BOLIVARIAN REPUBLIC OF VENEZUELA

MINISTRY OF POPULAR POWER FOR EDUCATION

REGIONAL POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE LLANOS 'JUANA RAMIREZ'

VALLE DE LA PASCUA - GUÁRICO STATE

VETERINARY MEDICINE

SECTION "1"

Exploitation and Maintenance

From Pastures and Forages

PROFESSOR. STUDENT RAMIREZ

RAMON ALVAREZ, RUTH SARAI

C.I 26844732

JULY 2021
 index
INTRODUCTION.
FERTILIZATION OF PASTURES AND FORAGES ........................................... 3
STRATEGIES TO FOLLOW ..................................................................... 3-5
METHODS OF GRASS AND FORAGE EXPLOITATION .................. 5
GRAZING SYSTEM ....................................................................... 5
CONTINUOUS GRAZING SYSTEM ................................................... 6
ALTERNATE GRAZING SYSTEM ................................................... 6-7
RATIONAL GRAZING SYSTEM ................................................. 7-8
Which grazing system to use? ................. 8-9
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE EXPLOITATION METHODS ......... 9-10
APPLICATION OF EXPLOITATION METHODS OF
PASTURES AND FORAGES FOR DIFFERENT SPECIES
ANIMALS
.. 10-12
THE MAINTENANCE OF GRASSES AND FORAGES .......................... 12-14
BASIC FACTORS FOR MANAGING GRAZING ............... 14-15
TOOLS FOR CONDITIONING THE PASTURE .................... 15
FORAGE CONSERVATION METHODS ............................ 15-16
CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................... 17
BIBLIOGRAPHIES .......................... 18
Introduction
Grass is anything that serves as sustenance for animals,
especially, in general the grass is of plant origin although the product that
It is given to domestic animals, which may be a processed derivative.
added minerals and animal remains to enhance the nutritional quality of the grass
(For cows, sheep, and pigs.)

A balanced nature between legumes and grasses is sought so that

that a protein complementation occurs.
To understand the problems of intensive pasture exploitation and, in
consequence, applying the most efficient and productive management at every moment is
It is necessary to know how the direct and indirect factors that affect both act.
to the grass as to the animal.

Intensive management of pastures is likely one of the most

complexes to produce meat or milk.

1.- FERTILIZATION OF PASTURES AND FORAGES

Fertilization directly impacts greater dry matter production, which

which will in turn allow for a greater livestock load and therefore, a greater
economic benefit.

1.1. Strategies to follow

There are several alternatives that can help reduce costs of
production. They are:

a) Strategic fertilization, according to the objective being pursued.

b) The use of organic fertilizers, such as bovine and other excreta

animal species.

c) The use of other alternative inorganic sources, such as rock

phosphate.

d) The establishment of forage legumes.

e) The use of forage species, tolerant to low levels of fertilization.

Strategic fertilization will be based on the timing and amount of application.

as well as which macro and micro elements should be applied, all of

agreement with the soil analysis. For example, the implementation of a program
Fertilization for forage seed production is different from that of the latter.
producer who wants to achieve higher dry matter yield in a
a determined period, with the aim of increasing its plant productivity and
animal.

Likewise, the fertilization in grasses is different from the requirements of the

legumes.

Regarding the use of organic fertilizers, their origin must be known, as

which can give rise to the weeding of the pasture, due to the different
weed seeds or other grasses that may come in the excreta. In addition,
it could be a risk of introducing parasitic diseases. However,
this is the most appropriate method in the long term for soil recovery.

Regarding the use of phosphate rock, results have been found.

indicators that show the different advantages of its use. The rocks
national phosphates have the peculiarity of slowly releasing phosphorus to
soil, which is why it doesn't need to be applied very often. It should
It should be mentioned that their results will be observed in those acidic pH soils.
In pastures with native grasses, where phosphorite has been applied, there have been
increased the proportion of native forage legumes obtained,
while in introduced grasses, the greatest responses have been achieved at
as the successive cuts are made.

On the other hand, the use of forage legumes in pastures allows

significantly reduce nitrogen fertilization costs, due to a
symbiotic relationship that exists between the plant and the Rhizobium in the soil, through
which captures atmospheric nitrogen and incorporates it into the system. It is important
remember that every producer must make a
soil analysis, to know its fertility and thus determine the
recommendations regarding the type of fertilizer to use and the levels to
to apply.

Finally, fertilization, both in grasses and legumes and their

associations are beneficial, as they increase the yields of matter
pasture drought and consequently, allows for an increase in the animal load with
their respective earnings for the agricultural producer.

2.- METHODS OF EXPLOITATION OF PASTURES AND FORAGES

The management of pastures is the set of practices used in a cultivation of

pastures to obtain a greater production of higher quality forage and therefore
thus, a higher animal production. In order to have a greater yield of
Forage we must manage our pastures properly, performing
appropriate tasks of fertilization, weed control, irrigation, grazing,
soil aeration and carry out reseeding to maintain the population of
our pastures.

The systems we use are:

a) Extensive: free grazing, the livestock remains loose.

b) Intensive: The stake, rotated or controlled in pastures or with electric fencing.

In an efficient animal production system, it must be defined sequentially,
the forage germplasm best adapted to the agroecological conditions of the
area where the production unit is located, the expected forage production
per hectare in the year and its seasonal distribution, the potential annual animal load
for the species, the proposed management plan and the grazing system to be used.

A grazing system can be defined as the strategic management of the process

of grazing ruminant animals, to achieve the balance between maximum
animal production per area and the persistence of pasture. The objective of this
my job is to describe the different grazing systems and adapt them to each
specific situation with the purpose of not only obtaining greater productivity from
the pastures, soils, and livestock, but also to maintain monitoring of
the pastures and the animals throughout the entire production process.

2.1. Grazing Systems

1. Continuous Grazing System

This system consists of the permanent maintenance of a specific lot.
of livestock in a pasture area. It is commonly applied in areas
where the growth rate (GR) of the grass is low, characteristic of the soils
acids of tropical savannas and of the ecosystems present in the plains
Venezuelans, in addition to those excessively arid areas with precipitation
less than 400 millimeters. It is important to highlight that in this management system
extensive livestock farming should not use high animal loading rates (UA/ha) because
Animal selectivity negatively affects the pasture, as it would create areas
overgrazed and undergrazed areas. The former cause an increase
the grazing pressure and reduces the recovery period, affecting
adversely the persistence of pasture, producing areas devoid of
pasture and weedy. Under-grazed areas accumulate a lot of material
dead, due to the accumulation of leaves and unused stems, in addition to
low levels of nutritional quality, which affects consumption.
Due to this imbalance that occurs in the pasture, the use of lowlands is resorted to.
animal load levels, with the aim of maintaining a safety margin
to avoid this problem. Another drawback of this system is that it makes it difficult to
maintenance and recovery work on pastures, due to the fact that the
The permanence of animals is constant.

Despite these negative aspects, it is important to highlight that as an advantage

It has to be applied in extensive areas with low requirements.
for its implementation and is mandatory in areas with TC.
very low. In addition, it only has usually conventional perimeter fences
spikes and wooden beams.

2. Alternating Grazing System

This system consists of the alternate management of a certain herd of livestock,
2 contiguous pastures, with a grazing period equivalent to the period of
rest. With this management system, a level of production can be achieved.
semi-intensive, and it is usually applied as a first step to the establishment of
a rotational grazing system, or for the intensification of a system of
extensive production managed with continuous grazing. For the application of this
system, it is necessary to construct perimeter fences and the divider,
usually made of barbed wire and wooden shelves.

3. Rotational Grazing System

This system consists of dividing the grazing area into 3 or more pastures,
whose periods of stay of the animals in each of them must
allow an adequate rest period for the forage species
predominant. Its fundamental basis lies in the optimization of uniformity
from grazing harvest, with the aim of minimizing problems as much as possible
aforementioned about animal selectivity on the persistence of the pasture.

This grazing system is considered the best management of the factors of

production to develop an intensive production system, since in the
many of the basic foundations of dynamics are respected
pastoralism and the associated animal response to this management. Among its disadvantages
it can be emphasized that a greater number of water sources is needed and
shadow.

The rotational grazing system is further divided into systematic and non-systematic.
systematic. In the first case, the pastures are of similar size and therefore
the days of stay (days of stay of the herd within the
pasture) and the rest time are the same for all pastures. While
that in non-systematic rotational grazing, the pastures do not have the same
size and therefore the length of stay and the rest period are
different in all the pastures.

In this case, a more intensive management of the system is achieved.

alternate grazing, and in many cases practical conditions impose the
application of this system, which although it is not the best, operates within ranges
quite acceptable in terms of the dynamics of the pasture and the response
animal.

The number of pastures is determined by the type and management of the herd, the
forage species and the resources available for the division of the pastures. By
For example, if the herd is composed of cows in production, they must be made
so many divisions in order to guarantee a pasture for milking or feeding and the
appropriate rest period for the grass in particular.

When working with animals that have lower management requirements, such as the
lot of dry cows or heifers, steers and heifers, fattening bulls and calves.
they can design the pastures based on stay periods between 5 and 7 days.

2.2. Which Grazing System to Use?

The selection of the grazing system and its variants will depend on the
natural productivity of grassland, expressed through its nutrients
necessary, in addition to mechanical support. Thirdly, there is the atmosphere, the
which interacts with the two previously mentioned factors, in addition to
provide energy and rainwater, among other growth factors. And by
Finally, there is the man who optimizes the levels of those factors.
of the production that can be controlled.

Grasses, being more efficient, achieve higher growth rates than

legumes, as they are usually the main species to consider when
moment to determine the average growth rate of the pasture. The rate of
the growth of tropical grasses varies from 33 to 150 kg DM/ha/day in sites with
It is advisable to use the continuous grazing system in TC low.
those with intermediate to high TC are recommended to use one of the variants
of the rotational grazing system.

3.- COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPLOITATION METHODS

The determination of the load in fattening farms is a complex decision because
involves different aspects of the soil-plant-animal system (availability of
forage, environmental, type of animal, management or administration, type of
production, among others); therefore, the ideal load of each pasture would be that
which achieves a good balance between the number of animals in production and the
amount of forage available without affecting productive capacity and sustainability
of the pasture and the soil.

In general, the rotational model is more competitive than the continuous one; it allows for a
higher livestock load per hectare, therefore, greater meat production and better
soil-plant-animal relationship. However, there is a lack of monitoring studies on
soils and ecological ones that allow to define what is the optimal livestock load of the
system, that is to say, one that allows for a permanent production
(sustainability), without affecting the productive capacity of natural resources.

The advantage in individual weight gain from continuous grazing is associated

possibly to the high availability of forage, which allows for selection of
a diet with greater quantity and possibly better quality in the system
Continues. But it should be clarified that a greater production of meat is shown.
per hectare for the rotational system that is possibly one of the variables
most important for the livestock producer.
The differences in weight gain between both systems could
indicate the high sensitivity of the rotational grazing system to the conditions
climates, particularly the distribution of rainfall, in addition to the system of
implemented production (management) and the soil-plant-animal relationship.

A higher operational profitability is obtained on the investment and on the

capital for the rotational grazing system with a value of 30.98% and 3.48%
annually respectively, while for the continuous grazing system it is
22.32% and 2.12% annually respectively. The above explains a better return on
the investment for the rotational system reflects a higher meat production
per hectare which is a better productivity indicator compared only to the
gains in pesos in both systems. When comparing the productive efficiencies of
it is obtained that the rotational system presents 10% more
efficiency than the continuous grazing system, which allows us to conclude, added to
la rentabilidad y a las otras variables técnicas, productvas y económicas, que el
the rotational system presents greater feasibility, viability, competitiveness and
sustainability that the continuous grazing system.

4.- APPLICATION OF GRASSLAND EXPLOITATION METHODS AND

FORAGES FOR DIFFERENT ANIMAL SPECIES
Grass is the most economical source of feed from which
A producer has provisions to keep their animals. However, it depends on a
proper management for a grass to develop its full potential to develop the
growth, development, production, and reproduction functions in animals.
When talking about proper management of pastures and forages, certain aspects must be taken into account.

mention some aspects such as:

a) The necessity or not of implementing irrigation.

b) The need to maintain good drainage techniques.

c) The way in which the pasture should be sown or established.

d) The convenience or not of pasture rotation.

e) The establishment of associations with other pastures.

f) The grazing capacity of grass.

g) The tolerance of forage regarding certain factors such as burning, the

drought, waterlogging, frost, trampling, acidic soils, poor soils and
others.

h) La presencia de sustancias tóxicas para una especia animal determinada.

Most of these factors are directly determined by the grass in

question. The producer must then know the characteristics of it and of
the animals you are raising in order to implement proper management of
pastures, grasses, and forages. For a more comfortable study of forage species,
they have been divided as follows:

Grasses: Forage grasses constitute the main source of

feeding of herbivores both domestic and wild as they grow from
spontaneous manner in most pastures. They adapt very easily to
the varieties of the climate and contribute the most to the dry matter and the
carbohydrates consumed by the animal.

Generally, grasses are poor in protein for that reason they

it is recommended to associate them with legumes.

Legumes: Legumes are plants frequently used for

increase the protein portion of the animals' ration. Their requirements
vary according to the species and currently in many operations they
protein banks are created in which legumes are planted that are
supplied to the animals in a controlled manner.

Forage Trees: The forage species that grow in tree form or

shrub, have been incorporated in recent years and very slowly in the
cattle calves mainly.
Although they are also used in other species such as sheep, goats, and horses.
incorporating in small amounts into the ration with the purpose of
supplement the diet with concentrate and reduce its costs.

One of the limitations for the use of these species is the high fiber content.
product of the lignification of the leaves and stems, for this reason it is advisable
carry out controlled sowing and cuttings of these species, avoiding growth
excessive and the use of overly old cuts.

5.- THE MAINTENANCE OF PASTURES AND FORAGE

The dynamics of the pasture is such that the surpluses, once aged, are
they turn into an obstacle for the conversion of grass into meat. Only a
Active management of grazing can simultaneously increase meat production and the
of pasture, in addition to improving the structure and quality of the pasture.

En las zonas subtropicales y tropicales, el crecimiento de los pastos es muy alto

for much of the year, due to the high temperatures combined
humidity. This leads to the grass tending to age, decreasing
notably its quality.

The loss of forage quality does not allow grazing animals

have the right amount to achieve maximum weight gains
possible fields based on their genetic potential. This leads to the
annual meat production per individual and per unit of area (hectare) is
very low in relation to the forage potential.

As a result, the vast majority of livestock companies obtain a low

meat production due to low dry matter consumption, which in turn
It is due to the low quality of the forage offered. To increase meat production,
then, it is required that animals consume the largest amount of matter
It is possible, and for that, it is necessary for the quality of the grass to be optimal.

The best way to achieve quality pasture is through management that

promote the growth of the plant through the axillary buds. This allows the
plants spread out sideways, occupying all spaces and
capturing the maximum possible light, a vital aspect in the growth of the plant.
this way the capacity for photosynthesis is increased and better combat the
weeds occupying spaces more efficiently.

An important characteristic of this management is that the pasture acquires

an easily accessible and comfortable height (when the wind blows there is lower temperature and
less invasion of flies), which allows the animal to obtain the maximum amount
and possible quality of grass.

Regarding the use of grass, it is necessary to ensure that the animal:

a) Consume the grass in a timely manner, in order to achieve high levels of production.

b) Consume the grass out of season and achieve low levels of production.

En consecuencia, la clave está en consumir el pasto atempo para lograr la mayor

possible quality and thus be able to consume the greatest quantity possible. Let's talk,
then, from consumption.

Daily consumption is defined through two factors: the weight of the bite and the
number of bites consumed in the day. In turn, the weight of the bite is defined
by the volume of the bite (area times the depth of the bite) and the density of the
same.

On the other hand, the number of bites is based on the number of hours of
Grazing. In general terms, it is necessary to reduce the pastures in order to achieve
better outbreaks, in the way of offering places for food where there is the
sufficient quantity and quality that allow for high loads and weight gains.
In this way, meat production can be significantly increased.

In order to manage the grass according to the reasoning presented so far, the
Technological proposal is the use of controlled rotational grazing, where the
knowledge, reasoning, and common sense are the engines that guide the
rancher in the search for the best possible results starting from
dynamism that characterizes the growth of grasses. Rotational grazing and
controlled consists not only in making divisions and assembling rotation units,
but it also requires combining the art of managing the grass with knowledge,
without fixed or structured mechanisms.

6.- Basic factors for managing grazing

The factors related to the animal, where each category has requirements and
particular production objectives, paying attention to the health aspect, to the
meekness to navigate appropriately within this system of
production, among other factors.

The factors related to the pasture that must be aligned with the objectives.
posed for animals within the production system. Factors to define

Entry height to the pasture

Exit height

Days of rest between grazing

Total load of each circuit and the system

Days of grazing per parcel, all within the framework of time (chronological and
climatic), where the conditions for grass growth vary.

Many times, there is growth beyond the management of the rancher,

so violent grazing that it inexorably leads to overgrazing.

7.- Tools for conditioning the pasture

Adjustments in the load.

Use of fuse categories, deferral of plots that are being passed for their
winter use (sautéing them once passed to avoid them all getting overcooked)
subsequent parcels).

Use of the brush cutter and, as a last tool for situations

specific, burning is also an option.
The art of managing grass, which is not only nourished by an inclination
personal but also with enough conviction to carry out the management,
tracking ability, dedication, constant observation, collection of
basic records that allow for the generation of information, all within the framework of
basic knowledge. That is why we say that the management of grass is a
combination of art with knowledge.

8.- Methods of forage preservation.

The most well-known methods of forage preservation are silage, the
henification and henolaje.

Silage is based on the preservation of pastures, green and nutritious forages.

through an airless fermentation process that preserves the nutritional value and the
makes them pleasant to the taste of cattle.

Henification consists of the rapid drying of green forages to reduce their

humidity, to a sufficiently low level (15 to 20 percent), that stops
the cellular activity and produce a food of nutritional value similar to the one
we have at the time of the cut.

The haylage is an intermediate process between silage and hay making, by virtue of
of which the forage is preserved with a moisture content of 45 percent in the absence of O.

Even though almost any forage material can be silaged, it is ideal to use
high-performance forage, with a good leaf/stem ratio and that possess a
good nutritional value, like the mixture of grasses and legumes.

The tasks to be carried out in soil preparation depend on the conditions in

that the land is found. The recommended amount of seed is 70 kg of
oats and 30 kg of vetch/ha broadcast, in 2 distributors. When establishing the crop, the
It is usual to carry out fertilization according to the soil analysis. The harvest for
ensiling and/or henequen is carried out when the oat grain is in state
milky. Grasses such as pasture should be harvested in a state of
pre-flowering. The degree of compact
 CONCLUSIONS
Grass is the most economical source of feeding.
a producer has to take care of their animals. However, it depends on a
proper management for a grass to develop its full potential to grow the
functions of growth, development, production, and reproduction in animals.
When discussing the proper management of pastures and forages, certain factors must be considered.

count some aspects such as:

a) The need or not to implement irrigation.

The need to maintain good drainage techniques.

c) The way in which the pasture should be sown or established.

d) The convenience or not of the rotation of pastures.

e) The establishment of associations with other pastures.

f) The carrying capacity of pasture.

g) The tolerance of forage regarding some factors such as burning, the

drought, waterlogging, frost, trampling, acidic soils, poor soils and
others.

h) The presence of toxic substances for a specific animal species.

Most of these factors are directly determined by the grass in

question. The producer must then know its characteristics and of
the animals that you are raising to be able to implement proper management of
pastures, grasses, and fodder.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Caravaca, F.; Ortz, V. and García R. 1993. The feeding of cattle. Course
practical rationing for livestock farmers. Junta de Andalucía, Seville, Spain.

Caravaca, F.; Castel, M. and others. 2003. Foundations of animal production. University
from Seville, Seville, Spain.

De Blas, C. et al. 1987. Nutrition and feeding of cattle. Mundi-Prensa

Latin American. Caracas, Venezuela. 451 pages.
but it also requires combining the art of managing the grass with knowledge,
without fixed or structured mechanisms.

6.- Basic factors for managing grazing

The factors related to the animal, where each category has requirements and
particular production objectives, paying attention to the health aspect, to the
meekness to navigate appropriately within this system of
production, among other factors.

The factors related to the pasture that must be aligned with the objectives.
posed for animals within the production system. Factors to define

Entry height to the pasture

Exit height

Days of rest between grazing

Total load of each circuit and the system

Days of grazing per parcel, all within the framework of time (chronological and
climatic), where the conditions for grass growth vary.

Many times, there is growth beyond the management of the rancher,

so violent grazing that it inexorably leads to overgrazing.

7.- Tools for conditioning the pasture

Adjustments in the load.

Use of fuse categories, deferral of plots that are being passed for their
winter use (sautéing them once passed to avoid them all getting overcooked)
subsequent parcels).

Use of the brush cutter and, as a last tool for situations

specific, burning is also an option.