behavior of human beings and even predict their future actions.

The methodology of studying psychology is divided into two main branches:

those who understand this discipline as a basic or experimental science and
uses a quantitative scientific method (contrasts hypotheses with variables
quantifiable in experimental contexts), and another that seeks to understand the
psychological phenomenon through qualitative methodologies that enrich
description and help to interpret the processes.

Opinion

Psychology from the behaviorist point of view is an experimental branch.

purely objective of natural science.
Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with the

investigation of all factors, evaluation, diagnosis, treatment and
prevention that affects mental health and adaptive behavior, in
conditions that may generate subjective discomfort and suffering for the individual
human.

Opinion

Psychology is a science defined by the study of behavior in

all its manifestations and contexts, and also an activity applied to various
professional fields, including Clinical Psychology.

Clinical Interview

The clinical interview is a fundamental first step between the therapist and the
patient. Through it, relevant information about the type of case is obtained,
therapy and treatment to follow.

The clinical interview is the means through which data is obtained.

significant and clarifying when making a clinical psychological diagnosis or
neuropsychological. In addition to the information gathered, it allows to define the type of

treatment that the patient needs, as well as making decisions and judgments
timely clinical ones. Therefore, through the clinical interview, the aim is to reach
the following objectives:

Obtain a clinical diagnosis or judgment.

Get to know the person.
Create and maintain interpersonal relationships.
 Engage the patient in the treatment.
Respect the time.
Meet the patient's expectations.

Opinion

In most cases, the clinical interview is conducted during the

first contact takes between therapist and patient, where in addition to obtaining
meaningful information, the first ties and bonds are created, which will strengthen the
posterior work.

Clinical Assessment

Currently, clinical evaluation is understood as a process of collecting

and organize information about a person to achieve a better
understanding her and being able to make some prediction about her future behavior.

The information that the professional seeks to obtain relates to the

behavioral, emotional, cognitive, or social characteristics of the person that
consultation (Lemos, 2012). To collect this data you can use a series of
techniques, tests and/or evaluation tools.

Opinion

Beyond the theoretical reference framework of the professional, it can be said that
every clinical evaluation has different moments or phases: request for consultation,
first interviews, development of the first hypotheses and strategy
diagnostic.
Consultation

According to the World Health Organization in 2016, one of

one in four people suffers or will suffer from some kind of
mental disorder.

And the human psyche is continuously subjected to great

tensions, environments and problematic situations that facilitate the emergence of
states of great suffering or great difficulties or even incapacity to
confronting the source of their distress. That is why the figure of the psychologist is
will increasingly be necessary worldwide, as a support figure with
the necessary improvement or treatment.

There are many reasons that can lead a person to seek help
psychological, but some of them are more common than others. It is because
Throughout this article, we will reflect on several of the reasons.
most common psychological consultations, as well as their characteristics and symptoms.

Opinion

There are also other issues such as personality disorders,

but despite the fact that many are relatively prevalent, they are not usually a cause for

consultation.

Diagnosis

Psychological Diagnosis is a specific research process and

relevant to the profile and work of the Psychology professional, with objectives and purposes
delimited as well as differentiated coordinates. The implication of the psychologist in
this process is fundamental because: it is responsible for guiding and channeling the
research that will result in producing knowledge and generating hypotheses about
the dynamism and psychological structure of a subject. .- holds an ethical stance
regarding their place, function, and responsibility for their actions, as well as a position

epistemological in relation to the Diagnosis.

Opinion

The importance of the involvement of the professional psychologist must be considered.

in the use of techniques as an instrument in research.

Forecast

The clinical prognosis consists of certain predictive inferences that

elaborate the professional regarding the course of the disorder before and after the

treatment. It sometimes happens that the therapist, primarily concerned with what
happens in the present, that is, during the process of applying the treatment,
tends to neglect what may happen in the future, which is the realm in which
the cognitions of the forecast are framed.

The advantage of the prognosis for the patient regarding their possible recovery
(treatment duration, expected level of improvement, risk of relapses, etc.)
it allows you to set reasonable expectations and, above all, collaborate
better with the therapist.

Opinion

The forecast plays a very important role in prediction of

development of the clinical picture. Thus, for example, the prognosis in schizophrenia is
worse if its onset is early, insidious and accompanied by social isolation
patient.
Signs

It is any objectifiable manifestation, perceptible to the observer, that

once evaluated it will be a diagnostic factor consistent with a disorder, a
disease or health disorder, in contrast to symptoms that are
subjective elements, perceived only by the patient such as asthenia, dizziness and
the pain.

Babinski, Schepelmann, Trendelenburg are examples of clinical signs.

as well as a knee flexor, muscle atrophy, or edema, which to
starting from the alteration of movement or as a consequence of a disorder
Painful, they can lead one to think of an altered state of health or another.

Opinion

A clinical alteration is something that has undergone a variation, transformation,

change or disorder by which their functions are modified by increase,
decrease or abolition of them. Therefore, alteration and disorder are
synonyms.

Symptoms

Symptoms are signs, manifestations, situations, and/or harmful acts.

that the subject performs against their will, experiencing displeasure, suffering, and
sometimes even pain, which exhausts their psychic energy and at times incapacitates them
to carry out other activities.

They are expressed with an enigmatic sense for those who suffer from them and that, in

the analysis, they find its deciphering. Every symptom has a meaning, a
Unconscious meaning, it means something, even though the subject is unaware of it. It is this
meaning, this meaning is what is sought to be discovered and/or unveiled (to remove the veil)

through therapy, through listening to these enigmatic significants that

lead to a revealing and peacemaking meaning for the subject.

Opinion

More precisely, the symptom is that formation which makes possible the
expresión de lo que se ha reprimido y retorna una y otra vez. El síntoma se
it leads to the fulfillment of an unconscious desire, but, at the same time
a commitment training to make it possible; since the mechanisms
of defense.

Syndrome

Psychological syndromes and complexes are synonyms and when the

we refer to a cluster of psychological elements that are
present in a person, everyone has their particular elements and it is this
what makes him be within a specific frame.

Here the word syndrome refers to the fact that the psychological has
implications within the biological, so it is important to keep in mind the
the theme of syndromes and complexes within the topic of addictions and
time to be in alcohol treatment, one of them is the syndrome of
abstinence.

Opinion

So, when you stop consuming this substance, it will provoke

a series of psychological factors that will be unspeakable for the person. And
Depending on the substance, the withdrawal syndrome will be mild, moderate, or severe.
Anxiety

Anxiety is a feeling of fear, apprehension, and restlessness. It can make

that sweats, feels restless and tense, and has palpitations. It can be a reaction
normal to stress. For example, you may feel anxious when facing a
difficult problem at work, before taking an exam or before taking a
important decision.

While anxiety can help confront a situation, in addition to

to give a boost of energy or help them focus, for people with
anxiety disorders fear is not temporary and can be overwhelming.

Opinion

Anxiety disorders are conditions in which anxiety does not

it disappears and may worsen over time. Symptoms may interfere with
daily activities, such as performance at work, school, and the
relationships between people.

Depression

Depression is a common yet serious illness that interferes with

daily life, with the ability to work, sleep, study, eat, and enjoy the
life. Depression is caused by a combination of genetic factors,
biological, environmental, and psychological.

Some research indicates that the genetic risk for depression is

the result of the influence of several genes that act together with factors
environmental and other risk factors.
Opinion

Depression can also occur in people without a family history.

of depression. Not all people with depressive illnesses experience
the same symptoms.

Stress

Stress can be defined as a state of worry or tension.

mental generated by a difficult situation. All people have a certain
level of stress, as it is a natural response to threats and others
stimuli.

It is the way we react to stress that marks the way in which

affects our well-being.

Opinion

Stress affects both the mind and the body. It's good to have a little.
well, it helps us carry out daily activities, but when stress becomes
Excessive behavior has physical and psychological consequences.
Conduct

The concept of 'Conduct' has two meanings in the field of

psychology. The first is the action that an individual performs. The second
The meaning is that of the relationship established between elements of an association.
If we talk about meaning action, we coincide with its ordinary sense.
term and we connect it also with the scientific and technical language that assumes it; such

it is the case of the discourse of differential psychology and of the discourses present in
applied psychology.

If we talk about meaning relationship, we assume the functional sense of

concept. It is then that we can build a coherent psychological theory
and acceptable in the context of the other natural functional sciences.

Opinion

In a gentle way, it could be said that the term behavior has more than
a meaning. With the title 'Conduct and Conduct' I intend to affirm that this
The concept has, in the behavioral context, two meanings and that of its
discrimination depends on a better organization of scientific thought in
general and psychological theory in particular.

Psychopathology

Psychopathology is a branch of psychology that analyzes the

mental illnesses or disorders, what is their origin, their course and their possible

evolution. Specifically, it focuses on studying abnormal behaviors

of people, describes them, classifies them, and offers guidelines to prevent them or
to treat them.
 When we talk about psychopathology or mental disorders, we are referring to
referring to an extremely broad set of problems related to the
behavior, thought, and emotions which generally do not have a
direct physical cause (as occurs with medical illnesses) or with symptoms
psychological.

Opinion

Thanks to the contributions of neuropsychology, the field of

Psychopathology has been able to advance significantly in recent years and decades.

Abnormal Behavior

Abnormal behavior is caused by an unreal, inconsistent or

disorganized and due to excessive external demands. These models recognize
they are incapable of explaining the psychopathology by themselves and therefore are
complementary models.

In fact, when we use these models complementing them, there is

many disorders for which we can reasonably explain their etiology,
functioning and perseverance.

Opinion

Behaviors that receive reinforcement or rewards have a greater

probability of them being repeated. Negative reinforcement occurs when
removes something unpleasant after the behavior occurs.
Measurement

Measurement in Psychology is a tool that allows you to

psychologist quantify human characteristics and objectify evaluation processes.
The tests are part of a general organized process to reach a
diagnostic impression, but they cannot be converted into the only means of
information.

Opinion

The results obtained in the tests must be accompanied by others.

techniques or tools that allow the psychologist to establish relationships and
finally obtain a general assessment.

Test

Psychological tests are standardized instruments used to measure

quickly one or more characteristics that are part of the human psyche
such as personality, intelligence, attention.

There are various types such as verbal, graphical, stains and they are used in
various contexts (work, legal). Some may apply to all the
population and others only to children, adolescents or adults.

Opinion

Currently, psychological tests, also known as assessments

psychological ones are used in various contexts, perhaps the most well-known is the
selection process for a specific position in a company.
Scale

Clinical evaluation instrument that allows each symptom to be

receive a numerical treatment. They are the most important evaluation instruments.

employees at the psychiatric clinic. When self-administered, they are called

questionnaires.

Opinion

Defined by Jean Delay and Pierre Pichot as those symbolic responses

acquired associated with objects, people or situations. Usually, they are
they are distributed on a scale that ranges from favorable to unfavorable.

Questionnaire

The questions for a psychology questionnaire aim to

collect information to assess an individual's mental state. Such
questions allow the researcher to categorize behaviors, traits and
conditions of the participants.

This tool is created and used by psychologists, professionals of the

mental health, psychiatrists, members of the judicial system and other experts in
psychology.

Opinion

Some example questions for a psychology questionnaire are those

that are focused on topics such as anxiety, survey questionnaires of
depression, happiness surveys,
Projective Tests

Projective Tests (PT) are techniques used by professionals

mental health to evaluate emotional and personality aspects, through
the presentation of ambiguous stimuli, which must be responded to by the
evaluated.

These assessment techniques have certain questions regarding their

validity to detect and discriminate children with emotional disorders,
behavioral, cognitive, sexual and/or physical abuse, mainly because these
tests have a large number of indicators, a situation that complicates their
replication

Opinion

The assumption that a drawing truthfully reflects characteristics

It is questionable to assess the psychological aspects of the child without considering associated factors.

such as previous experience, personal interests, creativity, motor problems,

among others

Inventory

Set of items regrouped into scales intended to evaluate traits of the

individual's personality. Synonym for questionnaire.
Risk Factors

Psychosocial risk factors are unfavorable conditions.

related to the work environment, causing impacts on the scenarios that are
develops an individual, compromising their health, personal performance, social and
work-related. In the work context of healthcare professionals, mental health is the
main field violated by this kind of factors.

The present research aims to identify the

psychosocial risk factors that affect and influence mental health of the
health personnel of the Basic Hospital of Jipijapa, the methodological design used
The data collection was descriptive and cross-sectional in nature, using
the qualitative technique such as the survey.

Protective factors

Protective factors in mental health are resources or conditions with which

what people tell as a defense mechanism against situations of
riesgo o vulnerabilidad emocional, favoreciendo el manejo de emociones, la
regulation of stress and allowing them to enhance their human capabilities.

Cognition

Cognition or cognitive development encompasses reasoning, memory, the

problem-solving and reasoning skills. Young children
They use these skills to understand and organize their world.

When children reach preschool age, their cognitive skills

they have developed so much that they can tackle mathematical thinking
complex and scientific reasoning.
Prevention

Preventive Psychology is responsible for improving behaviors.

healthy, reduce those behaviors that can lead to pathology and
promote adaptive behaviors and attitudes in individuals and groups through
health education strategies.

Mental illness

Mental illnesses or disorders are conditions that impact your

thoughts, feelings, mood and behavior. They can be
occasional or lasting (chronic). They can affect your ability to relate.
with others and function each day.

Opinion

There is not a single cause of mental illness. Various factors can

contribute to the risk of suffering it.

Intelligence

Intelligence is the ability or faculty to understand, reason, know,

learning and solving problems. In this sense, it resembles concepts like
'understanding' and 'intellect'.

In Psychology, intelligence is the cognitive ability and the set of

funciones cognitivas como la memoria, la asociación y la razón.
Mental disorder

A mental disorder is characterized by a clinically significant alteration.

significant in cognition, the regulation of emotions or behavior

of an individual. Generally, it is associated with distress or functional disability.
in other important areas. There are many different types of mental disorders.

Opinion

They are called mental health problems, although the latter term is
broader and encompasses mental disorders, psychosocial disabilities and
(other) mental states associated with considerable distress

Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy is an approach to treating mental health problems.

talking with a psychologist, a psychiatrist, or another healthcare provider for the
mental health. It is also known as talk therapy, counseling,
psychosocial therapy or simply therapy.

Opinion

During psychotherapy, you will learn about your specific problems and
how your thoughts, emotions, and behaviors affect your state of
Encouragement. Talk therapy helps learn to take control of your life.
Science

Psychology is a science because it takes a scientific approach to

understand human behavior. Pseudoscience refers to beliefs and
activities that are claimed to be scientific but lack one or more of the
three characteristics of science. It is important to distinguish the scientific approach to
understand human behavior from many approaches
pseudoscientific.

Psychologists conduct research to describe basic phenomena,

make predictions about future behaviors and explain the causes of the
behavior.

Research

Psychological research is understood as the application of techniques,

strategies, resources and methodologies derived from the current sciences of
behavior towards the discovery or clarification of problems and questions
of a psychological nature or to the replication of concluded investigations and
published.

This last modality can be practiced with a strictly purpose.

didactics, that is, as a means for student learning of
psychology and related disciplines of the resources that this science has for
carry out their research activities or also as a basic mechanism of
verification.
Opinion

That is, to correct errors or to test the accuracy of results.

previously published by other authors.

Personality

Personality is the structure of the psychic system upon which is built

They build all our behaviors and reactions in life.

Personality can be defined as the set of characteristics or

pattern of feelings, emotions, thoughts, and behaviors that persists over time
long over time consistently in different situations, distinguishing a
individual of any other and making it different from the others.

Personality is a structure of psychological character that makes

reference to the set of distinguishing traits of an individual, which shapes a
specific way of acting and thinking.

Opinion

It could be defined as a constant pattern of brain responses that

they react throughout our lives in a similar way, and expresses how
we are, how we are going to interpret reality and how we are going to react to the
stimuli from the environment.
 Report on the History of Clinical Psychology

Historical Background

Its beginning as a science is linked to the very origins of the

Psychology, being the branch that has served as a prototype for all science since the
second half of the 19th century, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first Laboratory of
Psychology in Leipzig, Germany, in the year 1879. Most of the research
it focuses on the sensory and perceptual processes of individuals, in order to
find consistent evidence about the problems of human behavior.

Creator of the term "Clinical Psychology"

Lightner Witmer, a student of Wilhelm Wundt and head of the department of

psychology of the University of Pennsylvania, used the term "Clinical Psychology"
for the first time in 1907 to describe the practice that he had performed for ten
years in a children's clinic established in 1896 at the University of
Pensilvania. Incentivó el estudio de individuos por observación y experimentación,
with the intention of promoting changes. He also founded the first magazine of
Psychological Clinic

Witmer's call for the involvement of psychologists in clinical settings

It was slow to gain acceptance, but by 1914 there were another twenty-six clinics.

psychoeducational, only in the United States. While Witmer focused on girls and
children with intellectual delays and deficits, other clinics emerged with a focus
in emotional distress, and psychology was developing in hospitals
mental, because clinical psychologists were taking recognized positions until that
moment for psychiatrists. Applied psychologists generally did not focus
to psychotherapy, as she was in the hands of psychiatrists, and instead,
they were used in evaluation tasks. This evaluative trend reached its
maximum expression during the First World War, for selection effects
recruits.

Clinical psychologists began to organize under that name in 1917,

with the founding of the American Association of Clinical Psychology. This lasted little,
Well, in 1919 the American Psychological Association developed a division on
clinical psychology.

Important Events in Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology: its origins

According to González Ordi (2008), in an interview with specialist Helio Carpintero

(recognized for his contributions to the field of the history of psychology), the area
clinical psychology is the first to become a field
professional and one of the broadest, as it attracts many psychologists who
they intend to assist people to improve their quality of life.

In this regard, the figure of the clinical professional is attributed to Lightner Witmer.

who founded the first psychological clinic in Pennsylvania (USA) in 1896.

Subsequently, a group of scholars gathered in Boulder (University of
Colorado) and defined the so-called "Boulder model" as an action plan
to which experts should adjust, based on a researcher-technical model-
Practical. Years later, in 1892, the foundation of the Association occurs.
American Psychological Association (APA).

Initially, individuals were recognized as clinical psychologists.

that were dedicated to the application of psychological tests or to the analysis of the

childhood problems, despite:

 That the founders of Clinical Psychology, Witmer and Freud, included the
treatment as one of its main functions, the truth is that the
psychodiagnosis, as well as research, were the main hallmarks
of the clinical psychologist in these early times (Casas Moreno, 2014).

Characters or Authors of Clinical Psychology

Major milestones in the field of clinical psychology

Many theorists have contributed to conceptually organizing the

field of clinical psychology. Therefore, the following table shows some
of the main researchers in the area of clinical psychology and their contributions to
that branch of knowledge.

Major milestones in the field of clinical psychology

Author Contribution

He was the first systematizer.

of mental disorders.

Emil Kraepelin I study experimentally the

different mental processes, especially

fatigue, which is of great importance in

the branch of applied psychology.

 He designed the Intelligence Scale.

Alfred Binet
to be used in delay problems

mental

He made an initial clarification of the

Leo Kanner

autism syndrome.

Meyer, Menninger, They did, from different areas and

Spitzer, Millon,
Saslow, Meehl, theoretical positions, the contributions that
Cronbach, Others
they allowed the construction of the DSM.

He developed the so-called Test of

Rorschach that allows for analysis the

Hermann Rorschach

personality based on the analysis of some

symmetrical figures.

Hathaway and McKinley They developed the Inventory

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory or

 MMPI.

He studied personality theory.

Raymond Cattell
Proposed a structure model

Personality psychology (16 PF).

Sigmund Freud, Pierre They uphold an exploration model.

Janet
of the unconscious psyche.

J. Wolpe, H. J.
Eysenck, B. F. Various studies are proposed on the
Skinner, J. B. Watson,
Mary C. Jones elimination of fears.

Pavlov
Analyze the experimental neurosis.

Highlight the importance of the

Richard Lazarus
cognitions.

Introduce an approximation to what

 currently known as the model

cognitive behavioral.

Develop the techniques of

Albert Bandura
modification of behaviors through

social learning

He is considered the father of the

William Maximilian
Wundt experimental psychology, as it implemented the

first formal laboratory in Leipzig, 1879.