CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

P
aheli and Boojho went to their
uncle’s house during the summer
vacation. Their uncle is a farmer.
One day they saw some tools like khurpi, Food has to be
produced on a large
sickle, shovel, plough, etc., in the field.
scale.

In order to provide food for a large

population— regular production, proper
I want to know management and distribution is
where and how we necessary.
use these tools.
1.1 Agricultural Practices
You have learnt that all living
organisms require food. Plants can make
T ill 10,000 B.C.E. people were
their food themselves. Can you recall
nomadic. They were wandering in
how green plants synthesise their own groups from place to place in search
food? Animals including humans can of food and shelter. They ate raw
not make their own food. So, where do fruits and vegetables and started
animals get their food from? hunting animals for food. Later, they
But, first of all why do we have to eat could cultivate land and produce rice,
food? wheat and other food crops. Thus,
You already know that energy from was born ‘Agriculture’.
the food is utilised by organisms for
carrying out their various body When plants of the same kind are
functions, such as digestion, respiration cultivated at one place on a large scale,
and excretion. We get our food from it is called a crop. For example, crop of
plants, or animals, or both. wheat means that all the plants grown
in a field are that of wheat.
You already know that crops are of
different types like cereals, vegetables
and fruits. These can be classified on the
Since we all need food, basis of the season in which they grow.
how can we provide India is a vast country. The climatic
food to a large number
conditions like temperature, humidity
of people in our
and rainfall vary from one region to
country?
another. Accordingly, there is a rich

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variety of crops grown in different parts to as agricultural practices which are
of the country. Despite this diversity, listed below:
two broad cropping patterns can be
(i) Preparation of soil
identified. These are:
(ii) Sowing
(i) Kharif Crops : The crops which are (iii) Adding manure and fertilisers
sown in the rainy season are called (iv) Irrigation
kharif crops. The rainy season in India (v) Protecting from weeds
is generally from June to September. (vi) Harvesting
Paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut and
(vii) Storage
cotton are kharif crops.
(ii) Rabi Crops : The crops grown in the
1.3 Preparation of Soil
winter season (October to March) are
called rabi crops. Examples of rabi The preparation of soil is the first step
crops are wheat, gram, pea, mustard before growing a crop. One of the most
and linseed. important tasks in agriculture is to turn
Besides these, pulses and vegetables the soil and loosen it. This allows the
are grown during summer at many roots to penetrate deep into the soil. The
places. loose soil allows the roots to breathe
easily even when they go deep into the
1.2 Basic Practices of Crop soil. Why does the loosening of soil allow
Production the roots to breathe easily?
The loosened soil helps in the growth
of earthworms and microbes present in
the soil. These organisms are friends of
the farmer since they further turn and
loosen the soil and add humus to it.
Why paddy can not be
grown in the winter season? But why the soil needs to be turned and
loosened?
You have learnt in the previous
classes that soil contains minerals,
water, air and some living organisms.
Paddy requires a lot of In addition, dead plants and animals
water. Therefore, it is grown get decomposed by soil organisms. In
only in the rainy season. this way, various nutrients in the dead
organisms are released back into the
Cultivation of crops involves several soil. These nutrients are again absorbed
activities undertaken by farmers over a by plants.
period of time. You may find that these Since only a few centimetres of the
activities are similar to those carried out top layer of soil supports plant growth,
by a gardener or even by you when you turning and loosening of soil brings the
grow ornamental plants in your house. nutrient-rich soil to the top so that
These activities or tasks are referred plants can use these nutrients. Thus,
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turning and loosening of soil is very Plough : This is being used since
important for cultivation of crops. ancient times for tilling the soil, adding
The process of loosening and turning fertilisers to the crop, removing the weeds
of the soil is called tilling or ploughing. and turning the soil. This is made of
This is done by using a plough. Ploughs wood and is drawn by a pair of bulls or
are made of wood or iron. If the soil is other animals (horses and camels). It
very dry, it may need watering before contains a strong triangular iron strip
ploughing. The ploughed field may have called ploughshare. The main part of the
big clumps of soil called crumbs. It is plough is a long log of wood which is
necessary to break these crumbs. called a ploughshaft. There is a handle
Levelling the field is beneficial for at one end of the shaft. The other end is
sowing as well as for irrigation. Levelling attached to a beam which is placed on
of soil is done with the help of a leveller. the bulls’ necks. One pair of bulls and a
Sometimes, manure is added to the man can easily operate the plough
soil before tilling. This helps in proper [Fig. 1.1 (a)].
mixing of manure with soil. The soil is
The indigenous wooden plough is
moistened before sowing.
increasingly being replaced by iron
Agricultural Implements ploughs nowadays.
Before sowing the seeds, it is necessary to Hoe : It is a simple tool which is used
break soil clumps to get better yield. This for removing weeds and for loosening
is done with the help of various tools. the soil. It has a long rod of wood or
The main tools used for this purpose are iron. A strong, broad and bent plate of
the plough, hoe and cultivator. iron is fixed to one of its ends and

beam

ploughshaft

ploughshare

Fig. 1.1 (a) : The plough

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works like a blade. It is pulled by Activity 1.1
animals [Fig. 1.1 (b)].
Take a beaker and fill half of it
grip beam with water. Put a handful of wheat
handle
seeds and stir well. Wait for some
time.
bent plate
Are there seeds which float on
rod
Fig. 1.1 (b) : A hoe water? Would those be lighter or
heavier than those which sink? Why
Cultivator : Nowadays ploughing is would they be lighter? Damaged seeds
done by tractor-driven cultivator. The become hollow and are thus lighter.
use of cultivator saves labour and time. Therefore, they float on water.
[Fig. 1.1 (c)]. This is a good method for
separating good, healthy seeds from
the damaged ones.
Before sowing, one of the important
tasks is to know about the tools used
for sowing seeds [Fig. 1.2 (a), (b)].
Traditional tool : The tool used
traditionally for sowing seeds is
shaped like a funnel [Fig. 1.2 (a)]. The
Fig. 1.1 (c) : Cultivator driven by a tractor seeds are filled into the funnel,
passed down through two or three
1.4 Sowing pipes having sharp ends. These
Sowing is an important part of crop ends pierce into the soil and place
production. Before sowing, good quality, seeds there.
clean and healthy seeds of a good
variety—are selected. Farmers prefer to
use seeds which give high yield.

Selection of Seeds

One day I saw my mother put

some gram seeds in a vessel
and pour some water on
them. After a few minutes
some seeds started to float
on top. I wonder why some
seeds float on water!
Fig. 1.2 (a) : Traditional method of sowing
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 sufficient sunlight, nutrients and water
from the soil. At times a few plants
may have to be removed to prevent
overcrowding.

1.5 Adding Manure and

Fertilisers
The substances which are added to the
soil in the form of nutrients for the
healthy growth of plants are called
manure and fertilisers.
Fig. 1.2 (b) : A seed drill
Seed drill : Nowadays the seed drill [Fig. I saw a healthy crop growing
1.2 (b)] is used for sowing with the help in a farm. In the neighbouring
of tractors. This sows the seeds farm, the plants were weak.
uniformly at equal distance and depth. Why do some plants grow
It ensures that seeds get covered by the better than others?
soil after sowing. This protects seeds
from being eaten by birds. Sowing by Soil supplies mineral nutrients to the
using a seed drill saves time and labour. crop plants. These nutrients are
essential for the growth of plants. In
certain areas, farmers grow crop after
There is a nursery near my crop in the same field. The field is never
school. I found that little left uncultivated or fallow. Imagine what
plants were kept in small happens to the nutrients?
bags. Why are they Continuous cultivation of crops
kept like this? makes the soil poor in nutrients.
Therefore, farmers have to add manure
to the fields to replenish the soil with
nutrients. This process is called
Seeds of a few plants
such as paddy are first
manuring. Improper or insufficient
grown in a nursery. When manuring results in weak plants.
they grow into seedlings, Manure is an organic substance
they are transplanted to obtained from the decomposition of
the field manually. Some plant or animal wastes. Farmers dump
forest plants and flowering plant and animal waste in pits at open
plants are also grown in places and allow it to decompose. The
the nursery. decomposition is caused by some
microorganisms. The decomposed
Appropriate distance between the matter is used as organic manure.
seeds is necessary to avoid overcrowding You have already learnt about
of plants. This allows plants to get vermicomposting in Class VI.
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Activity 1.2 better growth of plants? In which glass
was the growth fastest?
Take moong or gram seeds and Fertilisers are chemicals which are
germinate them. Select three equal
rich in a particular nutrient. How are
sized seedlings. Take three empty
they different from manure? Fertilisers
glasses or similar vessels. Mark them
are produced in factories. Some
A, B and C. To glass A add little
amount of soil mixed with a little cow examples of fertilisers are— urea,
dung manure. In glass B put the ammonium sulphate, super
same amount of soil mixed with a phosphate, potash, NPK (Nitrogen,
little urea. Take the same amount Phosphorus, Potassium).
of soil in glass C without adding The use of fertilisers has helped
anything [Fig. 1.3(a)]. Now pour the farmers to get better yield of crops
same amount of water in each glass such as wheat, paddy and maize. But
and plant the seedlings in them. excessive use of fertilisers has made
Keep them in a safe place and water the soil less fertile. Fertilisers have also
them daily. After 7 to 10 days become a source of water pollution.
observe their growth [Fig. 1.3(b)]. Therefore, in order to maintain the
fertility of the soil, we have to
substitute fertilisers with organic
manure or leave the field uncultivated
(fallow) in between two crops.
The use of manure improves soil
texture as well as its water retaining
capacity. It replenishes the soil with
nutrients.
Another method of replenishing
Fig. 1.3 (a) : Preparation of the experiment
the soil with nutrients is through crop
rotation. This can be done by growing
different crops alternately. Earlier,
farmers in northern India used to
grow legumes as fodder in one season
and wheat in the next season. This
helped in the replenishment of the soil
with nitrogen. Farmers are being
encouraged to adopt this practice.
In the previous classes, you have
Fig. 1.3 (b) : Growing seedlings with manure
and fertiliser
learnt about Rhizobium bacteria.
These are present in the nodules of
Did plants in all the glasses grow at roots of leguminous plants. They fix
the same pace? Which glass showed atmospheric nitrogen.
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 Table 1.1 : Differences between Fertiliser and Manure

S. No. Fertiliser Manure

1. Fertiliser is a man-made Manure is a natural substance obtained

inorganic salt. by the decomposition of cattle dung
and plant residues.

2. Fertiliser is prepared in Manure can be prepared in the fields.

factories.

3. Fertiliser does not provide Manure provides a lot of humus to the soil.
any humus to the soil.

4. Fertilisers are very rich in Manure is relatively less rich in plant

plant nutrients like nitrogen, nutrients.
phosphorus and potassium.

Table 1.1 gives the differences protects the crop from both frost and
between a fertiliser and manure. hot air currents. To maintain the
moisture of the soil for healthy crop
Advantages of Manure : The organic
growth, fields have to be watered
manure is considered better than
regularly.
fertilisers. This is because
The supply of water to crops at
l it enhances the water holding regular intervals is called irrigation. The
capacity of the soil. time and frequency of irrigation varies
l it makes the soil porous due to which from crop to crop, soil to soil and season
exchange of gases becomes easy. to season. In summer, the frequency of
l it increases the number of friendly watering is higher. Why is it so? Could
microbes. it be due to the increased rate of
l it improves the texture of the soil. evaporation of water from the soil and
the leaves?
1.6 Irrigation
All living beings need water to live.
Water is important for proper growth I am very careful this
and development. Water is absorbed by year about watering
the plant roots. Along with water, the plants. Last
minerals and fertilisers are also summer my plants
absorbed. Plants contain nearly 90% dried up and died.
water. Water is essential because
germination of seeds does not take place Sources of irrigation : The sources of
under dry conditions. Nutrients water for irrigation are— wells,
dissolved in water are transported to tubewells, ponds, lakes, rivers, dams
each part of the plant. Water also and canals.
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 Traditional Methods of
Irrigation
The water available in wells,
lakes and canals is lifted up
by different methods in
different regions, for taking it
to the fields.
Cattle or human labour is
used in these methods. So
these methods are cheaper,
but less efficient. The various
traditional ways are:
(i) moat (pulley -system)
(ii) chain pump

Fig. 1.4 (a) : Moat

Fig. 1.4 (b) : Chain pump Fig. 1.4 (c) : Dhekli

(iii) dhekli, and

(iv) rahat (Lever system)
[Figs. 1.4 (a)- (d)].
Pumps are commonly
used for lifting water. Diesel,
biogas, electricity and
solar energy is used to run
these pumps.

Fig. 1.4 (d) : Rahat

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Modern Methods of
Irrigation
Modern methods of irrigation
help us to use water
economically. The main
methods used are as follows:
(i) Sprinkler System: This
system is more useful on the
uneven land where sufficient
water is not available. The
perpendicular pipes, having
rotating nozzles on top, are
joined to the main pipeline
Fig. 1.5 (a) : Sprinkler system
at regular intervals. When
water is allowed to flow
through the main pipe under pressure (ii) Drip system : In this system, the
with the help of a pump, it escapes from water falls drop by drop directly near
the rotating nozzles. It gets sprinkled the roots. So it is called drip system. It
on the crop as if it is raining. is the best technique for watering fruit
Sprinkler is very useful for lawns, coffee plants, gardens and trees [Fig. 1.5(b)].
plantation and several other crops Water is not wasted at all. It is a boon in
[Fig. 1.5 (a)]. regions where availability of water is poor.

Fig. 1.5 (b) : Drip System

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1.7 Protection from Weeds
Boojho and Paheli went to a nearby
wheat field and saw that there were some
other plants in the field, growing along
with wheat plants.

Have these other

plants been planted
purposely?

In a field many other undesirable

plants may grow naturally along with Fig. 1.6 : Spraying weedicide
the crop. These undesirable plants are
called weeds.
The removal of weeds is called
weeding. Weeding is necessary since Do weedicides have any
weeds compete with the crop plants for effect on the person handling
the weedicide sprayer?
water, nutrients, space and light. Thus,
they affect the growth of the crop. Some
As already mentioned, the weedicides
weeds interfere even in harvesting and
are sprayed during the vegetative growth
may be poisonous for animals and
of weeds before flowering and seed
human beings.
formation. Spraying of weedicides may
Farmers adopt many ways to remove
affect the health of farmers. So they
weeds and control their growth. Tilling
should use these chemicals very carefully.
before sowing of crops helps in
They should cover their nose and mouth
uprooting and killing of weeds, which
with a piece of cloth during spraying of
may then dry up and get mixed with
these chemicals.
the soil. The best time for the removal
of weeds is before they produce flowers
1.8 Harvesting
and seeds. The manual removal includes
physical removal of weeds by uprooting Harvesting of a crop is an important
or cutting them close to the ground, task. The cutting of crop after it is
from time to time. This is done with the mature is called harvesting. In
help of a khurpi. A seed drill [Fig. 1.2(b)] harvesting, crops are pulled out or cut
is also used to uproot weeds. close to the ground. It usually takes 3
Weeds are also controlled by using to 4 months for a cereal crop to mature.
certain chemicals, called weedicides, Harvesting in our
like 2,4-D. These are sprayed in the country is either done
fields to kill the weeds. They do not manually by sickle
damage the crops. The weedicides are (Fig. 1.7) or by a machine
diluted with water to the extent required called harvester. In the
and sprayed in the fields with a sprayer. harvested crop, the grain Fig. 1.7 :
(Fig. 1.6). seeds need to be separated Sickle

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from the chaff. This process is called Harvest Festivals
threshing. This is carried out with the
help of a machine called ‘combine’ which After three or four months of hard
work there comes the day of the
is in fact a harvester as well as a thresher
harvest. The sight of golden fields
(Fig. 1.8). of standing crop, laden with grain,
fills the hearts of farmers with joy
a n d a s e n s e o f w e l l -b e i n g . T h e
efforts of the past season have
borne fruit and it is time to relax
and enjoy a little. The period of
harvest is, thus, of great joy and
happiness in all parts of India.
Men and women celebrate it with
great enthusiasm. Special
festivals associated with the
h a r v e s t s e a s o n are P o n g a l ,
Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali, Nabanya
Fig. 1.8 : Combine and Bihu.

1.9 Storage
After harvesting, sometimes
Storage of produce is an important task.
stubs are left in the field, which
are burnt by farmers. Paheli is If the harvested grains are to be kept
worried. She knows that it for longer time, they should be safe
causes pollution. It may also from moisture, insects, rats and
catch fire and damage the crops microorganisms. Harvested grains have
lying in the fields. more moisture. If freshly harvested
grains (seeds) are stored without drying,
Farmers with small holdings of land
they may get spoilt or attacked by
do the separation of grain and chaff by
organisms, making them unfit for use
winnowing (Fig. 1.9). You have already
studied this in Class VI. or for germination. Hence, before
storing them, the grains are properly
dried in the sun to reduce the moisture
in them. This prevents the attack by
insect pests, bacteria and fungi.

I saw my mother putting

some dried neem leaves
in an iron drum
containing wheat.
I wonder why?
Fig. 1.9 : Winnowing machine
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 Fig. 1.10 (a) : Silos for storage of grains 1.10 Food from Animals
Activity 1.3
Make the following Table in your
note book and complete it.
[Link]. Food Sources

1. Milk Cow, Buffalo, She-

goat, She-camel . . .
2.
3.
4.
After completing this Table, you
must have seen that, like plants,
animals also provide us with different
kinds of food. Many people living in the
coastal areas consume fish as a major
Fig. 1.10 (b) : Storage of grains in part of their diet. In the previous classes
gunny bags in granaries you have learnt about the food that we
obtain from plants. We have just seen
Farmers store grains in jute bags or that the process of crop production
metallic bins. However, large scale involves a number of steps like selection
storage of grains is done in silos and of seeds, sowing, etc. Similarly, animals
granaries to protect them from pests reared at home or in farms, have to be
like rats and insects [Fig. 1.10 (a) provided with proper food, shelter and
and (b)]. care. When this is done on a large scale,
Dried neem leaves are used for it is called animal husbandry.
storing food grains at home. For storing
large quantities of grains in big
godowns, specific chemical treatments Fish is good for health.
are required to protect them from pests We get cod liver oil from fish
and microorganisms. which is rich in vitamin D.

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KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
AGRICULTURAL Ü In order to provide food to our growing
PRACTICES population, we need to adopt certain
agricultural practices.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Ü Same kind of plants cultivated at a place
CROP constitute a crop.
Ü In India, crops can be broadly categorised into
FERTILISER
two types based on seasons - rabi and kharif
GRANARIES crops.
Ü It is necessary to prepare soil by tilling and
HARVESTING levelling. Ploughs and levellers are used for
this purpose.
IRRIGATION
Ü Sowing of seeds at appropriate depths and
KHARIF distances gives good yield. Good variety of
seeds are sown after selection of healthy seeds.
MANURE Sowing is done by seed drills.
Ü Soil needs replenishment and enrichment
PLOUGH
through the use of organic manure and
RABI fertilisers. Use of chemical fertilisers has
increased tremendously with the introduction
SEEDS of new crop varieties.
Ü Supply of water to crops at appropriate
SILO
intervals is called irrigation.
SOWING Ü Weeding involves removal of unwanted and
uncultivated plants called weeds.
STORAGE Ü Harvesting is the cutting of the mature crop
manually or by machines.
THRESHING
Ü Separation of the grains from the chaff is called
WEEDS threshing.
Ü Proper storage of grains is necessary to protect
WEEDICIDE them from pests and microorganisms.
Ü Food is also obtained from animals for which
WINNOWING
animals are reared. This is called animal
husbandry.

Exercises
1. Select the correct word from the following list and fill in the blanks.
float, water, crop, nutrients, preparation
(a) The same kind of plants grown and cultivated on a large scale at a
place is called _____________.
(b) The first step before growing crops is _____________ of the soil.

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 (c) Damaged seeds would _____________ on top of water.

EXERCISES
(d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight and _____________ and
_____________ from the soil are essential.
2. Match items in column A with those in column B.
A B

(i) Kharif crops (a) Food for cattle

(ii) Rabi crops (b) Urea and super phosphate
(iii) Chemical fertilisers (c) Animal excreta, cow dung
urine and plant waste
(iv) Organic manure (d) Wheat, gram, pea
(e) Paddy and maize

3. Give two examples of each.

(a) Kharif crop
(b) Rabi crop

4. Write a paragraph in your own words on each of the following.

(a) Preparation of soil (b) Sowing
(c) Weeding (d) Threshing

5. Explain how fertilisers are different from manure.

6. What is irrigation? Describe two methods of irrigation which conserve water.

7. If wheat is sown in the kharif season, what would happen? Discuss.

8. Explain how soil gets affected by the continuous plantation of crops in

a field.

9. What are weeds? How can we control them?

10. Arrange the following boxes in proper order to make a flow chart of
sugarcane crop production.

Sending crop to
Irrigation Harvesting Sowing
sugar factory
1 2 3 4

Preparation of Ploughing the

Manuring
soil field

5 6 7

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 11. Complete the following word puzzle with the help of clues given below.
EXERCISES Down
1. Providing water to the crops.
2. Keeping crop grains for a long time under proper conditions.
5. Certain plants of the same kind grown on a large scale.

Across
3. A machine used for cutting the matured crop.
4. A rabi crop that is also one of the pulses.
6. A process of separating the grain from chaff.

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Sow some seeds in the soil and arrange to water them by drip
irrigation. Observe daily.
(i) Do you think it can save water?
(ii) Note the changes in the seed.
2. Collect different types of seeds and put them in small bags.
Label them.
3. Collect pictures of some other agricultural machines and paste them
in a file. Write their names and uses.
4. Project Work
Visit a farm, nursery or a garden nearby. Gather information about
(i) importance of seed selection.
(ii) method of irrigation.

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 (iii) effect of extreme cold and extreme hot weather on the plants.
(iv) effect of continuous rain on the plants.
(v) fertilisers/manure used.

An Example for Field Trip Work

Himanshu and his friends were very anxious and curious to go to Thikri village.
They went to Shri Jiwan Patel’s farmhouse. They had taken bags to collect some
seeds and other things.
Himanshu : Sir namaskar, I am Himanshu. Here are my friends Mohan, David
and Sabiha. We want some information about crops. Please guide
us.
Shri Patel : Namaskar and welcome all of you. What are your queries?
Sabiha : When did you start this work and what are the main crops that
you grow?
Shri Patel : About 75 years ago, my grandfather started this work. The main
crops that we grow are wheat, gram, soyabean and moong.
David : Sir, can you tell us the difference between traditional and modern
agricultural practices?
Shri Patel : Earlier we used traditional tools like sickle, bullock plough, trowel,
etc., and depended on rain water for irrigation. But now we use
modern methods of irrigation. We use implements like tractors,
cultivators, seed drill and harvester. We get good quality seeds.
We carry out soil testing and use manure and fertilisers. New
information about agriculture is obtained through radio, T.V. and
other sources. As a result we are able to get good crops on a large
scale. This year we got 9 to 11 quintals of gram crop/acre and 20
to 25 quintals of wheat/acre. In my opinion awareness of new
technology is important for better crop yield.
Mohan : Sabiha, come here and see some earthworms. Are they helpful to
the farmers?
Sabiha : Oh Mohan! we learnt about it in Class VI.
Shri Patel : Earthworms turn the soil and loosen it for proper aeration, so
they help the farmer.
David : Can we have some seeds of the crops you grow here?
[They put some seeds, fertilisers and soil sample in the bags.]
Himanshu : Sir, we are thankful to you for making this visit pleasant and for
providing useful information.

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 MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE

Y
ou have seen several kinds of These observations show that water
plants and animals. However, and soil are full of tiny organisms,
there are other living organisms though not all of them fall into the
around us which we normally cannot category of microbes. These
see. These are called microorganisms microorganisms or microbes are so
small in size that they cannot be seen
or microbes. For example, you might
with the unaided eye. Some of these,
have observed that during the rainy
such as the fungus that grows on bread,
season moist bread gets spoilt and its can be seen with a magnifying glass.
surface gets covered with greyish white Others cannot be seen without the help
patches. Observe these patches through of a microscope. That is why these are
a magnifying glass. You will see tiny, called microorganisms or microbes.
black rounded structures. Do you know Microorganisms are classified into
what these structures are and where do four major groups. These groups are
these come from? bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some
a l g a e. Some of these common
2.1 Microorganisms microorganisms are shown in
Figs. 2.1 - 2.4.
Activity 2.1 Viruses are also microscopic but are
Collect some moist soil from the different from other microorganisms.
field in a beaker and add water to They, however, reproduce only inside the
it. After the soil particles have cells of the host organism, which may be
a bacterium, plant or animal. Some of the
settled down, observe a drop of
viruses are shown in Fig. 2.5. Common
water from the beaker under a
ailments like cold, influenza (flu) and
microscope. What do you see ?
most coughs are caused by viruses.
Serious diseases like polio and chicken
Activity 2.2 pox are also caused by viruses.
Diseases like dysentery and malaria
Take a few drops of water from a are caused by protozoa(protozoans)
pond. Spread on a glass slide and whereas typhoid and tuberculosis (TB)
observe through a microscope. are bacterial diseases.
You have lear nt about some of
Do you find tiny organisms moving these microorganisms in Classes VI
around? and VII.

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 Fig. 2.1: Bacteria

Amoeba

Chlamydomonas Spirogyra Paramecium

Fig. 2.2 : Algae Fig. 2.3 : Protozoa

Bread mould Penicillium Aspergillus

Fig. 2.4 : Fungi

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 Friendly Microorganisms
Microorganisms are used for various
purposes. They are used in the
preparation of curd, bread and cake.

Microorganisms have been used for

the production of alcohol since ages.

They are also used in cleaning up

of the environment. For example, the
organic wastes (vegetable peels, remains
of animals, faeces, etc.) are broken
down into harmless and usable
substances by bacteria. Recall that
bacteria are also used in the
preparation of medicines. In agriculture
they are used to increase soil fertility
by fixing nitrogen.
Fig. 2.5 : Viruses
Making of Curd and Bread
You have learnt in Class VII that milk is
2.2 Where do Microorganisms turned into curd by bacteria.
Live?
Microorganisms may be single-celled
like bacteria, some algae and protozoa, I saw that my mother
or multicellular, such as many algae and added a little curd to warm
fungi. They live in all types of milk to set curd for the
environment, ranging from ice cold next day. I wonder why?
climate to hot springs; and deserts to
marshy lands. They are also found Curd contains several micro-
inside the bodies of animals including organisms. Of these, the bacterium,
humans. Some microorganisms Lactobacillus promotes the formation
grow on other organisms while others of curd. It multiplies in milk and
exist freely. converts it into curd. Bacteria are also
involved in the making of cheese,
2.3 Microorganisms and Us pickles and many other food items. An
Microorganisms play an important role important ingredient of rava (sooji )
in our lives. Some of them are beneficial idlis and bhaturas is curd. Can you
in many ways whereas some others are guess why? Bacteria and yeast are also
harmful and cause diseases. Let us helpful for fermentation of rice idlis
study about them in detail. and dosa batter.
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Activity 2.3 spoon of yeast powder to the sugar
Take ½ kg flour (atta or maida), solution. Keep it covered in a warm
add some sugar and mix with place for 4-5 hours. Now smell the
warm water. Add a small amount solution. Can you get a smell?
of yeast powder and knead to
This is the smell of alcohol as sugar
make a soft dough. What do you
has been converted into alcohol by yeast.
observe after two hours? Did you
This process of conversion of sugar into
find the dough rising?
alcohol is known as fermentation.

Louis Pasteur
discovered
Maida with yeast powder
fermentation
in 1857.

Medicinal Use of Microorganisms

Raised maida
Whenever you fall ill the doctor may
Fig. 2.6 give you some antibiotic tablets,
Yeast r eproduces rapidly and capsules or injections such as of
produces carbon dioxide during penicillin. The source of these
respiration. Bubbles of the gas fill the medicines is microorganisms. These
dough and increase its volume (Fig. 2.6). medicines kill or stop the growth of the
This is the basis of the use of yeast in disease-causing microorganisms. Such
the baking industry for making breads, medicines are called antibiotics. These
pastries and cakes. days a number of antibiotics are being
produced from bacteria and fungi.
Commercial Use of Microorganisms Streptomycin, tetracycline and
Microorganisms are used for the large scale erythromycin are some of the
production of alcohol, wine and acetic acid
(vinegar). Yeast is used for commercial
production of alcohol and wine. For this In 1929, Alexander
Fleming was working
purpose yeast is grown on natural sugars
on a culture of disease-
present in grains like barley, wheat, rice,
causing bacteria.
crushed fruit juices, etc. Suddenly he found the
spores of a little green mould in one of
Activity 2.4 his culture plates. He observed that
the presence of mould prevented the
Take a 500 mL beaker filled upto
growth of bacteria. In fact, it also killed
¾ with water. Dissolve 2-3 many of these bacteria. From this the
teaspoons of sugar in it. Add half a mould penicillin was prepared.

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commonly known antibiotics which are from the disease-causing microbes for
made from fungi and bacteria. The ever. This is how a vaccine works.
antibiotics are manufactured by Several diseases, including cholera,
growing specific microorganisms and tuberculosis, smallpox and hepatitis can
are used to cure a variety of diseases. be prevented by vaccination.
Antibiotics are even mixed with the
feed of livestock and poultry to check
microbial infection in animals. They are Edward Jenner
also used to control many plant discovered the
vaccine for small-
diseases.
pox in 1798.
It is important to remember that
antibiotics should be taken only on
the advice of a qualified doctor. Also In your childhood, you must have
you must complete the course been given injections to protect
prescribed by the doctor. If you take yourself against several diseases.
antibiotics when not needed or in Can you prepare a list of these
wrong doses, it may make the drug diseases? You may take help from
less effective when you might need
your parents.
it in future. Also antibiotics taken
unnecessarily may kill the beneficial It is essential to protect all children
bacteria in the body. Antibiotics, against these diseases. Necessary
however, are not effective against vaccines are available in the nearby
cold and flu as these are caused by hospitals. You might have seen the
viruses. advertisement on TV and newspapers
regarding protection of children against
Vaccine polio under the Pulse Polio Programme.
Polio drops given to children are
actually a vaccine.
A worldwide campaign against
Why are children/infants smallpox has finally led to its eradication
given vaccination? from most parts of the world.
These days vaccines are made on a
When a disease-carrying microbe enters large scale from microorganisms to
our body, the body produces antibodies protect humans and other animals from
to fight the invader. The body also several diseases.
remembers how to fight the microbe if
it enters again. If dead or weakened Increasing Soil Fertility
microbes are introduced into a healthy Some bacteria (Fig. 2.7) are able to fix
body, the body fights and kills nitrogen from the atmosphere to enrich
the invading bacteria by producing soil with nitrogen and increase its
suitable antibodies. The antibodies fertility. These microbes are commonly
remain in the body and we are protected called biological nitrogen fixers.
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 Fig. 2.7 : The Nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria (blue green algae)

Cleaning the Environment released in the process can be used by

Boojho and Paheli had observed the the plants again.
school gardener making manure. Along Did you notice that in pot B, the
with their friends, they collected wastes polythene bags, empty glasses, bottles
of plants, vegetables and fruits from and broken toy parts did not undergo
nearby houses and gardens. They put any such change? The microbes could
them in a pit meant for waste disposal. not ‘act’ on them and convert them into
After some time, it decomposed and got manure.
converted to manure. Boojho and You often see large amounts of
Paheli wanted to know how this had dead organic matter in the form of
happened. decaying plants and sometimes dead
animals on the ground. You find
Activity 2.5 that they disappear after some time.
This is because the microorganisms
Take two pots and fill each pot half
decompose dead organic waste of plants
with soil. Mark them A and B. Put
plant waste in pot A and things like and animals converting them into
polythene bags, empty glass bottles simple substances. These substances
and broken plastic toys in pot B. are again used by other plants and
Put the pots aside. Observe them animals. Thus, microorganisms can
after 3-4 weeks. be used to degrade the harmful and
smelly substances and thereby clean
Do you find any difference in the up the environment.
contents of the two pots? If so, what is
the difference? You will find that plant 2.4 Harmful Microorganisms
waste in pot A, has been decomposed. Microorganisms are harmful in many
How did this happen? The plant waste ways. Some of the microorganisms
has been converted into manure by the cause diseases in human beings, plants
action of microbes. The nutrients and animals. Such disease-causing

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microorganisms are called pathogens. There are some insects and animals
Some microorganisms spoil food, which act as carriers of disease-
clothing and leather. Let us study more causing microbes. Housefly is one such
about their harmful activities. carrier. The flies sit on the garbage and
animal excreta. Pathogens stick to their
Disease causing Microorganisms bodies. When these flies sit on uncovered
in Humans food they may transfer the pathogens.
Pathogens enter our body through the Whoever eats the contaminated food is
air we breathe, the water we drink or likely to get sick. So, it is advisable to
the food we eat. They can also get always keep food covered. Avoid
transmitted by direct contact with an consuming uncovered items of food.
infected person or carried by an animal. Another example of a carrier is the
Microbial diseases that can spread from female Anopheles mosquito (Fig. 2.8),
an infected person to a healthy person which carries the parasite of malaria
through air, water, food or physical (Plasmodium). Female Aedes mosquito
contact are called communicable acts as carrier of dengue virus.
diseases. Examples of such diseases How can we control the spread of malaria
include cholera, common cold, chicken or dengue?
pox and tuberculosis.
When a person suffering from
common cold sneezes, fine droplets of
moisture carrying thousands of viruses
are spread in the air. The virus may enter
the body of a healthy person while
breathing and cause infection.
Fig. 2.8 : Female Anopheles mosquito

Then how do you

prevent the spread of Why does the teacher
communicable keep telling us not
diseases? to let water collect
anywhere in the
neighbourhood?

All mosquitoes breed in water. Hence,

one should not let water collect
We should keep a anywhere, in coolers, tyres, flower pot,
handkerchief on the etc. By keeping the surroundings clean
nose and mouth while and dry we can prevent mosquitoes from
sneezing. It is better to
breeding. Try to make a list of measures
keep a distance from
which help to avoid the spread of
infected persons.
malaria.
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 Table 2.1: Some Common Human Diseases caused by Microorganisms
Human Disease Causative Mode of Preventive Measures
Microorganism Transmission (General)

Tuberculosis Bacteria Air Keep the patient in complete

isolation. Keep the personal
Measles Virus Air
belongings of the patient away
from those of the others.
Chicken Pox Virus Air/Contact
Vaccination to be given at
Polio Virus Air/Water suitable age.

Cholera Bacteria Water/Food Maintain personal hygiene

and good sanitary habits.
Typhoid Bacteria Water Consume properly cooked food
and boiled drinking water.
Vaccination.

Hepatitis A Virus Water Drink boiled drinking water.

Vaccination.

Use mosquito net and

Malaria Protozoa Mosquito
repellents. Spray insecticides
and control breeding of
mosquitoes by not allowing
water to collect in the
surroundings.

Some of the common diseases in other animals. For example, anthrax

affecting humans, their mode of is a dangerous human and cattle
transmission and few general methods disease caused by a bacterium. Foot
of prevention are shown in Table 2.1. and mouth disease of cattle is caused
by a virus.
Disease causing Microorganisms
in Animals Disease causing Microorganisms
Several microorganisms not only cause in Plants
diseases in humans and plants, but also Several microorganisms cause
diseases in plants like wheat, rice, potato,
Robert Köch (1876) sugarcane, orange, apple and others.
discovered the bacterium The diseases reduce the yield of crops.
(Bacillus anthracis) which See Table 2.2 for some such plant
causes anthrax disease.
diseases. They can be controlled by the
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 Table 2.2: Some Common Plant Diseases caused by Microorganisms

Plant Micro- Mode of

Diseases organism Transmission

Citrus Bacteria Air

canker

Rust of Fungi Air,

wheat seeds

Yellow vein Virus Insect

mosaic of
bhindi (Okra)

use of certain chemicals which kill the make the food poisonous causing
microbes. serious illness and even death. So, it
is very important that we preserve
Food Poisoning food to prevent it from being spoilt.
Boojho was invited by his friend to a
party and he ate a variety of foodstuff. 2.5 Food Preservation
On reaching home he started vomiting In Chapter 1, we have learnt about the
and had to be taken to a hospital. The methods used to preserve and store food
doctor said that this condition could be grains. How do we preserve cooked food
due to food poisoning. at home? You know that bread left
unused under moist conditions is
attacked by fungus. Microorganisms
spoil our food. Spoiled food emits bad
Paheli wonders how smell and has a bad taste and changed
food can become a colour. Is spoiling of food a chemical
‘poison’. reaction?
Paheli bought some mangoes but she
Food poisoning could be due to the could not eat them for a few days. Later
consumption of food spoilt by some she found that they were spoilt and
microorganisms. Microorganisms rotten. But she knows that the mango
that grow on our food sometimes pickle her grandmother makes does not
produce toxic substances. These spoil for a long time. She is confused.
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 Let us study the common methods Similarly, we keep our food in the
of preserving food in our homes. We refrigerator. Low temperature inhibits
have to save it from the attack of the growth of microbes.
microorganisms.

Chemical Method
Salts and edible oils are the common Why does the milk that
chemicals generally used to check the comes in packets not spoil?
growth of microorganisms. Therefore My mother told me that the
they are called preservatives. We add milk is ‘pasteurised’. What
salt or acid preservatives to pickles to is pasteurisation?
prevent the attack of microbes. Sodium
benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are Pasteurised milk can be consumed
common preservatives. These are also without boiling as it is free from harmful
used in jams and squashes to check microbes. The milk is heated to about
their spoilage. 700C for 15 to 30 seconds and then
suddenly chilled and stored. By doing
Preservation by Common Salt so, it prevents the growth of microbes.
Common salt has been used to preserve This process was discovered by Louis
meat and fish for ages. Meat and fish Pasteur. It is called pasteurisation.
are covered with dry salt to check
the growth of bacteria. Salting is also Storage and Packing
used to preserve amla, raw mangoes, These days dry fruits and even
tamarind, etc. vegetables are sold in sealed air tight
packets to prevent the attack of
Preservation by Sugar microbes.
Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved
by sugar. Sugar reduces the moisture 2.6 Nitrogen Fixation
content which inhibits the growth of You have learnt about the bacterium
bacteria which spoil food. Rhizobium in Classes VI and VII. It is
involved in the fixation of nitrogen in
Preservation by Oil and Vinegar
leguminous plants (pulses). Recall that
Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage Rhizobium lives in the root nodules of
of pickles because bacteria cannot live leguminous plants (Fig. 2.9), such as
in such an environment. Vegetables, beans and peas, with which it has a
fruits, fish and meat are often preserved symbiotic relationship. Sometimes
by this method. nitrogen gets fixed through the action
of lightning. But you know that the
Heat and Cold Treatments
amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere
You must have observed your mother remains constant. You may wonder
boiling milk before it is stored or used. how? Let us understand this in the next
Boiling kills many microorganisms. section.
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 nitrogen cannot be taken directly by
plants and animals. Certain bacteria and
blue green algae present in the soil fix
nitrogen from the atmosphere and
convert it into compounds of nitrogen.
Once nitrogen is converted into these
usable compounds, it can be utilised by
plants from the soil through their root
system. Nitrogen is then used for the
synthesis of plant proteins and other
compounds. Animals feeding on plants
get these proteins and other nitrogen
compounds (Fig. 2.10).
When plants and animals die,
Fig. 2.9 : Roots of a leguminous plant with root bacteria and fungi present in the soil
nodules convert the nitrogenous wastes into
nitrogenous compounds to be used by
2.7 Nitrogen cycle plants again. Certain other bacteria
Our atmosphere has 78% nitrogen gas. convert some part of them to nitrogen
Nitrogen is one of the essential gas which goes back into the
constituents of all living organisms as atmosphere. As a result, the percentage
part of proteins, chlorophyll, nucleic of nitrogen in the atmosphere remains
acids and vitamins. The atmospheric more or less constant.

Fig. 2.10 : Nitrogen cycle

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KEYWORDS WHA
WHAT OU HA
YOU
T Y VE LEARNT
HAVE
ALGAE Ü Microorganisms are too small and are not
ANTIBIOTICS visible to the unaided eye.
Ü They can live in all kinds of environment,
ANTIBODIES ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs

BACTERIA and deserts to marshy lands.

Ü Microorganisms are found in air, water and
CARRIER in the bodies of plants and animals.
Ü They may be unicellular or multicellular.
COMMUNICABLE
Ü Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi,
DISEASES
protozoa and some algae. Viruses, though
FERMENTATION different from the above mentioned living
organisms, are considered microbes.
FUNGI
Ü Viruses are quite different from other
LACTOBACILLUS microorganisms. They reproduce only inside
the host organism: bacterium, plant or ani-
MICROORGANISM
mal cell.
NITROGEN CYCLE Ü Some microorganisms are useful for
commercial production of medicines and
NITROGEN FIXATION
alcohol.

PASTEURISATION Ü Some microorganisms decompose the organic

waste and dead plants and animals into simple
PATHOGEN substances and clean up the environment.
Ü Protozoans cause serious diseases like
PRESERVATION
dysentery and malaria.
PROTOZOA Ü Some of the microorganisms grow on our food
and cause food poisoning.
RHIZOBIUM
Ü Some microorganisms reside in the root
VACCINE nodules of leguminous plants. They can fix
nitrogen from air into soil and increase the
VIRUS
soil fertility.
YEAST Ü Some bacteria present in the soil fix nitrogen
from the atmosphere and convert into
nitrogenous compounds.
Ü Certain bacteria convert compounds of nitro-
gen present in the soil into nitrogen gas which
is released to the atmosphere.

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 Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Microorganisms can be seen with the help of a ____________.

(b) Blue green algae fix __________ directly from air and enhance fertility
of soil.
(c) Alcohol is produced with the help of __________.

(d) Cholera is caused by __________.

2. Tick the correct answer.
(a) Yeast is used in the production of

(i) sugar (ii) alcohol (iii) hydrochloric acid (iv) oxygen

(b) The following is an antibiotic
(i) Sodium bicarbonate (ii) Streptomycin (iii) Alcohol (iv) Yeast

(c) Carrier of malaria-causing protozoan is

(i) female Anopheles mosquito (ii) cockroach
(iii) housefly (iv) butterfly

(d) The most common carrier of communicable diseases is

(i) ant (ii) housefly (iii) dragonfly (iv) spider
(e) The bread or idli dough rises because of

(i) heat (ii) grinding (iii) growth of yeast cells (iv) kneading
(f) The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is called
(i) nitrogen fixation (ii) moulding (iii) fermentation (iv) infection

3. Match the organisms in Column A with their action in

Column B.
A B
(i) Bacteria (a) Fixing nitrogen
(ii) Rhizobium (b) Setting of curd
(iii) Lactobacillus (c) Baking of bread
(iv) Yeast (d) Causing malaria
(v) A protozoan (e) Causing cholera
(vi) A virus (f) Causing AIDS
(g) Producing antibodies
4. Can microorganisms be seen with the naked eye? If not, how can they be
seen?
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 5. What are the major groups of microorganisms?
EXERCISES 6. Name the microorganisms which can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
7. Write 10 lines on the usefulness of microorganisms in our lives.
8. Write a short paragraph on the harmful effects of microorganisms.

9. What are antibiotics? What precautions must be taken while taking

antibiotics?

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Pull out a gram or bean plant from the field. Observe its roots. You
will find round structures called root nodules on the roots. Draw a
diagram of the root and show the root nodules.
2. Collect the labels from the bottles of jams and jellies. Write down
the list of contents printed on the labels.
3. Visit a doctor. Find out why antibiotics should not be overused.
Prepare a short report.
4. Project : Requirements – 2 test tubes, marker pen, sugar, yeast
powder, 2 balloons and lime water.
Take two test tubes and mark them A and B. Clamp these tubes in
a stand and fill them with water leaving some space at the top. Put
two spoonfuls of sugar in each
of the test tubes. Add a spoonful
of yeast in test tube B. Inflate the
two balloons incompletely. Now
tie the balloons on the mouths
of each test tube. Keep them in
a warm place, away from
sunlight. Watch the setup every
day for next 3-4 days. Record A B
your observations and think of
an explanation.
Now take another test tube
filled 1/4 with lime water.
Remove the balloon from test
tube B in such a manner that
gas inside the balloon does not
escape. Fit the balloon on the
test tube and shake well.
Observe and explain.

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 Did You Know?
Bacteria have lived on the earth for much longer than human beings.
They are such hardy organisms that they can live under extreme conditions.
They have been found living in boiling mudpots and extremly cold icy waters.
They have been found in lakes of caustic soda and in pools of concentrated
sulphuric acid. They can survive at depths of several kilometres. They
probably can survive in space, too. A kind of bacterium was recovered
from a camera which stood on the moon for two [Link] is probably no
environment in which bacteria cannot survive.

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 COAL AND PETROLEUM

W
e use various materials for our Can air, water and soil be exhausted
basic needs. Some of them are by human activities? You have already
found in nature and some studied about water in Class VII. Is water
have been made by human efforts. a limitless resource?
In the light of the availability of
Activity 3.1 various resources in nature, natural
resources can be broadly classified
Make a list of various materials used
into two kinds:
by us in daily life and classify them
as natural and man-made. (i) Inexhaustible Natural Resources:
These resources are present in unlimited
Natural Man-made
quantity in nature and are not likely to
be exhausted by human activities.
Examples are: sunlight, air.
(ii) Exhaustible Natural Resources: The
amount of these resources in nature is
limited. They can be exhausted by
human activities. Examples of these
resources are forests, wildlife, minerals,
coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.

Activity 3.2

(It is a group activity)

Does this list include air, water, soil
and minerals? Since all these are Take some containers. Fill them
obtained from nature, they are called with popcorn/peanuts/roasted
natural resources. gram/toffees. Divide students into
groups of seven each. Further divide
each group into three subgroups
containing 1, 2 and 4 students.
Can we use all our Label them as first, second
natural resources and third generation respectively.
forever ?

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 These sub-groups represent the 3.1 Coal
consumers. As population is You may have seen coal or heard about
growing, second and third it (Fig. 3.1). It is as hard as stone and is
generations have larger number of black in colour.
consumers.
Put one full container for each
group on a table. Ask consumers of
the first generation from each group
to consume eatables from the
container of their group. Now, ask
the second generation consumers
from each group to do the same. Ask
students to observe carefully the Fig. 3.1: Coal
availability of eatables in each
Coal is one of the fuels used to cook
container. If some thing is left in the
food. Earlier, it was used in railway
containers, ask third generation
engines to produce steam to run the
from each group to consume it. Now,
engine. It is also used in thermal power
finally observe whether all the
plants to produce electricity. Coal is also
consumers of the third generation
used as a fuel in various industries.
got the eatables or not. Also observe
if anything is still left in any of the Story of Coal
containers.

Assume that the eatables in the Where do we get

coal from and how
container represent the total
is it formed?
availability of an exhausible natural
resource like coal, petroleum or About 300 million years ago the
natural gas. Each group may have a earth had dense forests in low lying
different consumption pattern. Are wetland areas. Due to natural processes,
the earlier generations of any group like flooding, these forests got buried
too greedy? It may be that the earlier under the soil. As more soil deposited
generations in some groups were over them, they were compressed. The
concerned about the coming temperature also rose as they sank
generation(s) and left something for deeper and deeper. Under high pressure
them. and high temperature, dead plants got
In this chapter we will learn about slowly converted to coal. As coal
some exhaustible natural resources contains mainly carbon, the slow
like coal, petroleum and natural gas. process of conversion of dead vegetation
These were formed from the dead into coal is called carbonisation. Since
remains of living organisms (fossils). it was formed from the remains of
So, these are all known as fossil vegetation, coal is also called a fossil fuel.
fuels. A coal mine is shown in Fig. 3.2.
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 Fig. 3.2: A coal mine

When heated in air, coal burns and about 200 substances. Products
produces mainly carbon dioxide gas. obtained from coal tar are used as
Coal is processed in industry to get starting materials for manufacturing
some useful products such as coke, coal various substances used in everyday
tar and coal gas. life and in industry, like synthetic
dyes, drugs, explosives, per fumes,
Coke plastics, paints, photographic materials,
It is a tough, porous and black roofing materials, etc. Interestingly,
substance. It is an almost pure form of naphthalene balls used to repel moths
carbon. Coke is used in the manufacture and other insects are also obtained from
of steel and in the extraction of many coal tar.
metals.
These days, bitumen, a petroleum
Coal Tar product, is used in place of coal-tar
for metalling the roads.
It is a black, thick liquid (Fig. 3.3) with
an unpleasant smell. It is a mixture of Coal Gas
Coal gas is obtained during the
processing of coal to get coke. It is used

Coal gas was used for street lighting

for the first time in London in 1810
and in New York around 1820. Now a
days, it is used as a source of heat
Fig. 3.3: Coal tar rather than light.

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as a fuel in many industries situated transformed the dead organisms into
near the coal processing plants. petroleum and natural gas.
Look at Fig. 3.4. It shows the deposits
3.2 Petroleum of petroleum and natural gas. You see
You know that petrol is used as a fuel in that the layer containing petroleum oil
light automobiles such as motor cycles/ and gas is above that of water. Why is it
scooters and cars. Heavy motor vehicles so? Recall that oil and gas are lighter
like trucks and tractors run on diesel. than water and do not mix with it.
Petrol and diesel are obtained from a
natural resource called petroleum. The The world’s first oil well was drilled
word petroleum is derived from petra in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859. Eight
(rock) and oleum (oil) as it is mined years later, in 1867, oil was struck
from between the rocks under Earth as at Makum in Assam. In India, oil is
found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai
shown in Fig. 3.4.
High and in the river basins of
Do you know how petroleum is
Godavari and Krishna.
formed?
Petroleum was formed from
Refining of Petroleum
organisms living in the sea. As these
organisms died, their bodies settled at Petroleum is a dark oily liquid. It has
the bottom of the sea and got covered an unpleasant odour. It is a mixture of
with layers of sand and clay. Over various constituents such as petroleum
millions of years, absence of air, high gas, petrol, diesel, lubricating oil,
temperature and high pressure paraffin wax, etc. The process of

Wells

Impervious Gas
rock
Oil

Reservoir rock
Water

Fig. 3.4 : Petroleum and natural gas deposits

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 Various constituents of petroleum
and their uses are given in Table 3.1.

Many useful substances are obtained

from petroleum and natural gas.
These are termed as ‘Petrochemicals’.
These are used in the manufacture
of detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon,
acrylic etc.), polythene and other
man-made plastics. Hydrogen gas
obtained from natural gas, is used in
the production of fertilisers (urea).
Due to its great commercial
importance, petroleum is also called
‘black gold’.

3.3 Natural Gas

Fig. 3.5: A petroleum refinery Natural gas is a very important fossil
fuel because it is easy to transport
separating the various constituents/ through pipes. Natural gas is stored
fractions of petroleum is known as under high pressure as compressed
refining. It is carried out in a petroleum natural gas (CNG). CNG is used for
refinery (Fig. 3.5). power generation. It is now being used

Table 3.1 Various Constituents of Petroleum and their Uses

[Link]. Constituents of Petroleum Uses

1. Petroleum Gas in Liquid form Fuel for home and industry

(LPG)

2. Petrol Motor fuel, aviation fuel, solvent for

dry cleaning

3. Kerosene Fuel for stoves, lamps and for jet aircrafts

4. Diesel Fuel for heavy motor vehicles, electric

generators

5. Lubricating oil Lubrication

6. Paraffin wax Ointments, candles, vaseline etc.

7. Bitumen Paints, road surfacing

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as a fuel for transport vehicles because 3.4 Some Natural Resources
it is less polluting. It is a cleaner fuel. are Limited
The great advantage of CNG is that
it can be used directly for burning in You have studied in the beginning of
homes and factories where it can be the chapter that some natural resources
supplied through pipes. Such a network are exhaustible like fossil fuels, forests,
of pipelines exists in Vadodara (Gujarat), minerals etc.
some parts of Delhi and other places. You know that coal and petroleum
Natural gas is also used as a starting are fossil fuels. It required the dead
organisms millions of years to get
material for the manufacture of a number
converted into these fuels. On the
of chemicals and fertilisers. India has vast
other hand, the known reserves of
reserves of natural gas. In our country,
these will last only a few hundred
natural gas has been found in Tripura,
years. Moreover, burning of these
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and in the
fuels is a major cause of air pollution.
Krishna Godavari delta. Their use is also linked to global
warming. It is therefore necessary that
we use these fuels only when
absolutely necessary. This will result
Can coal, petroleum
in better environment, smaller risk of
and natural gas be
global warming and their availability
prepared in the
laboratory from dead
for a longer period of time.
organisms? In India, the Petroleum Conservation
Research Association (PCRA) advises
people how to save petrol/diesel while
driving. Their tips are
l drive at a constant and moderate
speed as far as possible,
No. Their
formation is a very l switch off the engine at traffic lights
slow process and or at a place where you have to wait,
conditions for
l ensure correct tyre pressure.
their formation
cannot be created l ensure regular maintenance of the
in the laboratory. vehicle.

COAL AND PETROLEUM 37

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KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
COAL Ü Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil
COAL GAS fuels.
Ü Fossil fuels were formed from the dead remains
COAL TAR of living organisms millions of years ago.
COKE Ü Fossil fuels are exhaustible resources.
Ü Coke, coal tar and coal gas are the products
FOSSIL FUEL of coal.
NATURAL GAS Ü Petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, kerosene,
paraffin wax, lubricating oil are obtained by
PETROLEUM
refining petroleum.
PETROLEUM Ü Coal and petroleum resources are limited. We
REFINERY should use them judiciously.

Exercises

1. What are the advantages of using CNG and LPG as fuels?

2. Name the petroleum product used for surfacing of roads.

3. Describe how coal is formed from dead vegetation. What is this process
called?
4. Fill in the blanks.

(a) Fossil fuels are , and .

(b) Process of separation of different constituents from petroleum is
called .

(c) Least polluting fuel for vehicle is .

5. Tick True/False against the following statements.
(a) Fossil fuels can be made in the laboratory. (T/F)

(b) CNG is more polluting fuel than petrol. (T/F)

(c) Coke is almost pure form of carbon. (T/F)
(d) Coal tar is a mixture of various substances. (T/F)

(e) Kerosene is not a fossil fuel. (T/F)

6. Explain why fossil fuels are exhaustible natural resources.

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 7. Describe characteristics and uses of coke.
EXERCISES 8. Explain the process of formation of petroleum.

9. The following Table shows the total power shortage in India from
1991–1997. Show the data in the form of a graph. Plot shortage percentage
for the years on the Y-axis and the year on the X-axis.

S. No. Year Shortage (%)

1 1991 7.9

2 1992 7.8

3 1993 8.3

4 1994 7.4

5 1995 7.1

6 1996 9.2

7 1997 11.5

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Get an outline map of India. Mark the places in the map where
coal, petroleum and natural gas are found. Show the places where
petroleum refineries are situated.
2. Choose any five families of your neighbourhood. Enquire whether
their energy consumption (coal, gas, electricity, petrol, kerosene)
has increased or decreased in the last five years. Enquire also about
the measures they adopt to conserve energy.
3. Find out the location of major thermal power plants in India. What
could be the reasons for their being located at those places?
For more information, visit:
l [Link]
l [Link]
l [Link]

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 COMBUSTION AND FLAME

W
e use different kinds of fuel for
various purposes at home, in
industry and for running
automobiles. Can you name a few fuels
used in our homes? Name a few fuels
used in trade and industry. What fuels
are used for running automobiles? Your
list will contain fuels like cowdung,
wood, coal, charcoal, petrol, diesel,
compressed natural gas (CNG), etc.
You are familiar with the burning of a
candle. What is the difference between the
burning of a candle and the burning of a
fuel like coal? May be you were able to
guess right: candle burns with a flame
whereas coal does not. Similarly, you will
find many other materials burning
Fig. 4.1 : Burning of magnesium
without a flame. Let us study the chemical
process of burning and the types of flame A chemical process in which a
produced during this process. substance reacts with oxygen to give
off heat is called combustion. The
4.1 What is Combustion? substance that undergoes combustion
Recall the activity of burning of is said to be combustible. It is also called
magnesium ribbon per for med in a fuel. The fuel may be solid, liquid or
Class VII. We learnt that magnesium gas. Sometimes, light is also given off
burns to form magnesium oxide and during combustion, either as a flame or
produces heat and light (Fig. 4.1). as a glow.
We can perform a similar activity with In the reactions mentioned
a piece of charcoal. Hold the piece with above magnesium and charcoal are
a pair of tongs and bring it near the combustible substances.
flame of a candle or a Bunsen burner.
What do you observe?
We find that charcoal burns in air.
We know that coal, too, burns in air We were told that
food is a fuel for
producing carbon dioxide, heat and
our body.
light.

2024-25
 Activity 4.2
(Caution : Be careful while handling
Rightly so. In our body burning candle).
food is broken down by
Fix a lighted candle on a table. Put
reaction with oxygen and
a glass chimney over the candle and
heat is produced. We
learnt that in Class VII. rest it on a few wooden blocks in
such a way that air can enter the
Activity 4.1
Collect some materials like straw,
matchsticks, kerosene oil, paper,
iron nails, stone pieces, glass etc.
Under the supervision of your
teacher try to burn each of these
materials one by one. If combustion
takes place mark the material
(a) (b) (c)
combustible, otherwise mark it
Fig. 4.2: Experiment to show that air is
non-combustible (Table 4.1). essential for burning
Table 4.1 : Combustible and Non- chimney [Fig. 4.2(a)]. Observe what
combustible Substances
happens to the flame. Now remove
Material Combustible Non-
the blocks and let the chimney rest
combustible on the table [Fig. 4.2(b)]. Again
observe the flame. Finally, put a
Wood glass plate over the chimney [Fig.
Paper 4.2(c)]. Watch the flame again. What
happens in the three cases? Does
Iron nails
the flame flicker off? Does it flicker
Kerosene oil and give smoke? Does it burn
Stone piece
unaffected? Can you infer anything
at all about the role played by air in
Straw the process of burning?
Charcoal
We find that for combustion, air is
Matchsticks necessary. The candle burns freely in
Glass case (a) when air can enter the
chimney from below. In case (b), when
Can you name some more air does not enter the chimney from
substances which are combustible? You below, the flame flickers and produces
can add those to Table 4.1. smoke. In case (c), the flame finally
Let us investigate conditions under goes off because the air is not
which combustion takes place. available.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 41

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 is covered with a blanket to extinguish
fire (Fig. 4.3). Can you guess why?
We have read that the sun
produces its own heat and
light. Is it also some kind of
combustion?

In the sun, heat and light are

produced by nuclear reactions. You
will learn about this process in higher
classes.
Fig. 4.3 : Blanket wrapped around a person
whose clothes caught fire
Activity 4.3 Now recall some of your experiences.
Place a piece of burning wood or Does a matchstick burn by itself?
charcoal on an iron plate or Tawa. How does it burn?
Cover it with a glass jar or a You must have had an experience of
tumbler, or a transparent plastic jar. burning a piece of paper. Does it burn
Observe what happens. Does when a burning matchstick is brought
charcoal stop burning after near it?
sometime? Can you think of the Can you burn a piece of wood by
reason why it stops burning? bringing a lighted matchstick near it?
Why do you have to use paper or
You might have heard that when the kerosene oil to start fire in wood or coal?
clothes of a person catch fire, the person Have you heard of forest fires?

During extreme heat

of summer, at some
places dry grass
catches fire. From
the grass, it spreads
to trees, and very
soon the whole forest
is on fire (Fig. 4.4). It
is very difficult to
control such fires.

Fig. 4.4 : Forest fire

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 Do these experiences tell you that We find that a combustible substance
different substances catch fire at cannot catch fire or burn as long as its
different temperatures? temperature is lower than its ignition
The lowest temperature at which a temperature. Have you ever seen
substance catches fire is called its cooking oil catching fire when a frying
ignition temperature. pan is kept for long on a burning stove?
Can you tell now why a matchstick Kerosene oil and wood do not catch fire
does not catch fire on its own at room on their own at room temperature. But,
temperature? Why does the matchstick if kerosene oil is heated a little, it will
start burning on rubbing it on the side catch fire. But if wood is heated a little,
of the matchbox? it would still not catch fire. Does it mean
that ignition temperature of kerosene oil
The history of the matchstick is very is lower than that of wood? Does it mean
old. More than five thousand years that we need to take special care in
ago small pieces of pinewood dipped storing kerosene oil? The following
in sulphur were used as matches in
activity shows that it is essential for a
ancient Egypt. The modern safety
substance to reach ignition temperature
match was developed only about two
hundred years ago.
to burn.
A mixture of antimony trisulphide,
potassium chlorate and white Activity 4.4
phosphorus with some glue and
starch was applied on the head of a (Caution : Be careful while handling
match made of suitable wood. When burning candle).
struck against a rough surface, white
phosphorus got ignited due to the heat Make two paper cups by folding a
of friction. This started the sheet of paper. Pour about 50 mL of
combustion of the match. However, water in one of the cups. Heat both
white phosphorus proved to be the cups separately with a candle
dangerous both for the workers (Fig. 4.5). What do you observe?
involved in the manufacturing of
matches and for the users.
These days the head of the safety
match contains only antimony
trisulphide and potassium chlorate. water
The rubbing surface has powdered
paper
glass and a little red phosphorus
cups
(which is much less dangerous).
When the match is struck against
the rubbing surface, some red
phosphorus gets converted into white Fig. 4.5 : Heating water in a paper cup
phosphorus. This immediately reacts
with potassium chlorate in the What happens to the empty paper
matchstick head to produce enough cup? What happens to the paper cup
heat to ignite antimony trisulphide with water? Does water in this cup
and start the combustion.
become hot?
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 43

2024-25
 If we continue heating
the cup, we can even boil
water in the paper cup.
Can you think of an
explanation for this
phenomenon?
The heat supplied to
the paper cup is
transferred to water by
conduction. So, in the
presence of water, the
ignition temperature of
paper is not reached.
Hence, it does not burn.
The substances which
have very low ignition
temperature and can
easily catch fire with Fig. 4.6: Firemen extinguish the fire by throwing water under pressure
a flame are called
inflammable substances. Examples of Does your city/town have a fire
inflammable substances are petrol, brigade station?
alcohol, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) When a fire brigade arrives, what
etc. Can you list some more inflammable does it do? It pours water on the fire
substances? (Fig. 4.6). Water cools the combustible
material so that its temperature is
4.2 How Do We Control Fire? brought below its ignition
temperature. This prevents the fire
You must have seen or heard of fire from spreading. Water vapours also
breaking out in homes, shops and surround the combustible material,
factories. If you have seen such an helping in cutting off the supply of air.
accident, write a short description in So, the fire is extinguished.
your note book. Also, share the You have learnt that there are three
experience with your classmates. essential requirements for producing
fire. Can you list these requirements?
Find out the telephone number of the
These are: fuel, air (to supply
fire service in your area. If a fire
breaks out in your house or in your oxygen) and heat (to raise the
neighbourhood, the first thing to do temperature of the fuel beyond the
is to call the fire service. ignition temperature). Fire can be
controlled by removing one or more of
these requirements. The job of a fire
It is important that all of us extinguisher is to cut off the supply of
know the telephone numbers
air, or to bring down the temperature
of the fire service.
of the fuel, or both. Notice that the fuel
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 The most common fire
extinguisher is water. But
water works only when
things like wood and paper
are on fire. If electrical
equipment is on fire, water
may conduct electricity
and harm those trying to
douse the fire. Water is
also not suitable for fires
involving oil and petrol. Do
you recall that water is
heavier than oil? So, it Fig. 4.7 : Fire extinguisher
sinks below the oil, and oil
keeps burning on the top.
For fires involving electrical equipment and inflammable materials like
petrol, carbon dioxide (CO2) is the best extinguisher. CO 2, being heavier than
oxygen, covers the fire like a blanket. Since the contact between the fuel and
oxygen is cut off, the fire is controlled. The added advantage of CO2 is that in
most cases it does not harm the electrical equipment.
How do we get the supply of carbon dioxide? It can be stored at high pressure
as a liquid in cylinders. In what form is the LPG stored in cylinders? When
released from the cylinder, CO2 expands enormously in volume and cools down.
So, it not only forms a blanket around the fire, it also brings down the
temperature of the fuel. That is why it is an excellent fire extinguisher. Another
way to get CO 2 is to release a lot of dry powder of chemicals like sodium
bicarbonate (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate. Near the fire, these
chemicals give off CO2.

in most cases cannot be eliminated. We find that the gas burns rapidly
If, for instance, a building catches fire, and produces heat and light. Such
the whole building is the fuel. combustion is known as rapid
4.3 Types of Combustion combustion.
There are substances like
Bring a burning matchstick or a gas
phosphorus which burn in air at room
lighter near a gas stove in the kitchen.
temperature.
Turn on the knob of the gas stove. What
The type of combustion in which
do you observe?
a material suddenly bursts into
CAUTION : Do not handle the gas flames, without the application of any
stove yourself. Ask your parents apparent cause is called spontaneous
to help. combustion.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 45

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 Spontaneous combustion of coal dust
has resulted in many disastrous fires
in coal mines. Spontaneous forest
fires are sometimes due to the heat
of the sun or due to lightning strike.
However, most forest fires are due to
the carelessness of human beings. It
is important to remember that the Fig. 4.8: Colours of a candle flame and the
campfires must be completely flame of a kitchen stove
extinguished before leaving a forest
after a picnic, or a visit.

We generally have fireworks on

festival days. When a cracker is ignited,
a sudden reaction takes place with the
evolution of heat, light and sound. A
large amount of gas formed in the
reaction is liberated. Such a reaction is
called explosion. Explosion can also take
place if pressure is applied on the
cracker.

4.4 Flame
Observe an LPG flame. Can you tell the
colour of the flame. What is the colour
of a candle flame?
Fig. 4.9 : Flames of kerosene lamp, candle and
Recall your experience of burning a Bunsen burner
magnesium ribbon in Class VII. If you
do not have experience of burning the Record your observations and
remaining items in Table 4.2 you can mention whether on burning the
do that now. material forms a flame or not.

Table 4.2 Materials forming Flame on Burning

[Link]. Material Forms flame Does not form flame
1. Candle
2. Magnesium
3. Camphor
4. Kerosene Stove
5. Charcoal

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4.5 Structure of a Flame
Activity 4.5
Light a candle (Caution : Be careful).
Hold a 4-5 cm long thin glass tube
with a pair of tongs and introduce
its one end in the dark zone of a
non-flickering candle flame
(Fig. 4.10). Bring a lighted Fig. 4.11
matchstick near the other end of the
glass tube. Do you see a flame When the candle flame is steady,
caught at this end of the glass tube introduce a clean glass plate/slide into
after a while? If so, what is it that the luminous zone of the flame
produces a flame? Notice that the wax (Fig. 4.11). Hold it there with a pair of
near the heated wick melts quickly. tongs for about 10 seconds. Then
remove it. What do you observe?

Fig. 4.12

Fig. 4.10 A circular blackish ring is formed on

the glass plate/slide. It indicates the
The substances which vapourise deposition of unburnt carbon particles
during burning, give flames. For present in the luminous zone of the
example, kerosene oil and molten wax flame.
rise through the wick and are vapourised Hold a thin long copper wire just
during burning and form flames. inside the non-luminous zone of flame
Charcoal, on the other hand, does not for about 30 seconds (Fig. 4.12).
vapourise and so does not produce a Notice that the portion of the copper
flame. In Activity 4.5, could the vapours wire just outside the flame gets red hot.
of wax coming out of the glass tube be Does it indicate that the non-luminous
the cause of the flame produced? zone of the flame has a high
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 47

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temperature? In fact, this part of the 4.6 What is a Fuel?
flame is the hottest part (Fig. 4.13).
Recall that the sources of heat energy
outer zone of for domestic and industrial purposes
hottest complete are mainly wood, charcoal, petrol,
part combustion (blue) kerosene etc. These substances are
moderately called fuels. A good fuel is one which is
hot middle zone of readily available. It is cheap. It burns
partial combustion easily in air at a moderate rate. It
least (yellow) produces a large amount of heat. It does
hot
not leave behind any undersirable
innermost zone of
substances.
wax candle unburnt wax
vapours (black) There is probably no fuel that could
be considered as an ideal fuel. We
Fig. 4.13 : Different zones of candle flame should look for a fuel which fulfils most
of the requirements for a particular use.
Goldsmiths blow the outermost zone Fuels differ in their cost. Some fuels
of a flame with a metallic blow-pipe for are cheaper than others.
melting gold and silver (Fig. 4.14). Why Make a list of fuels familiar to you.
do they use the outermost zone of the Group them as solid, liquid and gaseous
flame? fuels as in Table 4.3.

4.7 Fuel Efficiency

Suppose you were asked to boil a given
quantity of water using cow dung, coal
and LPG as fuel. Which fuel would you
prefer? Give your reason. You may take
the help of your parents. Do these three
fuels produce the same amount of heat?
The amount of heat energy produced on
complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is
Fig. 4.14 : Goldsmith blowing through a called its calorific value. The calorific
metallic pipe value of a fuel is expressed in a unit

Table 4.3 : Types of Fuels

S. No. Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels

1. Coal Kerosene oil Natural gas

2.
3.

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called kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg). particles. These fine particles are
Calorific values of some fuels are given dangerous pollutants causing
in Table 4.4. respiratory diseases, such as asthma.
2. Incomplete combustion of these
Table 4.4 : Calorific Values of different fuels gives carbon monoxide gas. It is a
Fuels
very poisonous gas. It is dangerous to
Fuel Calorific Value burn coal in a closed room. The carbon
(kJ/kg)
monoxide gas produced can kill persons
sleeping in that room.
Cow dung cake 6000-8000
Wood 17000-22000 Oh! So, that is why we are
Coal 25000-33000 advised never to sleep in a
Petrol 45000 room with burning or
smouldering coal fire in it.
Kerosene 45000
Diesel 45000 3. Combustion of most fuels releases
Methane 50000 carbon dioxide in the environment.
CNG 50000 Increased concentration of carbon
LPG 55000 dioxide in the air is believed to cause
Biogas 35000-40000 global warming.
Hydrogen 150000 Global warming is the rise in
temperature of the atmosphere of the
Burning of Fuels Leads to Harmful earth. This results, among other things,
Products in the melting of polar glaciers, which
leads to a rise in the sea level, causing
The increasing fuel consumption has floods in the coastal areas. Low lying
harmful effects on the environment. coastal areas may even be permanently
1. Carbon fuels like wood, coal, submerged under water.
petroleum release unburnt carbon
4. Burning of coal and diesel releases
For centuries, wood was used as
sulphur dioxide gas. It is an extremely
domestic and industrial fuel. But now
it has been replaced by coal and other suffocating and corrosive gas. Moreover,
fuels like LPG. In many rural parts of petrol engines give off gaseous oxides
our country, people still use wood as a of nitrogen. Oxides of sulphur and
fuel because of its easy availability and nitrogen dissolve in rain water and form
low cost. However, burning of wood gives acids. Such rain is called acid rain. It is
a lot of smoke which is very harmful for
very harmful for crops, buildings
human beings. It causes respiratory
problem. Also, trees provide us with and soil.
useful substances which are lost when The use of diesel and petrol as fuels
wood is used as fuel. Moreover cutting in automobiles is being replaced by
of trees leads to deforestation which is CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), because
quite harmful to the environment, as CNG produces the harmful products in
you learnt in Class VII.
very small amounts. CNG is a cleaner fuel.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 49

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KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ACID RAIN Ü The substances which burn in air are called
combustible.
CALORIFIC VALUE
Ü Oxygen (in air) is essential for combustion.
COMBUSTION Ü During the process of combustion, heat and
light are given out.
DEFORESTATION Ü Ignition temperature is the lowest temperature
at which a combustible substance catches
EXPLOSION fire.
Ü Inflammable substances have very low
FLAME
ignition temperature.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER Ü Fire can be controlled by removing one or more
requirements essential for producing fire.
FUEL Ü Water is commonly used to control fires.
Ü Water cannot be used to control fires involving
FUEL EFFICIENCY
electrical equipment or oils.
GLOBAL WARMING Ü There are various types of combustions such
as rapid combustion, spontaneous
IDEAL FUEL combustion, explosion, etc.
Ü There are three different zones of a flame -
IGNITION
dark zone, luminous zone and non-luminous
TEMPERATURE
zone.
INFLAMMABLE Ü An ideal fuel is cheap, readily available, readily
SUBSTANCES combustible and easy to transport. It has high
calorific value. It does not produce gases or
residues that pollute the environment.
Ü Fuels differ in their efficiency and cost.
Ü Fuel efficiency is expressed in terms of its
calorific value which is expressed in units of
kilojoule per kg.
Ü Unburnt carbon particles in air are dangerous
pollutants causing respiratory problems.
Ü Incomplete combustion of a fuel gives
poisonous carbon monoxide gas.
Ü Increased percentage of carbon dioxide in air
has been linked to global warming.
Ü Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen produced by
the burning of coal, diesel and petrol cause
acid rain which is harmful for crops, buildings
and soil.

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 Exercises

1. List conditions under which combustion can take place.

2. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Burning of wood and coal causes of air.
(b) A liquid fuel, used in homes is .
(c) Fuel must be heated to its before it starts
burning.
(d) Fire produced by oil cannot be controlled by .
3. Explain how the use of CNG in automobiles has reduced pollution in
our cities.
4. Compare LPG and wood as fuels.
5. Give reasons.
(a) Water is not used to control fires involving electrical equipment.
(b) LPG is a better domestic fuel than wood.
(c) Paper by itself catches fire easily whereas a piece of paper wrapped
around an aluminium pipe does not.
6. Make a labelled diagram of a candle flame.
7. Name the unit in which the calorific value of a fuel is expressed.
8. Explain how CO2 is able to control fires.
9. It is difficult to burn a heap of green leaves but dry leaves catch fire easily.
Explain.
10. Which zone of a flame does a goldsmith use for melting gold and silver
and why?
11. In an experiment 4.5 kg of a fuel was completely burnt. The heat produced
was measured to be 180,000 kJ. Calculate the calorific value of the fuel.
12. Can the process of rusting be called combustion? Discuss.
13. Abida and Ramesh were doing an experiment in which water was to be
heated in a beaker. Abida kept the beaker near the wick in the yellow part
of the candle flame. Ramesh kept the beaker in the outermost part of the
flame. Whose water will get heated in a shorter time?

COMBUSTION AND FLAME 51

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 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. Survey the availability of various fuels in your locality. Find out
their cost per kg and prepare a tabular chart showing how many
kJ of various fuels you can get for every rupee.
2. Find out the number, type and location of fire extinguishers available
in your school, nearby shops and factories. Write a brief report about
the preparedness of these establishments to fight fire.
3. Survey 100 houses in your area. Find the percentage of households
using LPG, kerosene, wood and cattle dung as fuel.
4. Talk to people who use LPG at home. Find out what precautions
they take in using LPG.
5. Make a model of a fire extinguisher. Place a short candle and a
slightly taller candle in a small dish filled with baking soda. Place
the dish at the bottom of a large bowl. Light both the candles. Then
pour vinegar into the dish of baking soda. Take care. Do not pour
vinegar on the candles. Observe the foaming reaction. What happens
to the candles? Why? In what order?

baking soda +
vinegar

Fig. 4.15

For more information, visit:

l [Link]/askasci/chem03/[Link]
l [Link]

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 CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

W
e saw in Class VII that Some natural causes of deforestation
Paheli and Boojho had visited are forest fires and severe droughts.
the forest along with Professor
Ahmad and Tibu. They were eager to Activity 5.1
share their experiences with their
Add more causes of deforestation to
classmates. Other children in the class
your list and classify them into
were also eager to share their experiences
natural and man-made.
as some of them had visited Bharatpur
Sanctuary. Some others had heard
about Kaziranga National Park, 5.2 Consequences of
Lockchao Wildlife Sanctuary, Great Deforestation
Nicobar Biosphere Reserve and Tiger Paheli and Boojho recalled the
Reserve, etc. consequences of deforestation. They
remembered that deforestation increases
the temperature and pollution level on
What is the purpose of the earth. It increases the level of carbon
making national parks, dioxide in the atmosphere. Ground water
wildlife sanctuaries and level also gets lowered. They know that
biosphere reserves? deforestation disturbs the balance in
nature. They were told by Professor
5.1 Deforestation and Its Ahmad that if cutting of trees continues,
Causes rainfall and the fertility of the soil will
A great variety of plants and animals
exist on earth. They are essential for the
well-being and survival of mankind. How does deforestation reduce
Today, a major threat to survival of these rainfall on the one hand and
organisms is deforestation. We know lead to floods on the other?
that deforestation means clearing of
forests and using that land for other decr ease. Moreover, there will be
purposes. Trees in the forest are cut for increased chances of natural calamities
some of the purposes mentioned below: such as floods and droughts.
l Procuring land for cultivation. Recall that plants need carbon
l Building houses and factories. dioxide for photosynthesis. Fewer trees
l Making furniture or using wood as would mean that less carbon dioxide will
fuel. be used up resulting in its increased

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amount in the atmosphere. This will lead Biosphere is that part of the earth in
to global warming as carbon dioxide which living organisms exist or which
traps the heat rays reflected by the earth. supports life. Biological diversity or
The increase in temperature on the earth biodiversity, refers to the variety of
disturbs the water cycle and may reduce organisms existing on the earth, their
rainfall. This could cause droughts. interrelationships and their
Deforestation is a major cause which relationship with the environment.
leads to the change in soil properties.
Physical properties of the soil get affected Professor Ahmad organises a visit to
by plantation and vegetation. Fewer a biosphere reserve for Paheli, Boojho and
trees result in more soil erosion. their classmates. He selects a place
Removal of the top layer of the soil named Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve. He
exposes the lower, hard and rocky knows that the plants and animals found
layers. This soil has less humus and is here are similar to those of the upper
less fertile. Gradually the fertile land Himalayan peaks and to those belonging
gets converted into deserts. It is called to the lower western ghats. Professor
desertification. Ahmad believes that the biodiversity
Deforestation also leads to a decrease found here is unique. He requests
in the water holding capacity of the soil. Madhavji, a forest employee, to guide the
The movement of water from the soil children inside the biosphere reserve. He
explains that preserving areas of such
surface into the ground (infiltration rate)
biological importance make them a part
is reduced. So, there are floods. The
of our national heritage.
other properties of the soil like nutrient
Madhavji explains to the children
content, texture etc., also change
that apart from our personal efforts and
because of deforestation.
efforts of the society, government
We have studied in Class VII that we
get many products from forests. List these To protect our flora and fauna and their
products. Will we face shortage of these habitats, protected areas called
products if we continue cutting trees? wildlife sanctuaries, national parks
and biosphere reserves have been
Activity 5.2 earmarked. Plantation, cultivation,
grazing, felling trees, hunting and
Animal life is also affected by poaching are prohibited there.
deforestation. How? List the points Wildlife Sanctuary : Areas where
and discuss them in your class. animals are protected from any
disturbance to them and their habitat.
National Park : Areas reserved for
5.3 Conservation of Forest
wild life where they can freely use the
and Wildlife habitats and natural resources.
Having become aware of the effects of Biosphere Reserve : Large areas of
deforestation, Paheli and Boojho are protected land for conservation of wild
worried. They go to Professor Ahmad life, plant and animal resources and
traditional life of the tribals living in
and ask him how forests and wildlife
the area.
can be saved.
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agencies also take care of the forests and 5.4 Biosphere Reserve
animals. The government lays down
rules, methods and policies to protect Children along with Professor Ahmad
and conserve them. Wildlife sanctuaries, and Madhavji enter the biosphere
national parks, biosphere reserves etc., reserve area. Madhavji explains that
are protected areas for conservation biosphere reserves are the areas meant
of plants and animals present in for conservation of biodiversity. As you
that area. are aware that biodiversity is the variety
of plants, animals and microorganisms
Activity 5.3 generally found in an area. The
biosphere reserves help to maintain the
Find out the number of national biodiversity and culture of that area. A
parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserve may also contain
biosphere reserves in your district, other protected areas in it. The
state and country. Record in Table Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve consists
of one national park named Satpura and
5.1. Show these areas in an outline
two wildlife sanctuaries named Bori and
map of your state and India.
Pachmarhi (Fig. 5.1).

Table 5.1 : Protected Areas for Conservation

Protected Areas — National Park Wildlife Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve

In my district

In my state

In my country

↑N PACHMARHI SANCTUARY
TAWA
TO PIPARIYA
RESERVIOR
NEEMGHAN
PANARPANI GATE
SATPURA NATIONAL PARK
CHURNA PACHMARHI
DHAIN BORI
BORI SANCTUARY

Fig. 5.1 : Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 55

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Activity 5.4 green wealth of the forest. They are
very happy to see tall teak trees and
List the factors disturbing the animals inside the forest. Suddenly,
biodiversity of your area. Some of Paheli finds a rabbit and wants to
these factors and human activities catch it. She starts running after it.
may disturb the biodiversity P r o f e s s o r A h m a d s t o p s h e r. H e
unknowingly. List these human
explains that animals are comfortable
activities. How can these be checked?
and happy in their own habitat. We
Discuss in your class and write a
should not disturb them. Madhavji
brief report in your notebook.
explains that some animals and plants
typically belong to a particular area.
5.5 Flora and Fauna The plants and animals found in a
As the children walk around the particular area are termed flora and
biosphere reserve they appreciate the fauna respectively of that area.

Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns, arjun, etc., are the flora and chinkara, blue-
bull, barking deer, cheetal, leopard, wild dog, wolf, etc. are examples of the fauna
of the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 5.2).

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 5.2 : (a) Wild dog (b) Cheetal (c) Wolf (d) Leopard (e) Fern (f) Jamun tree

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Activity 5.5
Try to identify the flora and fauna
of your area and list them.
I have heard that some of the
endemic species may vanish.
5.6 Endemic Species Is it true?
Soon the group quietly enters the deep
endemic flora of the Pachmarhi
forest. Children are surprised to see a
very big squirrel. This squirrel has a big Biosphere Reserve. Bison, Indian giant
fluffy tail. They are very curious to know squirrel [Fig. 5.3 (b)] and flying squirrel
about it. Madhavji tells them that this are endemic fauna of this area. Professor
is known as the giant squirrel and is Ahmad explains that the destruction of
endemic to this area. their habitat, increasing population and
Endemic species are those species introduction of new species may affect
of plants and animals which are found the natural habitat of endemic species
exclusively in a particular area. They are and endanger their existence.
not naturally found anywhere else. A
particular type of animal or plant may
be endemic to a zone, a state or a country.
Madhavji shows sal and wild mango
(Fig. 5.3 (a)] as two examples of the

Fig. 5.3 (b) : Giant squirrel

Species is a group of population

which are capable of interbreeding.
This means that the members of a
species can reproduce fertile offspring
only with the members of their own
species and not with members of
other species. Members of a species
have common characteristics.

Activity 5.6
Find out the endemic plants and
animals of the region where you live.
Fig. 5.3 (a) : Wild Mango
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5.7 Wildlife Sanctuary instead of their natural habitat? In
Soon Paheli sees a board with ‘Pachmarhi your opinion, will the animals be
Wildlife Sanctuary’ written on it. comfortable in a zoo or in their
Professor Ahmad explains that killing natural habitat?
(poaching) or capturing animals in general
is strictly prohibited and punishable 5.8 National Park
by law in all such places. Wildlife On the roadside there was another
Sanctuaries like reserve forests provide board on which was written ‘Satpura
protection and suitable living conditions National Park’.
to wild animals. He also tells them that Children are now eager to go there.
people living in wildlife sanctuaries are Madhavji tells them that these reserves
allowed to do certain activities such as are large and diverse enough to protect
grazing by their livestock, collecting whole sets of ecosystems. They preserve
medicinal plants, firewood, etc. flora, fauna, landscape and historic
objects of an area. Satpura National
Some of the threatened wild animals
Park is the first Reserve Forest of India.
like black buck, white eyed buck,
elephant, golden cat, pink headed
The finest Indian teak is found in this
duck, gharial, marsh crocodile, forest. There are more than one hundred
python, rhinoceros, etc., are National Parks in India.
protected and preserved in our wild
life sanctuaries. Indian sanctuaries Rock shelters are also found inside
have unique landscapes—broad level the Satpura National Park. These are
forests, mountain forests and bush evidences of prehistoric human life
lands in deltas of big rivers. in these jungles. These give us an
idea of the life of primitive people.
It is a pity that even protected forests Rock paintings are found in these
are not safe because people living in the shelters. A total of 55 rock shelters
neighbourhood encroach upon them have been identified in Pachmarhi
and destroy them. Biosphere Reserve.
Children are reminded of their visit Figures of animals and men
fighting, hunting, dancing and
to the zoo. They recall that zoos are also
playing musical instruments are
places where animals receive protection. depicted in these paintings. Many
tribals still live in the area.

What is the difference between As children move ahead, they see a

a zoo and a wildlife sanctuary? board with ‘Satpura Tiger Reserve’
written on it. Madhavji explains that
Activity 5.7 Project Tiger was launched by the
government to protect the tigers in the
Visit a nearby zoo. Observe the
country. The objective of this project
conditions provided to the animals.
was to ensure the survival and
Were they suitable for the animals?
maintenance of the tiger population in
Can animals live in artificial setting
the country.
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 Are tigers still found in this
forest? I hope I can see a tiger!

Tiger (Fig. 5.4) is one of the many

species which are slowly disappearing
from our forests. But, the Satpura Tiger
Reserve is unique in the sense that a
significant increase in the population of
tigers has been seen here. Once upon a Fig. 5.6 : Barasingha
time, animals like lions, elephants, wild
animals has become difficult because of
disturbances in their natural habitat.
Professor Ahmad tells them that in order
to protect plants and animals strict rules
are imposed in all National Parks.
Human activities such as grazing,
poaching, hunting, capturing of animals
or collection of firewood,
mdicinal plants, etc. are
not allowed
Fig. 5.4 : Tiger
Are only big animals
buffaloes (Fig. 5.5) and barasingha facing extinction?
(Fig. 5.6) were also found in the Satpura
National Park. Animals whose numbers Madhavji tells Paheli that small
are diminishing to a level that they might animals are much more in danger of
face extinction are known as the becoming extinct than the bigger
endangered animals. Boojho is animals. At times, we kill snakes, frogs,
reminded of the dinosaurs which became lizards, bats and owls ruthlessly without
extinct a long time ago. Survival of some realising their importance in the
ecosystem. By killing them we are
harming ourselves. They might be small
in size but their role in the ecosystem
cannot be ignored. They form part of
food chains and food webs.
An ecosystem is made of all the
plants, animals and microorganisms in
an area along with non-living
components such as climate, soil,
river deltas etc.
Fig. 5.5 : Wild buffalo
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 Reservoir to relax for some time. Paheli
observes some of the birds near the
river. Madhavji tells the children that
these are migratory birds. These birds
I wonder if there is
any record of all have flown here from other parts of
endangered species! the world.
Migratory birds fly to far away areas
every year during a particular time
because of climatic changes. They fly
5.9 Red Data Book for laying eggs as the weather in their
natural habitat becomes very cold and
Professor Ahmad explains about Red inhospitable. Birds who cover long
Data Book to the children. He tells distances to reach another land are
them that Red Data Book is the known as migratory birds.
source book which keeps a record of
all the endangered animals and 5.11 Recycling of Paper
plants. Red Data Book is maintained
internationally by an organisation. Professor Ahmad draws attention of
India also maintains Red Data Book the children to another cause of
for plants and animals found deforestation. He tells them that it
takes 17 full grown trees to make one
in India.
tonne of paper. Therefore, we should
5.10 Migration save paper. Professor Ahmad also tells
that paper can be recycled five to seven
The excursion party then enters deeper times for use. If each student saves at
into the forest under the guidance of least one sheet of paper in a day, we
Madhavji. They sit near the Tawa can save many trees in a year. We
should save, reuse used paper and
recycle it. By this we not only save
trees but also save energy and water
needed for manufacturing paper.
Moreover, the amount of har mful
What would happen if we
chemicals used in paper making will
had no wood? Is there
also be reduced.
any alternative
available to wood?
I know that paper is one
of the important products
we get from forests.
I wonder whether Is there any permanent
there are any alternatives solution to the problem
available for paper! of deforestation?

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5.12 Reforestation retain our green wealth for future
generations, plantation of more trees is
Professor Ahmad suggests that the the only option.
answer to deforestation is reforestation. Professor Ahmad told them that in
Reforestation is restocking of the India we have the Forest (Conservation)
destroyed forests by planting new trees. Act. This act is aimed at preservation
The planted trees should generally be and conservation of natural forests and
of the same species which were found meeting the basic needs of the people
in that forest. We should plant at least living in or near the forests.
as many trees as we cut. Reforestation After some rest Madhavji asks the
can take place naturally also. If the children to start heading back because
deforested area is left undisturbed, it re- it is not advisable to stay in the
establishes itself. In natural reforestation jungle after sunset. On getting back,
there is no role of human beings. We Professor Ahmad and the children
have already caused tremendous thank Madhavji for guiding them
damage to our forests. If we have to through this exciting experience.

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KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
BIODIVERSITY Ü Wildlife sanctuary, national park and bio-
BIOSPHERE RESERVE sphere reserve are names given to the areas
meant for conservation and preservation of
DEFORESTATION
forest and wild animals.
DESERTIFICATION Ü Biodiversity refers to the variety of living
organisms in a specific area.
ECOSYSTEM
Ü Plants and animals of a particular area are
ENDANGERED known as the flora and fauna of that area.
SPECIES Ü Endemic species are found only in a particular
area.
ENDEMIC SPECIES
Ü Endangered species are those which are facing
EXTINCT the danger of extinction.
Ü Red Data Book contains a record of
FAUNA
endangered species.
FLORA Ü Migration is the phenomenon of movement of

MIGRATORY BIRDS a species from its own habitat to some other

habitat for a particular time period every year
NATIONAL PARK for a specific purpose like breeding.

RED DATA BOOK Ü We should save, reuse and recycle paper to

save trees, energy and water.
REFORESTATION Ü Reforestation is the restocking of destroyed
forests by planting new trees.
SANCTUARY

Exercises

1. Fill in the blanks.

(a) A place where animals are protected in their natural habitat is
called .
(b) Species found only in a particular area is known as .
(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because of changes.
2. Differentiate between the following.
(a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve
(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary
(c) Endangered and extinct species
(d) Flora and fauna
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 3. Discuss the effects of deforestation on the following.
EXERCISES
(a) Wild animals

(b) Environment

(c) Villages (Rural areas)

(d) Cities (Urban areas)

(e) Earth

(f) The next generation

4. What will happen if.

(a) we go on cutting trees.

(b) the habitat of an animal is disturbed.

(c) the top layer of soil is exposed.

5. Answer in brief.

(a) Why should we conserve biodiversity?

(b) Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild animals. Why?

(c) Some tribals depend on the jungle. How?

(d) What are the causes and consequences of deforestation?

(e) What is Red Data Book?

(f) What do you understand by the term migration?

6. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in factories and for shelter,

trees are being continually cut. Is it justified to cut trees for such projects?
Discuss and prepare a brief report.

7. How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth of your locality?
Make a list of actions to be taken by you.

8. Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.

9. Find out about national parks in your state. Identify and show their location
on the outline map of India.

10. Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by which you can save
paper.

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 63

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 11. Complete the word puzzle.

EXERCISES
Down
1. Species on the verge of extinction.
2. A book carrying information about endangered species.
5. Consequence of deforestation.
Across
1. Species which have vanished.
3. Species found only in a particular habitat.
4. Variety of plants, animals and microorganisms found in an area.

Extended Learning - Activities and Projects

1. Plant at least five different plants in your locality during this
academic year and ensure their maintenance till they grow.
2. Promise yourself that this year you will gift at least 5 plants to your
friends and relatives on their achievements, or on occasions like
birthdays. Ask your friends to take proper care of these plants and
encourage them to gift plants to their friends on such occasions. At
the end of the year count the plants that have been gifted through
this chain.

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 3. Is it justified to prevent tribals from staying in the core area of the
forest? Discuss the matter in your class and note down the points for
and against the motion in your notebook.
4. Study the biodiversity of a park nearby. Prepare a detailed report with
photographs and sketches of the flora and fauna.

5. Make a list of the new information you have gathered from this chapter.
Which information did you find the most interesting and why?
6. Make a list of various uses of papers. Observe currency notes carefully.
Do you find any difference between a currency paper and paper of your
notebook? Find out where currency paper is made.
7. Karnataka Government had launched ‘Project Elephant’ to save Asian
elephants in the state. Find out about this and other such campaigns
launched to protect threatened species.

Did You Know?

1. India has more than half of the world’s wild tigers, 65% of the Asian
elephants, 85% of the great one-horned rhinoceros and 100% of the
Asian lions.
2. India is sixth on a list of 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world. It
contains two of the 34 biodiversity hotspots of the world – Eastern
Himalayas and the Western Ghats. These areas are very rich in
biodiversity.
3. One of the most important factors that threatens wildlife today is habitat
destruction due to encroachment.
4. India contains 172 species of animals considered globally threatened
or 2.9% of the world’s total number of threatened species. Eastern
Himalayas hotspot has merely 163 globally threatened species
including several animal and plant species. India contains globally
important population of some of Asia’s rarest animals such as the
Bengal fox, Marbled cat, Asiatic lion, Indian elephant, Asiatic wild ass,
Indian rhinoceros, gaur, Wild asiatic water buffalo, etc.
For knowing more, you may contact:
l Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Govt. of India
Environment, Forest and Wildlife Department
Indira Paryavaran Bhavan, Jor Bagh Road, New Delhi -110003
Website: [Link]

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 REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

D
o you recall the processes of Table 6.1
digestion, circulation and
respiration which you have S. No. Animal Young one
studied in your previous classes? These 1. Human Baby
processes are essential for the survival
of every individual. You have also learnt 2. Cat
about the process of reproduction in 3. Dog
plants. Reproduction is essential for the
continuation of a species. Imagine what 4. Butterfly
would have happened if organisms had 5. Hen Chick
not reproduced. You will realise that
reproduction is very important as it 6. Cow
ensures the continuation of similar 7. Frog
kinds of individuals, generation after
generation. Just as in plants, there are two modes
You have already learnt in your by which animals reproduce. These are:
previous class about reproduction in (i) Sexual reproduction, and
plants. In this chapter, we shall learn (ii) Asexual reproduction.
how reproduction takes place in
animals. 6.2 Sexual Reproduction
6.1 Modes of Reproduction Try to recall reproduction in plants
which you studied in Class VII. You will
Have you seen the young ones remember that plants that reproduce
of different animals? Try to name some sexually have male and female
of the young ones by completing reproductive parts. Can you name these
Table 6.1 shown in examples at S. No. parts? In animals also, males and
1 and 5. females have different reproductive parts
You must have seen the young or organs. Like plants, the reproductive
ones of various animals being born. parts in animals also produce gametes
Can you tell how chicks and that fuse to form a zygote. It is the zygote
caterpillars are born? How are kittens which develops into a new individual.
and puppies born? Do you think that This type of reproduction beginning
these young ones looked the same from the fusion of male and female
before they were born as they do now? gametes is called sexual reproduction.
Let us find out. Let us find out the reproductive parts

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in humans and study the process of sperm is a single cell with all the usual
reproduction in them. cell components.

Male Reproductive Organs

Head
The male reproductive organs include a
pair of testes (singular, testis), two sperm
ducts and a penis (Fig. 6.1). The testes Middle piece
produce the male gametes called
sperms. Millions of sperms are produced
by the testes. Look at Fig. 6.2 which
shows the picture of a sperm. Though
sperms are very small in size, each has
Tail
a head, a middle piece and a tail. Does
it appear to be a single cell? Indeed, each
Fig. 6.2 : Human sperm

What purpose does the

tail in a sperm serve?
Sperm
duct
Female Reproductive Organs
The female reproductive organs are a pair
of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and
the uterus (Fig. 6.3). The ovary produces
Penis
Oviduct

Ovary
Uterus
Testis
Fig. 6.1: Male reproductive
organs in humans
Fig. 6.3 : Female reproductive organs in
humans

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female gametes called ova (eggs)
(Fig. 6.4). In human beings, a single Sperms
matured egg is released into the oviduct
by one of the ovaries every month.
Uterus is the part where development of
the baby takes place. Like the sperm,
an egg is also a single cell.

Nucleus Ovum

Fig. 6.5 : Fertilisation

you know that the zygote is the

beginning of a new individual?

Fusing
Fig. 6.4 : Human Ovum nuclei

Boojho recalls that the size

of eggs in animals varies.
The egg may be very small
as in humans, much larger
as in hens. Ostrich egg is Fig. 6.6 : Zygote
the largest!
The process of fertilisation is the
meeting of an egg cell from the mother
Fertilisation
and a sperm cell from the father. So,
The first step in the process of the new individual inherits some
reproduction is the fusion of a sperm characteristics from the mother and
and an ovum. When sperms come in some from the father. Look at your
contact with an egg, one of the sperms brother or sister. See if you can recognise
may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of some characters in them similar to those
the egg and the sperm is called of your mother or your father.
fertilisation (Fig. 6.5). During Fertilisation which takes place inside
fertilisation, the nuclei of the sperm and the female body is called internal
the egg fuse to form a single nucleus. fertilisation. Internal fertilisation
This results in the formation of a occurs in many animals including
fertilised egg or zygote (Fig. 6.6). Did humans, cows, dogs and hens.
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 Have you heard of female lays hundreds of eggs. Unlike
test tube babies? hen’s egg, frog’s egg is not covered by a
shell and it is comparatively very
Boojho and Paheli’s teacher once told
delicate. A layer of jelly holds the eggs
them in the class that in some women
oviducts are blocked. These women together and provides protection to the
are unable to bear babies because eggs (Fig. 6.7).
sperms cannot reach the egg for
fertilisation. In such cases, doctors
collect freshly released egg and
sperms and keep them together for a
few hours for IVF or in vitro
fertilisation (fertilisation outside the
body). In case fertilisation occurs,
the zygote is allowed to develop for
about a week and then it is placed in
the mother’s uterus. Complete
development takes place in the uterus
and the baby is born like any other
baby. Babies born through this
technique are called test-tube
babies. This term is actually
misleading because babies cannot Fig. 6.7 : Eggs of frog
grow in test tubes.
As the eggs are laid, the male
You will be surprised to know that deposits sperms over them. Each
in many animals fertilisation takes sperm swims randomly in water with
place outside the body of the female. the help of its long tail. The sperms
In these animals, fertilisation takes come in contact with the eggs. This
place in water. Let us find out how results in fertilisation. This type of
this happens. fertilisation in which the fusion of a
male and a female gamete takes place
Activity 6.1 outside the body of the female is called
Visit some ponds or slow-flowing external fertilisation. It is very
streams during spring or rainy common in aquatic animals such as
season. Look out for clusters of fish, starfish, etc.
f r og’s eggs floating in water.
Write down the colour and size of
the eggs.
Why do fish and
During spring or rainy season, frogs frogs lay eggs in
hundreds whereas a
and toads move to ponds and slow-
hen lays only one
flowing streams. When the male and
egg at a time?
female come together in water, the

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 How could a single cell
Though these animals lay become such a big
hundreds of eggs and release individual?
millions of sperms, all the eggs
do not get fertilised and develop Development of Embryo
into new individuals.
Fertilisation results in the formation of
This is because the eggs and
zygote which begins to develop into an
sperms get exposed to water
embryo [Fig. 6.8(a)]. The zygote divides
movement, wind and rainfall. repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells
Also, there are other animals in [Fig. 6.8(b)]. The cells then begin to form
the pond which may feed groups that develop into different tissues
on eggs. Thus, production and organs of the body. This developing
of large number of eggs and structure is termed an embryo. The
sperms is necessary to embryo gets embedded in the wall of the
ensure fertilisation uterus for further development
of at least [Fig. 6.8(c)].
a few of them. The embryo continues to develop in
the uterus. It gradually develops body

Uterus

Ovary
Zygote

(b)
Embedding
embryo
Uterus
Ovulation wall

(a)

Developing
embryo

(c)
Fig. 6.8 : (a) Zygote formation and development of an embryo from the zygote; (b) Ball of cells
(enlarged); (c) Embedding of the embryo in the uterus (enlarged)
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parts such as hands, legs, head, eyes, place inside the egg shell during this
ears etc. The stage of the embryo in period? After the chick is completely
which all the body parts can be developed it bursts open the egg shell.
identified is called a foetus (Fig. 6.9). In animals which undergo external
When the development of the foetus is fertilisation, development of the embryo
complete, the mother gives birth to takes place outside the female body. The
the baby. embryos continue to grow within their
egg coverings. After the embryos develop,
the eggs hatch. You must have seen
Uterus
numerous tadpoles swimming in ponds
and streams.
Viviparous and Oviparous Animals
We have learnt that some animals give
birth to young ones while some animals
lay eggs which later develop into young
ones. The animals which give birth to
young ones are called viviparous
animals. Those animals which lay eggs
are called oviparous animals. The
following activity will help you
understand better and differentiate
Fig. 6.9 : Foetus in the uterus between viviparous and oviparous
animals.
Internal fertilisation takes place in
hens also. But, do hens give birth to Activity 6.2
babies like human beings and cows? You
Try to observe eggs of the following
know that they do not. Then, how are organisms – frog, lizard, butterfly
chicks born? Let us find out. or moth, hen and crow or any other
Soon after fertilisation, the zygote bird. Were you able to observe eggs
divides repeatedly and travels down the of all of them? Make drawings of the
oviduct. As it travels down, many eggs that you have observed.
protective layers are formed around it.
The hard shell that you see in a hen’s The eggs of a few animals are easy
egg is one such protective layer. to observe because their mothers lay
After the hard shell is formed around them outside their bodies. These are
the developing embryo, the hen finally examples of oviparous animals. But you
lays the egg. The embryo takes about 3 would not be able to collect the eggs of
weeks to develop into a chick. You must a dog, cow or cat. This is because they
have seen the hen sitting on the eggs to do not lay eggs. The mother gives birth
provide sufficient warmth. Did you know to the young ones. These are examples
that development of the chick takes of viviparous animals.

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 Can you now give some more The tadpoles transform into adults
examples of viviparous and oviparous capable of jumping and swimming. The
animals? transformation of the larva into an adult
through drastic changes is called
Young Ones to Adults metamorphosis. What about the
The new individuals which are born or changes that we observe in our body as
hatched from the eggs continue to grow we grow? Do you think we too undergo
till they become adults. In some metamorphosis? In human beings,
animals, the young ones may look very body parts similar to those present in
different from the adults. The life cycle the adults are present from the time
of frog is shown in Fig. 6.10. of birth.
Observe the different stages of frog
starting from the egg to the adult stage. 6.3 Asexual Reproduction
We find that there are three distinct So far, we have learnt about reproduction
stages, that is, egg → tadpole (larva) → in some familiar animals. But what
adult. Don’t the tadpoles look so about very small animals like hydra and
different from the adults? Can you microscopic organisms like amoeba? Do
imagine that these tadpoles would some you know how they reproduce? Let us
day become frogs? find out.

(b) Early tadpole

(a) Eggs

(c) Late tadpole

(d) Adult frog

Fig. 6.10 : Life cycle of frog

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Activity 6.3
Get permanent slides of
hydra. Observe them using
hand lens or a microscope.
Look out for any bulges
from the parent body.
Count the number of
bulges that you see in
different slides. Also, note
the size of the bulges. Draw
the diagram of hydra, as
you see it. Compare it with
Fig. 6.11 : Budding in Hydra
the Fig. 6.11.

In each hydra, there may be one or

more bulges. These bulges are the
developing new individuals and they are
called buds. Recall the presence of buds
in yeast. In hydra too the new individuals (a)
develop as outgrowths from a single
parent. This type of reproduction in
which only a single parent is involved is
called asexual reproduction. Since new
individuals develop from the buds in Dividing nucleus
hydra, this type of asexual reproduction
(b)
is called budding.
Another method of asexual
reproduction is observed in the
microscopic organism, amoeba. Let us
see how this happens.
You have already learnt about the
structure of amoeba. You will recall that (c)
amoeba is a single-celled organism
[Fig. 6.12(a)]. It begins the process of
reproduction by the division of its Daughter amoebae
nucleus into two nuclei [Fig. 6.12(b)].
This is followed by division of its body
into two, each part receiving a nucleus
[Fig. 6.12(c)]. Finally, two amoebae are
produced from one parent amoeba (d)
[Fig. 6.12(d)]. This type of asexual Fig. 6.12 : Binary fission in Amoeba
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reproduction in which an animal there are other methods by which a
reproduces by dividing into two single parent reproduces young ones.
individuals is called binary fission. You will study about these in your
Apart from budding and binary fission, higher classes.

Story of Dolly, the Clone

Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a
complete organism. Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first
time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh,
Scotland. They successfully cloned a sheep named Dolly [Fig. 6.13 (c)]. Dolly was
born on 5th July 1996 and was the first mammal to be cloned.

(a) Finn Dorsett sheep (b) Scottish blackface ewe (c) Dolly

Fig. 6.13
During the process of cloning Dolly, a cell was collected from the mammary gland
of a female Finn Dorsett sheep [Fig. 6.13 (a)]. Simultaneously, an egg was obtained
from a Scottish blackface ewe [Fig. 6.13 (b)]. The nucleus was removed from the
egg. Then, the nucleus of the mammary gland cell from the Finn Dorsett sheep
was inserted into the egg of the Scottish blackface ewe whose nucleus had been
removed. The egg thus produced was implanted into the Scottish blackface ewe.
Development of this egg followed normally and finally Dolly was born. Though
Dolly was given birth by the Scottish blackface ewe, it was found to be absolutely
identical to the Finn Dorsett sheep from which the nucleus was taken. Since the
nucleus from the egg of the Scottish blackface ewe was removed, Dolly did not
show any character of the Scottish blackface ewe. Dolly was a healthy clone of
the Finn Dorsett sheep and produced several offspring of her own through normal
sexual means. Unfortunately, Dolly died on 14th February 2003 due to a certain
lung disease.
Since Dolly, several attempts have been made to produce cloned mammals.
However, many die before birth or die soon after birth. The cloned animals are
many-a-times found to be born with severe abnormalities.

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KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ASEXUAL Ü There are two modes by which animals repro-
REPRODUCTION duce. These are: (i) Sexual reproduction, and
(ii) Asexual reproduction.
BINARY FISSION Ü Reproduction resulting from the fusion of male
and female gametes is called sexual
BUDDING reproduction.
Ü The reproductive organs in the female include
EGGS ovaries, oviducts and uterus.
Ü The reproductive organs in male include
EMBRYO testes, sperm ducts and penis.
Ü The ovary produces female gametes called ova
EXTERNAL
and the testes produce male gametes called
FERTILISATION sperms.
Ü The fusion of ovum and sperm is called fertilisation.
FERTILISATION The fertilised egg is called a zygote.
Ü Fertilisation that takes place inside the female
FOETUS
body is called internal fertilisation. This is
observed in human beings and other animals
INTERNAL
such as hens, cows and dogs.
FERTILISATION Ü Fertilisation that takes place outside the
female body is called external fertilisation. This
METAMORPHOSIS is observed in frogs, fish, starfish, etc.
Ü The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to an
OVIPAROUS ANIMALS
embryo.
Ü The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the
SEXUAL
uterus for further development.
REPRODUCTION Ü The stage of the embryo in which all the body
parts are identifiable is called foetus.
SPERMS
Ü Animals such as human beings, cows and
dogs which give birth to young ones are called
VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS
viviparous animals.
ZYGOTE Ü Animals such as hen, frog, lizard and butterfly
which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
Ü The transformation of the larva into adult
through drastic changes is called
metamorphosis.
Ü The type of reproduction in which only a single
parent is involved is called asexual
reproduction.
Ü In hydra, new individuals develop from buds.
This method of asexual reproduction is called
budding.
Ü Amoeba reproduces by dividing itself into two.
This type of asexual reproduction is called
binary fission.

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 Exercises

1. Explain the importance of reproduction in organisms.

2. Describe the process of fertilisation in human beings.

3. Choose the most appropriate answer.
(a) Internal fertilisation occurs

(i) in female body.

(ii) outside female body.
(iii) in male body.

(iv) outside male body.

(b) A tadpole develops into an adult frog by the process of
(i) fertilisation (ii) metamorphosis (iii) embedding (iv) budding

(c) The number of nuclei present in a zygote is

(i) none (ii) one (iii) two (iv) four
4. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).

(a) Oviparous animals give birth to young ones. ( )

(b) Each sperm is a single cell. ( )
(c) External fertilisation takes place in frog. ( )

(d) A new human individual develops from a cell called gamete. ( )

(e) Egg laid after fertilisation is made up of a single cell. ( )
(f) Amoeba reproduces by budding. ( )

(g) Fertilisation is necessary even in asexual reproduction. ( )

(h) Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction. ( )
(i) A zygote is formed as a result of fertilisation. ( )

(j) An embryo is made up of a single cell. ( )

5. Give two differences between a zygote and a foetus.
6. Define asexual reproduction. Describe two methods of asexual reproduction
in animals.
7. In which female reproductive organ does the embryo get embedded?
8. What is metamorphosis? Give examples.

9. Differentiate between internal fertilisation and external fertilisation.

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 10. Complete the crossword puzzle using the hints given below.
EXERCISES Across

1. The process of the fusion of the gametes.

6. The type of fertilisation in hen.
7. The term used for bulges observed on the sides of the body of hydra.

8. Eggs are produced here.

Down
2. Sperms are produced in these male reproductive organs.

3. Another term for in vitro fertilisation.

4. These animals lay eggs.
5. A type of fission in amoeba.

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Visit a poultry farm. Talk to the manager of the farm and try to find
out the answers to the following.
(a) What are layers and broilers in a poultry farm?
(b) Do hens lay unfertilised eggs?
(c) How can you obtain fertilised and unfertilised eggs?
(d) Are the eggs that we get in the stores fertilised or unfertilised?
(e) Can you consume fertilised eggs?
(f) Is there any difference in the nutritional value of fertilised
and unfertilised eggs?

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 2. Observe live hydra yourself and learn how they reproduce by doing
the following activity:
During the summer months collect water weeds from ponds or ditches
along with the pond water and put them in a glass jar. After a day or
so you may see several hydra clinging to the sides of the jar.
Hydra is transparent, jelly-like and with tentacles. It clings to the
jar with the base of its body. If the jar is shaken, the hydra will
contract instantly into a small blob, at the same time drawing its
tentacles in.
Now take out few hydras from the jar and put them on a watch
glass. Using a hand lens or a binocular or dissection microscope,
observe the changes that are taking place in their body. Note down
your observations.
3. The eggs we get from the market are generally the unfertilised ones.
In case you wish to observe a developing chick embryo, get a fertilised
egg from the poultry or hatchery which has been incubated for 36
hours or more. You may then be able to see a white disc-like structure
on the yolk. This is the developing embryo. Sometimes if the heart
and blood vessels have developed you may even see a red spot.
4. Talk to a doctor. Find out how twinning occurs. Look for any twins
in your neighbourhood, or among your friends. Find out if the twins
are identical or non-identical. Also find out why identical twins are
always of the same sex? If you know of any story about twins, write
it in your own words.
For more information on animal reproduction, you can visit :
l [Link]
l [Link]/teen/sexual-health

Did You Know?

An interesting organisation is observed in a honey bee hive, a colony of several
thousand bees. Only one bee in the colony lays eggs. This bee is called the
queen bee. All other female bees are worker bees. Their main job is to build the
hive, look after the young and feed the queen bee adequately to keep her
healthy so that she can lay eggs. A queen bee lays thousands of eggs. The
fertilised eggs hatch into females, while the unfertilised eggs give rise to males,
called drones. It is the job of the worker bees to maintain the temperature of
the hive at around 35°C to incubate the eggs.

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 REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE

I
n the previous chapter, you have no longer a child but are on the way to
learnt how animals reproduce. It is becoming an adult.
only after ‘growing up’ to a certain
age that human beings and many other
animals can reproduce. Why can I wonder how long this
humans reproduce only after a certain period marked by changes
age? in the body will last!
In this chapter, you will learn about
changes that take place in the human
body after which a person becomes
capable of reproduction. It is a strange period of life
In Chapter 6, you have learnt about when you are neither a child nor
human reproductive organs. Here, we an adult. I wonder whether this
shall discuss the role that hormones play period between childhood and
in bringing about changes that make a adulthood had a special name!
child grow into an adult.
Growing up is a natural process. The
7.1 Adolescence and Puberty period of life, when the body undergoes
changes, leading to reproductive
Boojho was celebrating his 12th
maturity, is called adolescence.
birthday. After his friends left, Boojho
Adolescence begins around the age of
and Paheli began chatting with their
11 and lasts upto 18 or 19 years of age.
parents. Paheli studies in an all-girls
Since this period covers the ‘teens’ (13
school. She started laughing. She
to 18 or 19 years of age), adolescents
remarked that many of Boojho’s school are also called ‘teenagers’. In girls,
friends, whom she met after a year, had adolescence may begin a year or two
suddenly shot up in height. Some of earlier than in boys. Also, the period of
them were looking very funny with a adolescence varies from person to person.
hairy line above their lips. Her mother The human body undergoes several
explained that the boys had grown up. changes during adolescence. These
Growth begins from the day one is changes mark the onset of puberty. The
born. But upon crossing the age of 10 most important change which marks
or 11, there is a sudden spurt in growth puberty is that boys and girls become
which becomes noticeable. The changes capable of reproduction. Puberty ends
taking place in the body are part of when an adolescent reaches reproductive
growing up. They indicate that you are maturity.

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 the tallest and who might be the
shortest in your class.
Paheli and Boojho
realised that sudden
Age in % of full height
increase in height and
hairy line above the lips Years Boys Girls
in boys were signs of
adolescence. They 8 72% 77%
wanted to know more
about other changes at 9 75% 81%
puberty.
10 78% 84%

11 81% 88%

12 84% 91%
7.2 Changes at Puberty
13 88% 95%
Increase in Height
The most conspicuous change during 14 92% 98%
puberty is the sudden increase in 15 95% 99%
height. At this time the long bones, that
is, the bones of the arms and the legs 16 98% 99.5%
elongate and make a person tall.
17 99% 100%
Activity 7.1
18 100% 100%
The following chart gives the
average rate of growth in height of
boys and girls with age. The figures
in columns 2 and 3, give the Calculation for full height (cm)
percentage of the height a person Present height (cm)
has reached at the age given in × 100
% of full height at this age
column 1. For example, by the age (as given in the chart)
11, a boy has reached 81% of his
probable full height, while a girl Example:
has reached 88% of her full
height. These figures are only A boy is 9 years old and 120 cm
representative and there may be tall. At the end of the growth period
individual variations. he is likely to be
Use the Table for your friends
and work out how tall they are likely 120
× 100 cm = 160 cm tall
to be. Find out who is likely to be 75

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Activity 7.2 There is no need for Paheli to worry.
All parts of the body do not grow at the
Use the data given in Activity 7.1 to same rate. Sometimes the arms and legs
draw a graph. Take age on the
or hands and feet of adolescents look
X-axis and per cent growth in height
oversized and out of proportion with the
on the Y-axis. Highlight the point
body. But soon the other parts catch
representing your age on the graph.
up and result in a proportionate body.
Find out the percentage of height
you have already reached. Calculate You must have noticed that height
the height you might eventually of an individual is more or less similar
reach. Tally your graph with the one to that of some family member. This is
given here (Fig. 7.1). because height depends on the genes
inherited from parents. It is, however,
very important to eat the right kind of
food during these growing years. This
helps the bones, muscles and other
parts of the body get adequate
nourishment for growth. You will find
nutritional needs of adolescents
discussed later in the lesson.

Change in Body Shape

Have you noticed that boys in your class
have broader shoulders and wider chests
than boys in junior classes? This is
Fig. 7.1 : Graph showing percentage of height because they have entered the age of
with age puberty when shoulders generally
broaden as a result of growth. In girls,
Initially, girls grow faster than boys the region below the waist becomes
but by about 18 years of age, both reach wider.
their maximum height. The rate of In boys, the muscles of the body grow
growth in height varies in different more prominently than in the girls.
individuals. Some may grow suddenly
Thus, changes occurring in adolescent
at puberty and then slow down, while
boys and girls are different.
others may grow gradually.
Voice Change
Did you notice that sometimes the voice
of some of the boys in your class cracks?
I am worried. Though I
At puberty, the voice box or the larynx
have become taller, my
begins to grow. Boys develop larger voice
face looks much smaller
compared to my body. boxes. The growing voice box in boys can
be seen as a protruding part of the throat
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called Adam’s apple (Fig. 7.2). In girls, and pimples on the face at this time
the larynx is hardly visible from the because of the increased activity of these
outside because of its small size. glands in the skin.
Generally, girls have a high pitched voice,
whereas boys have a deep voice. In Development of Sex Organs
adolescent boys, sometimes, the muscles Look up Fig. 6.1 and 6.3 of the
of the growing voice box go out of control previous lesson which show sex
and the voice becomes hoarse. This state organs of humans. At puberty, male
may remain for a few days or weeks after sex organs like the testes and penis
which the voice becomes normal. develop completely. The testes also
begin to produce sperms. In girls, the
ovaries enlarge and eggs begin to
Adam’s mature. Also ovaries start releasing
apple mature eggs.

Reaching Mental, Intellectual and

Emotional Maturity
Adolescence is also a period of change
in a person’s way of thinking.
Adolescents are more independent than
before and are also self conscious.
Intellectual development takes place and
Fig. 7.2 : Adam’s apple in a grown up boy
they tend to spend considerable time
thinking. In fact, it is often the time in
one’s life when the brain has the
greatest capacity for learning.
Many of my classmates Sometimes, however, an adolescent may
have a hoarse voice. Now I feel insecure while trying to adjust to
know why? the changes in the body and mind. But
as adolescent learners, you should know
Increased Activity of Sweat and
that there is no reason to feel insecure.
Sebaceous Glands
These changes are a natural part of
During puberty the secretion of sweat growing up.
glands and sebaceous glands (oil glands)
increases. Many young people get acne 7.3 Secondary Sexual
A few glands such as sweat glands,
Characters
oil glands and salivary glands release You have learnt in Chapter 6, that
their secretions through ducts. testes and ovaries are the reproductive
Endocrine glands release hormones organs. They produce the gametes,
directly into the bloodstream. So, they that is, sperms and ova. In girls,
are also termed ductless glands.
breasts begin to develop at puberty
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and boys begin to grow facial hair, that The testes and ovaries secrete sex
is, moustaches and beard. As these hormones. You have just learnt that
features help to distinguish the male these hormones are responsible for the
from the female they are called male and female secondary sexual
secondary sexual characters. Boys characters. Further, the sex hormones
also develop hair on their chest. In are under the control of hormones from
both, boys and girls, hair grows under the pituitary gland (Fig. 7.3). The
the arms and in the region above the pituitary secretes many hormones, one
thighs or the pubic region. of which makes ova mature in the
ovaries and sperms form in the testes.
Both Boojho and Paheli wish to know
what initiates changes at puberty.

The changes which occur at

adolescence are controlled by
hormones. Hormones are chemical
substances. These are secretions from
endocrine glands, or endocrine system.
The male hormone or testosterone
begins to be released by the testes at
the onset of puberty. This causes
changes in boys about which you have
just learnt, for example, the growth of
facial hair. Once puberty is reached in
girls, ovaries begin to produce the female
hormone or estrogen which makes the
breasts develop. Milk secreting glands
or mammary glands develop inside the
breasts. The production of these
hormones is under the control of
another hormone secreted from an
endocrine gland called pituitary gland.
Fig. 7.3 : The onset of puberty is controlled by
7.4 Role of Hormones in hormones
Initiating Reproductive
Function
Paheli and Boojho have now
Endocrine glands release hormones understood that puberty marks the
into the bloodstream to reach a beginning of the reproductive period
particular body part called target site. when one becomes capable of
The target site responds to the reproduction. But they want to know
hormone. There are many endocrine if reproductive life, once begun,
glands or ductless glands in the body. continues, or it ends some time.

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7.5 Reproductive Phase of Menstrual cycle is controlled by
Life in Humans hormones. The cycle includes the
maturation of the egg, its release,
Adolescents become capable of thickening of uterine wall and its
reproduction when their testes and breakdown if pregnancy does not
ovaries begin to produce gametes. The occur. In case the egg is fertilised it
capacity for maturation and production begins to divide and then gets
of gametes lasts for a much longer time embedded in the uterus for further
in males than in females. development as you have learnt in
In females, the reproductive phase of Chapter 6 (Fig. 6.8).
life begins at puberty (10 to 12 years of
age) and generally lasts till the age of 7.6 How is the Sex of the
approximately 45 to 50 years. The ova Baby Determined?
begin to mature with the onset of
puberty. One ovum matures and is
released by one of the ovaries once in
about 28 to 30 days. During this
period, the wall of the uterus becomes I heard my mother and my
thick so as to receive the egg, in case aunt talking about my cousin
who is going to have a baby.
it is fertilised and begins to develop.
They were discussing whether
This results in pregnancy. If
she would give birth to a boy
fertilisation does not occur, the or a girl. I wonder what makes
released egg, and the thickened lining the fertilised egg develop
of the uterus along with its blood either into a boy or a girl!
vessels are shed off. This causes
bleeding in women which is called
Boy or Girl?
menstruation. Menstruation occurs
once in about 28 to 30 days. The first Inside the fertilised egg or zygote is the
menstrual flow begins at puberty and instruction for determining the sex of
is termed menarche. At 45 to 50 years the baby. This instruction is present in
of age, the menstrual cycle stops. the thread-like structures, called
Stoppage of menstruation is termed chromosomes in the fertilised egg.
menopause. Initially, menstrual cycle Chromosomes are present inside the
may be irregular. It take some time to nucleus of every cell. All human beings
become regular. have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the
nuclei of their cells. Two chromosomes
out of these are the sex chromosomes,
named X and Y. A female has two X
Paheli says that the chromosomes, while a male has one X
reproductive life of a and one Y chromosome. The gametes
woman lasts from (egg and sperm) have only one set of
menarche to menopause.
chromosomes. The unfertilised egg
Is she right?
always has one X chromosome. But
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sperms are of two kinds. One kind has and ovaries to produce their hormones.
an X chromosome, and the other kind You have alr eady learnt that the
has a Y chromosome. pituitary gland is an endocrine gland.
See Fig. 7.4. When a sperm It is attached to the brain.
containing X chromosome fertilises the Apart from the pituitary, the testes
egg, the zygote would have two X and the ovaries, there are other
chromosomes and develop into a female endocrine glands in the body such as
child. If the sperm contributes a Y thyroid, pancreas and adrenals
chromosome to the egg (ovum) at (Fig. 7.5).
fertilisation, the zygote would develop
into a male child.
sperms pituitary
gland

thyroid gland

adrenal
gland

eggs
pancreas

position of
the ovary in
the female

boy girl testis

Fig. 7.4 : Sex determination in humans

Now you know that the sex

chromosomes of the father determine the Fig. 7.5 : Position of endocrine glands in the
sex of an unborn baby. The belief that human body
the mother is responsible for the sex of
Boojho and Paheli had once visited
her baby is completely wrong and to
their aunt who was a doctor and
blame her for this is totally unjustified.
remembered that a boy named Kaka had
7.7 Hormones other than a very big and bulging throat. Their aunt
had told them that Kaka was suffering
Sex Hormones from ‘goitre’, a disease of the thyroid
Look at Fig. 7.3 again. The hormones gland. Kaka’s thyroid gland was not
secreted by the pituitary stimulate testes producing the hormone thyroxine.
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Their aunt also told them that their controlled by insect hormones. In a
uncle was suffering from ‘diabetes’ frog, it is controlled by thyroxine, the
because his pancreas was not producing hormone produced by thyroid.
the hormone insulin in sufficient Thyroxine production requires the
quantities. Boojho and Paheli then presence of iodine in water. If the water
asked their aunt about the adrenal in which the tadpoles are growing does
glands, which are also shown in the not contain sufficient iodine, the
chart hung on the wall of her clinic. The tadpoles cannot become adults.
aunt told them that adrenal glands
secrete hormones which maintain the
correct salt balance in the blood.
If people do not have
Adrenals also produce the hormone enough iodine in their diet,
adrenalin. It helps the body to adjust will they get goitre caused
to stress when one is very angry, by lack of thyroxine?
embarrassed or worried.
Thyroid and adrenals secrete their
hormones when they receive orders from Activity 7.3
the pituitary through its hormones.
Pituitary also secretes growth hormone
which is necessary for the normal Collect information from magazines
growth of a person. or from doctors and prepare a note
on the importance of consuming
iodised salt. You can also look for
this information on the internet.

Are there hormones in

7.9 Reproductive Health
other animals also? Have
they any role to play in The physical and mental well being of
reproduction? an individual is regarded as an
individual’s health. To keep the body
healthy, every human being, at any age,
7.8 Role of Hormones in needs to have a balanced diet. The
person must also observe personal
Completing the Life hygiene and undertake adequate
History of Insects and physical exercise.
Frogs During adolescence, however, these
You have already learnt about the life become even more essential as the body
cycle of the frog. The tadpole passes is growing.
through certain stages to become a frog
(Chapter 6). This change from larva to Nutritional Needs of the Adolescents
adult is called metamorphosis Adolescence is a stage of rapid growth
(Fig. 6.10). Metamorphosis in insects is and development. Hence the diet for an
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adolescent has to be carefully planned. Activity 7.5
You have already learnt what a balanced
Get ideas from the pictures given in
diet is. Recall that a balanced diet means
Fig.7.6. Prepare charts or posters
that the meals include proteins,
and paste them in the class so that
carbohydrates, fats and vitamins in you are aware of the diet for
requisite proportions. Our Indian meal adolescents. You may use your
of roti/rice, dal (pulses) and vegetables creative ideas and present it like an
is a balanced meal. Milk is a balanced advertisement. You may even
food in itself. Fruits also provide organise a competition on this topic.
nourishment. For infants, mother’s milk
provides all the nourishment that
they need.
Iron builds blood and iron-rich food
meat
such as leafy vegetables, jaggery, meat,
vegetables
citrus, Indian gooseberry (amla) are good
for adolescents.
milk and
Check items for lunch and dinner in eggs
your meal. Is the meal balanced and
nutritious? Does it include cereals
which give energy and milk, meat, nuts
and pulses which provide proteins for
growth? Also, does it include fats and
fruits
sugar that give energy? What about
fruits and vegetables which are
protective foods? Chips and packed or
tinned snacks, though very tasty
should never replace regular meals as
they do not have adequate nutritional
value.
grains
Activity 7.4
Fig. 7.6 : Nutritious items of food
Make a group with your friends.
Write down the items of food in your Personal Hygiene
breakfast, lunch and dinner you
Everyone should have a bath at least
had on the previous day. Identify
once everyday. It is more necessary for
the items responsible for proper
teenagers because the increased activity
growth. Also identified the junk
of sweat glands sometimes makes the
food that you consumed the
body smelly. All parts of the body should
previous day.
be washed and cleaned everyday. If

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cleanliness is not maintained there are Activity 7.6
chances of catching bacterial infection.
Girls should take special care of Collect data on the number of
cleanliness during the time of menstrual children in your class who exercise
flow. They should keep track of their regularly and who do not exercise
menstrual cycle and be prepared for the regularly. Did you notice any
onset of menstruation. Use sanitary difference in their fitness and
napkin or clean homemade pads. health? Prepare a report on the
Change pads after every 4–5 hours as benefits of regular exercise.
per the requirement.
Physical exercise
Say “NO” to Drugs
Walking and playing in fresh air keeps Adolescence is a period of much
the body fit and healthy. All young boys activity in the body and mind which
and girls should take walks, exercise is a normal part of growing up. So do
and play outdoor games. not feel confused or insecure. If
Myths, Taboos, Do’s and Don’ts
anybody suggests that you will get
relief if you take some drugs, just say
You have learnt here and from Chapter
6 the scientific facts related to human ‘No’ unless prescribed by the doctor.
reproduction. There are many wrong Drugs are addictive. If you take them
notions which you should now be able once, you feel like taking them again
to discard as informed adolescents. For and again. They harm the body in the
example, there are myths and taboos long run. They ruin health and
regarding bodily changes that
happiness.
adolescents experience. Some of these
are given below and you can now argue You must have heard about AIDS
why these are myths and not facts. which is caused by a dangerous virus,
1. A girl becomes pregnant if HIV. This virus can pass on to a
she looks at boys during normal person from an infected
menstruation. person by sharing the syringes used
2. The mother is responsible for the for injecting drugs. It can also be
sex of her child.
3. A girl should not be allowed to transmitted to an infant from the
work in the kitchen during infected mother through her milk. The
menstruation. virus can also be transmitted through
You may come across many other myths sexual contact with a person infected
and taboos. Discard them. with HIV.

Adolescent Pregnancy
You might be knowing that in our country, the legal age for marriage is 18 years
for girls and 21 years for boys. This is because teenage mothers are not prepared
mentally or physically for motherhood. Early marriage and motherhood cause health
problems in the mother and the child. It also curtails employment opportunities for
the young woman and may cause mental agony as she is not ready for
responsibilities of motherhood.

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KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ADAM’S APPLE Ü Humans become capable of reproduction
after puberty sets in. Children between the
ADOLESCENCE
ages of 11 and 19 years are called adolescents.
ADRENALIN Ü The onset of puberty brings about growth of
the reproductive organs. Hair grow at
BALANCED DIET
various places on the body. Breasts develop
ENDOCRINE GLANDS in girls and facial hair (moustache and beard)
appear in boys. Voice of boys becomes hoarse
ESTROGEN
as voice box enlarges during adolescence.
HORMONES Ü Children gain height during adolescence.
Ü The onset of puberty and maturity of
INSULIN
reproductive parts are controlled by hormones.
LARYNX Ü Hormones are secretions of endocrine glands
which pour them directly into the blood stream.
PITUITARY GLAND
Ü Pituitary gland secretes hormones which
PUBERTY include growth hormone and hormones that
make other glands such as the testes, ovaries,
REPRODUCTIVE thyroids and adrenals, secrete hormones.
HEALTH Pancreas secretes insulin, thyroid produces

SECONDARY SEXUAL thyroxine and adrenals produce adrenalin.

CHARACTERS Ü Testosterone is the male hormone and

estrogen, the female hormone. The uterine wall
SEX CHROMOSOMES in females prepares itself to receive the
developing fertilised egg. In case there is no
TARGET SITE
fertilisation, the thickened lining of the uterine
TESTOSTERONE wall breaks down and goes out of the body
along with blood. This is called menstruation.
THYROXINE
Ü Sex of the unborn child depends on whether
VOICE BOX the zygote has XX or XY chromosomes.
Ü It is important to eat balanced food and
maintain personal hygiene during
adolescence.

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 Exercises

1. What is the term used for chemical secretions of endocrine glands

responsible for changes taking place in the body?
2. Define adolescence.
3. What is menstruation? Explain.

4. List changes in the body that take place at puberty.

5. Prepare a Table having two columns depicting names of endocrine glands
and hormones secreted by them.

6. What are sex hormones? Why are they named so? State their function.
7. Choose the correct option.
(a) Adolescents should be careful about what they eat, because

(i) proper diet develops their brains.

(ii) proper diet is needed for the rapid growth taking place in their
body.

(iii) adolescents feel hungry all the time.

(iv) taste buds are well developed in teenagers.
(b) Reproductive age in women starts when their

(i) menstruation starts.

(ii) breasts start developing.
(iii) body weight increases.

(iv) height increases.

(c) The right meal for adolescents consists of
(i) chips, noodles, coke.

(ii) chapati, dal, vegetables.

(iii) rice, noodles and burger.
(iv) vegetable cutlets, chips and lemon drink.

8. Write notes on—

(a) Adam’s apple.
(b) Secondary sexual characters.

(c) Sex determination in the unborn baby.

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 9. Word game : Use the clues to work out the words.
EXERCISES Across
3. Protruding voice box in boys
4. Glands without ducts
7. Endocrine gland attached to brain
8. Secretion of endocrine glands
9. Pancreatic hormone
10. Female hormone
Down
1. Male hormone
2. Secretes thyroxine
3. Another term for teenage
5. Hormone reaches here through blood stream
6. Voice box
7. Term for changes at adolescence

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 10. The table below shows the data on likely heights of boys and girls as they
grow in age. Draw graphs showing height and age for both boys and
girls on the same graph paper. What conclusions can be drawn from
these graphs?

Age Height (cm)

(Years) Boys Girls
0 53 53
4 96 92
8 114 110
12 129 133
16 150 150
20 173 165

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Find out from your elder relatives about their awareness of the
legal status of early marriage. You yourself may get information on
it from your teacher, parents, a doctor or the internet. Write a two-
minute speech explaining why early marriage is not good for the
couple.
2. Collect newspaper cuttings and information in magazines about HIV/
AIDS. Write a one page article of 15 to 20 sentences on HIV/AIDS.
3. In our country, according to 2011 census, there are 940 adolescent
females for every 1000 males. Find out.
(a) the concerns of the community regarding this low ratio.
Remember that the chance of having a boy or a girl is equal.
(b) what amniocentesis is and how useful this technique is. Why
is its use for identification of sex of the unborn child banned
in India?
4. Put your ideas together and write a short note on the importance of
knowing facts about reproduction.
For more information visit :
l [Link]/teen/sexual_health/
l [Link]

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 FORCE AND PRESSURE

I
n Class VII, you have learnt how by a batsman? (Fig. 8.1). In all these
objects move. Do you recall how we situations the ball is either made to
can decide whether an object is move faster or slower or its direction
moving faster than the other? What does of motion is changed.
the distance moved by an object in unit We often say that a force has been
time indicate? You also know that a applied on a ball when it is kicked,
moving object like a ball rolling on the pushed, thrown or flicked. What is a
ground slows down. Sometimes it may force? What can it do to bodies on which
change its direction of motion. It is also it is applied? We shall seek answers to
possible that the ball may slow down such questions in this chapter.
and also change its direction. Have you
ever wondered what makes an object 8.1 Force – A Push or a Pull
slow down or go faster, or change its
direction of motion? Actions like picking, opening,
Let us recall some of our everyday shutting, kicking, hitting, lifting,
experiences. What do you do to make flicking, pushing, pulling are often
a football move? What do you do to used to describe certain tasks. Each
make a moving ball move faster? How of these actions usually results in
does a goalkeeper stop a ball? A some kind of change in the state of
hockey player changes the direction motion of an object. Can these terms
of the moving ball with a flick of the be replaced with one or more terms?
stick. How do fielders stop a ball hit Let us find out.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 8.1 : (a) A goal keeper saving a goal, (b) A hockey player flicking a ball, and
(c) A fielder stopping a ball

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Activity 8.1
Table 8.1 gives some examples of familiar situations involving motion of objects.
You can add more such situations or replace those given here. Try to identify
action involved in each case as a push and/or a pull and record your observations.
One example has been given to help you.

Table 8.1 : Identifying Actions as Push or Pull

S. Description of Action : (pushing/ pulling/picking/ Action can be

No. the situation hitting/lifting/ lowering/flying/ grouped as a
kicking/ throwing/shutting/
flicking) Push Pull

1. Moving a book Pushing Pulling Lifting — Yes Yes

placed on a table

2. Opening or
shutting a door

3. Drawing a bucket
of water from a
well

4. A football player
taking a penalty
kick

5. A cricket ball hit

by a batsman

6. Moving a loaded
cart

7. Opening a
drawer
Do you notice that each of the actions
can be grouped as a pull or a push or
both? Can we infer from this, that to move
an object, it has to be pushed or pulled? I learnt in Class VI that a
In science, a push or a pull on an magnet attracts a piece of
object is called a force. Thus, we can iron towards it. Is attraction
say that the motion imparted to objects also a pull? What about
was due to the action of a force. When repulsion between similar
poles of two magnets? Is it a
does a force come into play? Let us
pull or a push?
find out.
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8.2 Forces are due to an Fig. 8.3 shows three situations that
Interaction may be familiar to you. Can you decide
who is pulling and who is pushing in
Suppose a man is standing behind a
stationary car [Fig.8.2(a)]. Will the car these cases? In Fig. 8.3 (a), both the girls
move due to his presence? Suppose the appear to push each other while
man now begins to push the car
[Fig.8.2(b)], that is, he applies a force
on it. The car may begin to move in the

Fig. 8.3 (b) : Who is pulling whom ?

Fig. 8.2(a) : A man standing behind a stationary car the pair of girls in Fig. 8.3 (b) are trying
to pull each other. Similarly, the cow
and the man in Fig. 8.3 (c) appear to

Fig. 8.2 (b) : A car being pushed by a man

direction of the applied force. Note that the Fig. 8.3 (c) : Who is pulling whom?
man has to push the car to make it move.
pull each other. The girls in the two
situations shown here are applying force
on each other. Is it also true for the man
and the cow?
From these examples, we can infer
that at least two objects must interact
for a force to come into play. Thus, an
interaction of one object with another
object results in a force between the
Fig. 8.3 (a) : Who is pushing whom? two objects.
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8.3 Exploring Forces
Let us try to learn more about forces.

Activity 8.2
Choose a heavy object like a table
or a box, which you can move only
by pushing hard. Try to push it all Fig. 8.5 : The rope may not move if the two
teams pull at it with equal force
by yourself. Can you move it? Now
ask one of your friends to help you rope in their direction. Sometimes the rope
in pushing it in the same direction simply does not move. Is it not similar to
[Fig. 8.4(a)]. Is it easier to move it the situation shown in Fig. 8.3 (b)? The
now? Can you explain why? team that pulls harder, that is, applies a
larger force, finally wins the game.
Now push the same object, but
What do these examples suggest
ask your friend to push it from the
about the nature of force?
opposite side [Fig. 8.4 (b)]. Does the
Forces applied on an object in the
object move? If it does, note the
same direction add to one another. Now
direction in which it moves. Can recall what happened when you and
you guess which one of you is your friend pushed the heavy box in the
applying a larger force? same direction in Activity 8.2.
(a) If the two forces act in the opposite
directions on an object, the net force acting
on it is the difference between the two
forces. What did you observe in Activity
8.2 when both of you were pushing the
heavy box from opposite directions?
Recall that in the tug-of-war when
two teams pull equally hard, the rope
does not move in any direction.
(b) So, we learn that a force could be
larger or smaller than the other or equal
to each other. The strength of a force is
usually expressed by its magnitude. We
have also to specify the direction in
which a force acts. Also, if the direction
Fig. 8.4 : Two friends pushing a heavy load
or the magnitude of the applied force
(a) in the same direction, (b) in
opposite direction changes, its effect also changes.

Have you ever seen a game of tug-of Does it mean that the net
war? In this game two teams pull at a force on an object is zero if the
rope in opposite directions (Fig. 8.5). two forces acting on it in
Members of both the teams try to pull the opposite directions are equal?

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 In general, more than one force may You might recall similar situations.
be acting on an object. However, the For example, while taking a penalty kick
effect on the object is due to the net in football, the player applies a force on
force acting on it. the ball. Before being hit, the ball was at
rest and so its speed was zero. The
applied force makes the ball move
8.4 A Force can Change the
towards the goal. Suppose, the
State of Motion goalkeeper dives or jumps up to save the
Let us now find out what happens when goal. By his action the goalkeeper tries
a force acts on an object. to apply a force on the moving ball. The
force applied by him can stop or deflect
Activity 8.3 the ball, saving a goal being scored. If
the goalkeeper succeeds in stopping the
Take a rubber ball and place it on a
ball, its speed decreases to zero.
level surface such as a table top or
These observations suggest that a
a concrete floor. Now, gently push
force applied on an object may change
the ball along the level surface
its speed. If the force applied on the object
(Fig. 8.6). Does the ball begin to
is in the direction of its motion, the speed
move? Push the ball again while it
of the object increases. If the force is
is still moving. Is there any change
applied in the direction opposite to the
in its speed? Does it increase or
direction of motion, then it results in a
decrease?
decrease in the speed of the object.
Next, place your palm in front
of the moving ball. Remove your
I have seen
palm as soon as the moving ball
children competing with one
touches it. Does your palm apply a another in moving a rubber tyre
force on the ball? What happens to or a ring by pushing it
the speed of the ball now? Does it (Fig. 8.7). I now understand
increase or decrease? What would why the speed of the tyre
increases whenever it is
happen if you let your palm hold
pushed.
the moving ball?

Fig. 8.6 : A ball at rest begins to move Fig. 8.7 : To move a tyre faster it has to be
when a force is applied on it pushed repeatedly

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 Paheli is curious to know whether Let us consider some more
application of a force can only change the examples. In a game of volleyball,
speed of an object. Let us find out. players often push the moving ball to
their team mates to make a winning
Activity 8.4 move. Sometimes the ball is returned
to the other side of the court by
Take a ball and place it on a level
pushing or smashing it. In cricket, a
surface as you did in Activity 8.3.
batsman plays his or her shot by
Make the ball move by giving it a
applying a force on the ball with the
push [Fig. 8.8(a)]. Now place a ruler
bat. Is there any change in the
in its path as shown in Fig. 8.8(b).
direction of motion of the ball in these
In doing so, you would apply a force
cases? In all these examples the speed
on the moving ball. Does the ball
and the direction of the moving ball
continue to move in the same
change due to the application of a
direction after it strikes the ruler?
force. Can you give a few more
Repeat the activity and try to
examples of this kind?
obstruct the moving ball by placing
A change in either the speed of an
the ruler in such a way that it
object, or its direction of motion, or both,
makes different angles to its path.
is described as a change in its state of
In each case note your observations
motion. Thus, a force may bring a
about the direction of motion of the
change in the state of motion of an
ball after it strikes the ruler.
object.

State of Motion
The state of motion of an object is
described by its speed and the
direction of motion. The state of rest
is considered to be the state of zero
(a) speed. An object may be at rest or in
motion; both are its states of motion.

Does it mean that the application of

a force would always result in a change
in the state of motion of the object? Let
us find out.
It is common experience that many
a time application of force does not result
(b) in a change in the state of motion. For
Fig. 8.8 : (a) A ball set in motion by example, a heavy box may not move at
pushing it along a level surface all even if you apply the maximum force
and (b) the direction of motion that you can exert. Again, no effect of
of the ball after it strikes the force is observed when you try to push
ruler placed in its path
a wall.
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8.5 Force can Change the
Shape of an Object

Activity 8.5
Some situations have been given in Column 1 of Table 8.2 in which
objects are not free to move. Column 2 of the Table suggests the manner
in which a force can be applied on each object while Column 3 shows a
diagram of the action. Try to observe the effect of force in as many
situations as possible. You can also add similar situations using available
material from your environment. Note your observations in Columns 4
and 5 of the Table.

Table 8.2 : Studying the Effect of Force on Objects

Description of How to Apply Diagram Action of Force

Situation Force
Change in Change in
State of Shape
Motion
Yes No Yes No

A lump of Pressing it down

dough on a with your hands.
plate.

Spring fixed to By sitting on the

the seat of a seat.
bicycle.

A rubber band By hanging a

suspended from weight or by
a hook/nail pulling its free end.
fixed on a wall.

A plastic or By putting a weight

metal scale at the centre of the
placed between scale.
two bricks.

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 What do you conclude from the help of a stick or a piece of rope. When
observations noted in Table 8.2? What we push an object like a school bag or
happens when you apply a force on lift a bucket of water, where does the
an inflated balloon by pressing it force come from? This force is caused
between your palms? What happens by the action of muscles in our body.
to the shape of a ball of dough when it The force resulting due to the action of
is rolled to make a chapati? What muscles is known as the muscular
happens when you press a rubber ball force.
placed on a table? In all these
examples you saw that the application It is the muscular force that enables
of force on an object may change us to perform all activities involving
movement or bending of our body. In
its shape.
Class VII you have learnt that in the
Having performed all the above process of digestion the food gets
activities, you would have realised that pushed through the alimentary canal.
a force Could it be a muscular force that does
it? You also know that lungs expand
l may make an object move from rest. and contract while we inhale and
l may change the speed of an object exhale air during breathing. Where
if it is moving. are these muscles located which
l may change the direction of motion make breathing possible? Can you list
a few more examples of the force
of an object.
exerted by the muscles in our body?
l may bring about a change in the
shape of an object.
Animals also make use of muscular
l may cause some or all of these
force to carry out their physical activities
effects. and other tasks. Animals like bullocks,
horses, donkeys and camels are used to
While a force may cause one or more
per for m various tasks for us. In
of these effects, it is important to
per for ming these tasks they use
remember that none of these actions can
muscular force (Fig. 8.9).
take place without the action of a force.
Thus, an object cannot move by itself,
it cannot change speed by itself, it
cannot change direction by itself and
its shape cannot change by itself.

8.6 Contact Forces

Muscular Force
Can you push or lift a book lying on a
table without touching it? Can you lift
a bucket of water without holding it?
Generally, to apply a force on an object,
your body has to be in contact with the Fig. 8.9 : Muscular force of animals is used to
object. The contact may also be with the carry out many difficult tasks
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 Since muscular force can be applied on an object to be always in contact with
only when it is in contact with an object, it. Let us find out.
it is also called a contact force. Are there
other types of contact forces? Let us find 8.7 Non-contact Forces
out.
Magnetic Force
Friction
Activity 8.6
Recall some of your experiences. A ball
rolling along the ground gradually slows Take a pair of bar magnets. Place
down and finally comes to rest. When the longer side of one of the magnets
we stop pedalling a bicycle, it gradually over three round shaped pencils or
slows down and finally comes to a stop. wooden rollers as shown in
A car or a scooter also comes to rest Fig. 8.10. Now bring one end of the
once its engine is switched off. Similarly, other magnet near the end of the
a boat comes to rest if we stop rowing magnet placed on the rollers. Make
it. Can you add some more such sure that the two magnets do not
experiences? touch each other. Observe what
In all these situations no force happens. Next, bring the other end
appears to be acting on the objects, yet of the magnet near the same end
their speed gradually decreases and of the magnet placed on the rollers
they come to rest after some time. What (Fig.8.10). Note what happens to
causes a change in their state of motion? the magnet placed on the rollers
Could some force be acting on them! every time another magnet is
Can you guess the direction in which brought near it.
the force must be acting in each case?
The force responsible for changing the
state of motion of objects in all these
examples is the force of friction. It is the
force of friction between the surface of
the ball and the ground that brings the
moving ball to rest. Similarly, friction
between water and the boat brings it to
a stop once you stop rowing.
The force of friction always acts on
all the moving objects and its direction
is always opposite to the direction of
motion. Since the force of friction arises
due to contact between surfaces, it is
also an example of a contact force. You
will learn more about this force in
Chapter 9.
You may be wondering whether it is Fig. 8.10 : Observing attraction and repulsion
between two magnets
essential for the agent applying a force
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 Does the magnet on the rollers begin
to move when the other magnet is brought
near it? Does it always move in the
direction of the approaching magnet?
What do these observations suggest? Does
it mean that some force must be acting
between the two magnets?
You have learnt in Class VI that like
poles of two magnets repel each other and
unlike poles attract each other. Attraction
or repulsion between objects can also be
seen as another form of pull or push. Do
Fig. 8.11 : A straw rubbed with paper attracts
you have to bring the magnets in contact
another straw but repels it if it has
for observing the force between them? A also been rubbed with a sheet
magnet can exert a force on another of paper
magnet without being in contact with it.
The force exerted by a magnet is an A straw is said to have acquired
example of a non-contact force. electrostatic charge after it has been
Similarly, the force exerted by a rubbed with a sheet of paper. Such a
magnet on a piece of iron is also a straw is an example of a charged body.
non-contact force. The force exerted by a charged body
on another charged or uncharged body
Electrostatic Force is known as electrostatic force. This
Activity 8.7 force comes into play even when the
bodies are not in contact. The
Take a plastic straw and cut it into electrostatic force, therefore, is another
nearly two equal pieces. Suspend one example of a non-contact force. You will
of the pieces from the edge of a table learn more about electric charges in
with the help of a piece of thread Chapter 12.
(Fig. 8.11). Now hold the other piece
of straw in your hand and rub its Gravitational Force
free end with a sheet of paper. Bring
the rubbed end of the straw near the You know that a coin or a pen falls to the
suspended straw. Make sure that the ground when it slips off your hand.
two pieces do not touch each other. Leaves and fruits also fall to the ground
What do you observe? when they get detached from the plant.
Next, rub the free end of the Have you ever wondered why it is so?
suspended piece of straw with a When the coin is held in your hand it
sheet of paper. Again, bring the is at rest. As soon as it is released, it
piece of straw that was rubbed begins to move downwards. It is clear that
earlier with paper near the free end the state of motion of the coin undergoes
of the suspended straw. What do you a change. Can this happen without a
observe now? force acting on it? Which is this force?
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 Objects or things fall towards the Try cutting vegetables with a blunt
earth because it pulls them. This force knife and then with a sharp knife. Which
is called the force of gravity, or just is easier?
gravity. This is an attractive force. The Do you get the feeling that the area
force of gravity acts on all objects. The over which the force is applied (for
force of gravity acts on all of us all the example, the pointed end of the nail)
time without our being aware of it. Water plays a role in making these tasks easier?
begins to flow towards the ground as The force acting on a unit area of a
soon as we open a tap. Water in rivers surface is called pressure.
flows downward due to the force
of gravity. pressure = force / area on which it acts

At this stage we consider only those

Gravity is not a property of the earth forces which act perpendicular to the
alone. In fact, every object in the surface on which the pressure is to
universe, whether small or large, be computed.
exerts a force on every other object.
This force is known as the
gravitational force.
I now understand why
porters place a round piece
8.8 Pressure of cloth on their heads,
Is there any relation between pressure when they have to carry
and force? Let us find out. heavy loads (Fig. 8.13). By
Try to push a nail into a wooden doing this they increase the
plank by its head. Did you succeed? Try area of contact of the load
with their head. So, the
now to push the nail by the pointed end
pressure on their head is
(Fig. 8.12). Could you do it this time? reduced and they find it
easier to carry the load.

Fig. 8.12 : Pushing a nail into a wooden plank Fig. 8.13 : A porter carrying a heavy load
FORCE AND PRESSURE 103

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 Note that the area is in the this process a few more times. Can
denominator in the above expression. you see any relation between the
So, the smaller the area, larger the amount of the bulge in the rubber
pressure on a surface for the same force. sheet and the height of the water
The area of the pointed end of the nail column in the pipe?
is much smaller than that of its head.
The same force, therefore, produces a
pressure sufficient to push the pointed
end of the nail into the wooden plank.
Can you explain now why shoulder
bags are provided with broad straps and
not thin strap? And, why the tools
meant for cutting and piercing always
have sharp edges?
Do liquids and gases also exert
pressure? Does it also depend on the
area on which the force acts? Let us
find out.

8.9 Pressure Exerted by

Liquids and Gases
Fig. 8.14 : Pressure exerted by water at the
Activity 8.8 bottom of the container depends
on the height of its column
Take a transparent glass tube or a
plastic pipe. The length of the pipe/
tube should be about 25 cm and its
Activity 8.9
diameter should be 5-7.5 cm. Also Take a plastic bottle. You can take
take a piece of thin sheet of a good a discarded water or soft drink
quality rubber, say, a rubber bottle. Fix a cylindrical glass tube,
balloon. Stretch the rubber sheet a few cm long near its bottom as
tightly over one end of the pipe. shown in Fig. 8.15. You can do so
Hold the pipe at the middle, keeping by slightly heating one end of the
it in a vertical position (Fig. 8.14). glass tube and then quickly
Ask one of your friends to pour some inserting it near the bottom of the
water in the pipe. Does the rubber bottle. Make sure that the water
sheet bulge out? Note also the does not leak from the joint. If there
height of the water column in the is any leakage, seal it with molten
pipe. Pour some more water. wax. Cover the mouth of the glass
Observe again the bulge in the tube with a thin rubber sheet as you
did in Activity 8.8. Now fill the bottle
rubber sheet and the height of the
upto half with water. What do you
water column in the pipe. Repeat
observe? Why does the rubber sheet
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 fixed to the glass tube bulge this
time? Pour some more water in the
bottle. Is there any change in the
bulge of the rubber sheet?

Fig. 8.16 : Liquids exert equal pressure at the

Fig. 8.15 : A liquid exerts pressure on the walls same depth
of the container

Note that the rubber sheet has been Can you now say that liquids exert
fixed on the side of the container and not pressure on the walls of the
at the bottom. Does the bulging of the container?
rubber sheet in this case indicate that water Do gases also exert pressure? Do
exerts pressure on the sides of the container they also exert pressure on the walls of
as well? Let us investigate further. their containers? Let us find out.

Activity 8.10
Take an empty plastic bottle or a
cylindrical container. You can take I have seen fountains of water
a used tin can or a used plastic coming out of the leaking joints
bottle. Drill four holes all around or holes in pipes supplying
near the bottom of the bottle. Make water. Is it not due to the
sure that the holes are at the same pressure exerted by water on the
walls of the pipes?
height from the bottom (Fig. 8.16).
Now fill the bottle with water. What
do you observe? When you inflate a balloon, why do
Do the different streams of water you have to close its mouth? What
coming out of the holes fall at the happens when you open the mouth of
same distance from the bottle? What an inflated balloon? Suppose you have
does this indicate? a balloon which has holes. Would you
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be able to inflate it? If not, why? Can we But, how large or small is the
say that air exerts pressure in all atmospheric pressure? Let us get an
directions? idea about its magnitude.
Do you recall what happens to the
air in the bicycle tube when it has a Activity 8.11
puncture? Do these observations suggest
that air exerts pressure on the inner walls Take a good quality rubber sucker.
of an inflated balloon or a tube? So, we It looks like a small rubber cup (Fig.
find that gases, too, exert pressure on 8.18). Press it hard on a smooth
the walls of their container. plane surface. Does it stick to the
surface? Now try to pull it off the
8.10 Atmospheric Pressure surface. Can you do it?

You know that there is air all around

us. This envelop of air is known as the
atmosphere. The atmospheric air
extends up to many kilometres above
the surface of the earth. The pressure
exerted by this air is known as
atmospheric pressure. We know that
pressure is force per unit area. If we
imagine a unit area and a very long
cylinder standing on it filled with air,
then the force of gravity on the air in
this cylinder is the atmospheric
pressure (Fig. 8.17).

Fig. 8.18 : A rubber sucker pressed on a

surface

When you press the sucker, most of

the air between its cup and the surface
escapes out. The sucker sticks to the
sur face because the pr essure of
atmosphere acts on it. To pull the sucker
off the surface, the applied force should
be large enough to overcome the
Unit area atmospheric pressure. This activity
might give you an idea about the
magnitude of atmospheric pressure. In
Fig. 8.17 : Atmospheric pressure is the force of fact, it would not be possible for any
gravity on air in a column of unit area human being to pull the sucker off the
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surface if there were no air at all between
the sucker and the surface. Does it give
you an idea how large the atmospheric
pressure is?

If the area of my head

were 15 cm × 15 cm, how
much force air will exert
on my head?

The force due to air in a column of

the height of the atmosphere and area
15 cm × 15 cm (Fig. 8.19) is nearly equal
to the force of gravity on an object of
mass 225 kg (2250N). The reason we
are not crushed under this force of
gravity is that the pressure inside our
bodies is also equal to the atmospheric Fig. 8.19 : Pressure of atmosphere on
pressure and balances the pressure from your head
outside.

Did you know?

Otto von Guericke, a German scientist of the 17th century, invented a pump to
extract air out of a vessel. With the help of this pump, he demonstrated
dramatically the force of the air pressure. He joined two hollow metallic
hemispheres of 51 cm diameter each and pumped air out of them. Then he
employed eight horses on each hemisphere to pull them apart (Fig. 8.20). So
great is the force of air pressure that the hemispheres could not be pulled apart.

Fig. 8.20 : Horses pulling the hemispheres

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 KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ATMOSPHERIC Ü Force could be a push or a pull.
PRESSURE Ü A force arises due to the interaction between

CONTACT FORCE two objects.

Ü Force has magnitude as well as direction.
ELECTROSTATIC Ü A change in the speed of an object or the di-
FORCE rection of its motion or both implies a change

FORCE in its state of motion.

Ü Force acting on an object may cause a change
FRICTION in its state of motion or a change in its shape.
Ü A force can act on an object with or without
GRAVITATIONAL
being in contact with it.
FORCE
Ü Force per unit area is called pressure.
GRAVITY Ü Liquids and gases exert pressure on the walls
of their containers.
MAGNETIC FORCE
Ü The pressure exerted by air around us is
MUSCULAR FORCE known as atmospheric pressure.

NON-CONTACT
FORCE

PRESSURE

PULL

PUSH

Exercises

1. Give two examples each of situations in which you push or pull to change
the state of motion of objects.
2. Give two examples of situations in which applied force causes a change in
the shape of an object.
3. Fill in the blanks in the following statements.
(a) To draw water from a well we have to __________ at the rope.

(b) A charged body __________ an uncharged body towards it.

(c) To move a loaded trolley we have to __________ it.
(d) The north pole of a magnet __________the north pole of another
magnet.
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 EXERCISES
4. An archer stretches her bow while taking aim at the target. She then
releases the arrow, which begins to move towards the target. Based on
this information fill up the gaps in the following statements using the
following terms.
muscular, contact, non-contact, gravity, friction, shape, attraction
(a) To stretch the bow, the archer applies a force that causes a change
in its __________.
(b) The force applied by the archer to stretch the bow is an example of
__________ force.
(c) The type of force responsible for a change in the state of motion of the
arrow is an example of a __________ force.
(d) While the arrow moves towards its target, the forces acting on it are
due to __________ and that due to __________ of air.

5. In the following situations identify the agent exerting the force and the
object on which it acts. State the effect of the force in each case.
(a) Squeezing a piece of lemon between the fingers to extract its juice.
(b) Taking out paste from a toothpaste tube.
(c) A load suspended from a spring while its other end is on a hook fixed
to a wall.
(d) An athlete making a high jump to clear the bar at a certain height.
6. A blacksmith hammers a hot piece of iron while making a tool. How does
the force due to hammering affect the piece of iron?

7. An inflated balloon was pressed against a wall after it has been rubbed
with a piece of synthetic cloth. It was found that the balloon sticks to the
wall. What force might be responsible for the attraction between the balloon
and the wall?
8. Name the forces acting on a plastic bucket containing water held above
ground level in your hand. Discuss why the forces acting on the bucket do
not bring a change in its state of motion.
9. A rocket has been fired upwards to launch a satellite in its orbit. Name
the two forces acting on the rocket immediately after leaving the launching
pad.
10. When we press the bulb of a dropper with its nozzle kept in water, air in
the dropper is seen to escape in the form of bubbles. Once we release the
pressure on the bulb, water gets filled in the dropper. The rise of water in
the dropper is due to
(a) pressure of water.
(b) gravity of the earth.
(c) shape of rubber bulb.
(d) atmospheric pressure.

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 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Make a 50 cm × 50 cm bed of dry sand about 10 cm in thickness.

Make sure that its top surface is levelled. Take a wooden or a plastic
stool. Cut two strips of graph paper each with a width of 1 cm.
Paste them vertically on any leg of the stool - one at the bottom and
the other from the top. Now gently put the stool on the sand bed
with its legs resting on the sand. Increase the size of sand bed if
required. Now put a load, say a school bag full of books, on the seat
of the stool. Mark the level of sand on the graph strip. This would
give you the depth, if any, to which the legs of stool sink in sand.
Next, turn the stool upside down so that now it rests on its seat on
the sand bed. Note the depth to which the stool sinks now. Next,
put the same load on the stool and note the depth to which it sinks
in the sand. Compare the pressure exerted by the stool in the two
situations.
2. Take a tumbler and fill it with water. Cover the mouth of the tumbler
with a thick card similar to that of a postcard. Hold the tumbler
with one hand while keeping the card pressed to its mouth with
your other hand. Turn the tumbler upside down while keeping the
card pressed to its mouth. Make sure that the tumbler is held
vertical. Gently remove the hand pressing the card. What do you
observe? Does the card get detached allowing the water to spill?
With a little practice you will find that the card continues to hold
water in the tumbler even after it is not supported by your hand.
Also try this activity by using a piece of cloth to hold the tumbler in
an upside down position (Fig. 8.21).

Fig. 8.21

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 3. Take 4-5 plastic bottles of different shapes and sizes. Join them
together with small pieces of glass or rubber tube as shown in
Fig. 8.22. Keep this arrangement on a level surface. Now pour water
in any one of the bottles. Note whether the bottle in which water is
poured gets filled first or all the bottles get filled up simultaneously.
Note the level of water in all the bottles from time to time. Try to
explain your observations.

Fig. 8.22

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 FRICTION

Y 9.1 Force of Friction

ou might have seen a driver of a
car or a truck slowing down the
vehicle at a traffic signal. You, too, Activity 9.1
slow down your bicycle whenever Gently push a book on a table
needed by applying brakes. Have you [Fig. 9.2(a)]. You observe that it stops
ever thought why a vehicle slows after moving for some distance.
down when brakes are applied? Not Repeat this activity pushing the
only vehicles, any object, moving over book from the opposite direction
the surface of another object slows [Fig. 9.2, (b)]. Does the book stop
down when no external force is this time, too? Can you think of an
applied on it. Finally it stops. Have explanation? Can we say that a force
you not seen a moving ball on the must be acting on the book
ground stopping after some time? opposing its motion? This force is
Why do we slip when we step on a called the force of friction.
banana peel (Fig. 9.1)? Why is it
difficult to walk on a smooth and
wet floor?

(a)

(b)
Fig. 9.1 : A boy falls down when he steps on a Fig. 9.2 (a), (b) : Friction opposes relative
banana peel motion between the
surfaces of the book and
You will find the answers to such
the table
questions in this chapter.

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 You saw that if you apply the force
for this difference? Repeat this
along the left, friction acts along the
activity by wrapping a piece of jute
right. If you apply the force along the
bag around the brick. What do you
right, the friction acts along the left
observe?
direction. In both cases the force opposes
the motion of the book. The force of
Spring Balance
friction always opposes the applied force.
In the above activity, the force of Spring balance is a device used for
friction acts between the surface of the measuring the force acting on an
book and the surface of the table. object. It consists of a coiled spring
Is the friction the same for all the which gets stretched when a force is
applied to it. Stretching of the spring
sur faces? Does it depend on the
is measured by a pointer moving on
smoothness of the surfaces? Let us find a graduated scale. The reading on the
out. scale gives the magnitude of the force.

9.2 Factors affecting Friction

Activity 9.2
Tie a string around a brick. Pull the
brick by a spring balance (Fig. 9.3).
You need to apply some force. Note
down the reading on the spring
balance when the brick just
begins to move. It gives you a
measure of the force of friction
between the surface of the brick
and the floor.

Activity 9.3
Make an inclined plane on a smooth
Fig. 9.3 : A brick is being pulled by spring floor, or on a table. You may use a
balance wooden board supported by bricks,
Now wrap a piece of polythene or books. [Fig. 9.4 (a)]. Put a mark
around the brick and repeat the with a pen at any point A on the
inclined plane. Now let a pencil cell
activity. Do you observe any
move down from this point. How far
difference in the readings of the
does it move on the table before
spring balance in the above two coming to rest? Note down the
cases? What might be the reason distance. Now spread a piece of cloth

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 Does the distance covered depend on
over the table. Make sure that there
the nature of the surface on which the
are no wrinkles in the cloth. Try the
cell moves?
activity again [Fig. 9.4 (b)].
Could the smoothness of the surface
of the cell also affect the distance
travelled by it?

Mark A

I shall try the activity

by wrapping a piece of
sandpaper around
the cell.

Friction is caused by the

irregularities on the two surfaces in
(a) contact. Even those surfaces which
appear very smooth have a large number
of minute irregularities on them
(Fig. 9.5). Irregularities on the two
surfaces lock into one another. When
Mark A we attempt to move any surface, we have
to apply a force to overcome interlocking.
On rough surfaces, there are a larger
number of irregularities. So the force of
friction is greater if a rough surface
is involved.

(b)

Fig. 9.4 : The pencil cell covers different

distances on different surfaces

Repeat this activity by spreading

a thin layer of sand over the
table. Maintain the same slope
throughout the activity.
Surface of book
In which case is the distance covered
Surface of table
the minimum? Why is the distance
covered by the pencil cell different every
time. Try to reason why? Discuss the Fig. 9.5 : Surface irregularities
result.
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 We see that the friction is caused by friction and you find it somewhat easier
the interlocking of irregularities in the to move the box already in motion than
two surfaces. It is obvious that the force to get it started.
of friction will increase if the two
surfaces are pressed harder. You can 9.3 Friction : A Necessary
experience it by dragging a mat when Evil
nobody is sitting on it, and when a
Recall now some of your experiences. Is
preson is sitting on it. it easier to hold a kulhar (earthen pot)
or a glass tumbler? Suppose the outer
surface of the tumbler is greasy, or has
a thin layer of cooking oil on it; would it
become easier or more difficult to hold
it? Just think : would it be possible to
hold the glass at all if there is no
friction?
Recall also how difficult it is to move
on a wet muddy track, or wet marble
floor. Can you imagine being able to walk
at all if there were no friction?
You could not write with pen or
pencil if there were no friction. When
Fig. 9.6 : You have to push on the box to keep it
moving
your teacher is writing with chalk on
the blackboard, its rough surface rubs
Recall your experience when last time off some chalk particles which stick to
you moved a heavy box from one place
to another (Fig. 9.6). If you have no such
experience, get that experience now.
What is easier — to move the box from
rest, or to move it when it is already in
motion?
The force required to overcome
friction at the instant an object starts
moving from rest is a measure of static
friction. On the other hand, the force
required to keep the object moving with
the same speed is a measure of sliding
friction.
When the box starts sliding, the
contact points on its surface, do not get
enough time to lock into the contact
points on the floor. So, the sliding Fig. 9.7 : A nail is fixed in the wall due to
friction is slightly smaller than the static friction
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the black board. Could it happen if there
were no friction between the chalk and
the board?
If an object started moving, it would
never stop if there were no friction. Had
there been no friction between the tyres
of the automobiles and the road, they
could not be started or stopped or
turned to change the direction of
motion. You could not fix a nail on the
wall (Fig. 9.7) or tie a knot. Without
friction no building could be constructed.

Fig. 9.9 : Rubbing of your palms makes you

feel warm

for a few minutes. You can cite various

other examples in which friction

Fig. 9.8 : Soles of shoes wear out due

to friction

On the other hand, friction is an evil,

too. It wears out the materials whether
they are screws, ball bearings or soles
of shoes (Fig. 9.8). You must have seen
worn-out steps of foot over-bridges at
railway stations.
Friction can also produce heat.
Vigorously rub your palms together for Fig. 9.10 : Stricking a matchstick produces fire
a few minutes (Fig. 9.9). How do you by friction
feel? When you strike a matchstick produces heat. In fact, when a machine
against the rough surface, it catches fire is operated, heat generated causes much
(Fig. 9.10). wastage of energy. We shall discuss the
You might have observed that the jar ways of minimising friction in the
of a mixer becomes hot when it is run following section.
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9.4 Increasing and Reducing In some situations, however, friction
Friction is undesirable and we would want to
minimise it.
As you have seen in the previous section, Why do you sprinkle fine powder on
friction is desirable in some situations. the carrom board (Fig. 9.12)? You might
Have you ever thought why the sole have noticed that when a few drops of
of your shoe is grooved [Fig. 9.11 (a)]? It oil are poured on the hinges of a door,
is done to provide the shoes better grip the door moves smoothly. A bicycle and
on the floor, so that you can move safely. a motor mechanic uses grease between
Similarly, the treaded tyres of cars,trucks the moving parts of these machines. In
and bulldozers provide better grip with all the above cases, we want to reduce
the ground.

Fig. 9.12 : Powder is sprinkled on the carrom

board to reduce friction

friction in order to increase efficiency.

When oil, grease or graphite is applied
between the moving part of a machine,
(a) (b)
a thin layer is formed there and moving
surfaces do not directly rub against each
Fig. 9.11 : (a) Soles of shoes and (b) tyres are
other (Fig. 9.13). Interlocking of
treaded to increase friction
irregularities is avoided to a great extent.
We deliberately increase friction by Movement becomes smooth. The
using brake pads in the brake system substances which reduce friction are
of bicycles and automobiles. When you called lubricants. In some machines, it
are riding a bicycle, the brake pads do may not be advisable to use oil as
not touch the wheels. But when you lubricant. An air cushion between the
press the brake lever, these pads arrest moving parts is used to reduce friction.
the motion of the rim due to friction. Surface 2
The wheel stops moving. You might have
seen that kabaddi players rub their
Lubricant
hands with soil for a better grip of their
opponents. Gymnasts apply some coarse Surface 1
substance on their hands to increase
friction for better grip. Fig. 9.13 : Action of lubricant
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 Activity 9.4
Take a few pencils which are
Can we reduce friction to cylindrical in shape. Place them
zero by polishing surfaces parallel to each other on a table.
or using large amount of Place a thick book over it
lubricants? (Fig. 9.15). Now push the book. You
observe the pencils rolling as the
book moves. Do you feel it easier to
move the book in this way than to
Friction can never be slide it? Do you think that
entirely eleminated. No resistance to the motion of the book
surface is perfectly smooth. has been reduced? Have you seen
Some irregularities are heavy machinary being moved by
always there. placing logs under it?

9.5 Wheels Reduce Friction

You must have seen attaches and other
pieces of luggage fitted with rollers. Even
a child can pull such pieces of luggage
(Fig. 9.14). Why is it so? Let us
find out.

Fig. 9.15 : Motion of the book on rollers

When one body rolls over the surface

of another body, the resistance to its
motion is called rolling friction. Rolling
reduces friction. It is always easier to
roll than to slide a body over another.
That is the reason it is convenient to
pull luggage fitted with rollers. Can you
now understand why the wheel is said
to be one of the greatest inventions of
mankind?
Since the rolling friction is smaller
than the sliding friction, sliding is
replaced in most machines by rolling
by the use of ball bearings. Common
examples are the use of ball bearings
between hubs and the axles of ceiling
Fig. 9.14 : Rolling reduces friction fans and bicycles (Fig. 9.16).
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 is fluids. So we can say that fluids exert
force of friction on objects in motion
through them.

The frictional force exerted by fluids

is also called drag.

The frictional force on an object in a

fluid depends on its speed with respect
to the fluid. The frictional force also
depends on the shape of the object and
the nature of the fluid.
It is obvious that when objects
move through fluids, they have to
overcome friction acting on them. In
this process they lose energy. Efforts
are, therefore, made to minimise
friction. So, objects are given special
shapes. Where do you think scientists
get hints for these special shapes?
From nature, of course. Birds and
fishes have to move about in fluids
Fig. 9.16 : Ball bearings reduce friction
all the time. Their bodies must have
9.6 Fluid Friction evolved to shapes which would make
them lose less energy in overcoming
You know that air is very light and thin. friction. Look carefully at the shape
Yet it exerts frictional force on objects of an aeroplane (Fig. 9.17). Do you
moving through it. Similarly, water and find any similarity in its shape and
other liquids exert force of friction when that of a bird? In fact, all vehicles are
objects move through them. In science, designed to have shapes which reduce
the common name of gases and liquids fluid friction.

Fig. 9.17 : Similarity in shapes of an aeroplane and a bird

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KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
BALL BEARING Ü Friction opposes the relative motion between
two surfaces in contact. It acts on both the
DRAG
surfaces.
FLUID FRICTION Ü Friction depends on the nature of surfaces in
contact.
FRICTION Ü For a given pair of surfaces friction depends
upon the state of smoothness of those
INTERLOCKING
surfaces.
LUBRICANTS Ü Friction depends on how hard the two surfaces
press together.
ROLLING FRICTION Ü Static friction comes into play when we try to
move an object at rest.
SLIDING FRICTION
Ü Sliding friction comes into play when an
STATIC FRICTION object is sliding over another.
Ü Sliding friction is smaller than static friction.
Ü Friction is important for many of our activities.
Ü Friction can be increased by making a surface
rough.
Ü The sole of the shoes and the tyres of the
vehicle are treaded to increase friction.
Ü Friction is sometimes undesirable.
Ü Friction can be reduced by using lubricants.
Ü When one body rolls over another body, rolling
A riddle for you friction comes into play. Rolling friction is
In some situations, I oppose the motion smaller than sliding friction.
in other situations, I facilitate the motion Ü In many machines, friction is reduced by
but, I always oppose using ball bearings.
the relative motion
Ü Fluid friction can be minimised by giving
between two moving surfaces.
suitable shapes to bodies moving in fluids.
Put some lubricant, and
I become small there.
Make the moving surfaces rough
I make the movement tough.
I may be—
static, sliding or rolling
but whenever two surfaces are in motion
I am always there,
Tell me who I am!

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 Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Friction opposes the _____________ between the surfaces in contact
with each other.
(b) Friction depends on the _____________ of surfaces.

(c) Friction produces __________.

(d) Sprinkling of powder on the carrom board ________ friction.

(e) Sliding friction is ___________ than the static friction.

2. Four children were asked to arrange forces due to rolling, static and sliding
frictions in a decreasing order. Their arrangements are given below.
Choose the correct arrangement.

(a) rolling, static, sliding

(b) rolling, sliding, static

(c) static, sliding, rolling

(d) sliding, static, rolling

3. Alida runs her toy car on dry marble floor, wet marble floor, newspaper
and towel spread on the floor. The force of friction acting on the car on
different surfaces in increasing order will be

(a) wet marble floor, dry marble floor, newspaper and towel.

(b) newspaper, towel, dry marble floor, wet marble floor.

(c) towel, newspaper, dry marble floor, wet marble floor.

(d) wet marble floor, dry marble floor, towel, newspaper

4. Suppose your writing desk is tilted a little. A book kept on it starts sliding
down. Show the direction of frictional force acting on it.
5. You spill a bucket of soapy water on a marble floor accidently. Would it
make it easier or more difficult for you to walk on the floor? Why?
6. Explain why sportsmen use shoes with spikes.
7. Iqbal has to push a lighter box and Seema has to push a similar heavier
box on the same floor. Who will have to apply a larger force and why?
8. Explain why sliding friction is less than static friction.
9. Give examples to show that friction is both a friend and a foe.
10. Explain why objects moving in fluids must have special shapes.

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 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. What role does friction play in the sport of your choice? Collect
some pictures of that sport in action where friction is either
supporting it or opposing it. Display these pictures with proper
captions on the bulletin board of your classroom.
2. Imagine that friction suddenly vanishes. How would life be affected.
List ten such situations.
3. Visit a shop which sells sports shoes. Observe the soles of shoes
meant for various sports. Describe your observations.

4. A toy to play with:

Take an empty match box. Take out its tray. Cut a used refill of a ball
pen of the same width as the tray as shown in the figure below. Fix
the refill with two pins on the top of the tray as shown in Fig. 9.18.
Make two holes on the opposite sides of the tray. Make sure that the
holes are large enough to allow a thread to pass through them easily.
Take a thread about a metre long and pass it through the holes as
shown. Fix beads at the two ends of the thread so that it does not
come out. Insert the tray in the outer cover of the matchbox.
Suspend the match box by the thread. Leave the thread loose.
The match box will start falling down due to gravity. Tighten the
thread now and observe what happens.
Explain your observation. Can you relate it to friction?

Fig. 9.18

You can read more on the related topic on the following websites :
l [Link]
l http//[Link]/hbase/[Link]

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 SOUND

H
ow do you come to know that a Sound plays an important role in our
‘period’ is over in your school? lives. It helps us to communicate with
You come to know easily that one another. We hear a variety of sounds
someone is at your door when he knocks in our surroundings.
or you hear the sound of the doorbell. Make a list of sounds you hear in
Most of the time you can make out that your surroundings.
someone is approaching you by just In the music room of your school you
hear the sounds produced by musical
hearing the foot steps.
instruments like flute, tabla,
You might have played a game called
harmonium, etc. (Fig. 10.1).
hide and seek. In this game a person is How is sound produced? How does it
blind-folded and has to catch the travel from one place to another ? How
remaining players. How is the blind- do we hear sound? Why are some sounds
folded person able to guess which player louder than others? We shall discuss
is closest to her? such questions in this chapter.

Tabla

Sitar

Flute
Harmonium

Fig. 10.1 : Some musical instruments

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10.1 Sound is Produced by a Activity 10.2
Vibrating Body Take a rubber band. Put it around
Touch the school bell when not in use. the longer side of a pencil box
What do you feel? Again touch it when (Fig. 10.3). Insert two pencils
producing sound. Can you feel it between the box and the stretched
vibrating? rubber. Now, pluck the rubber band
somewhere in the middle. Do you
Activity 10.1 hear any sound? Does the band
vibrate?
Take a metal plate (or a pan). Hang
it at a convenient place in such a
way that it does not touch any wall.
Now strike it with a stick (Fig.10.2).
Do you hear a sound? Touch the
plate or pan gently with your finger.
Do you feel the vibrations?

Fig. 10.3 : Plucking the rubber band

As you learnt in Class VII the to and

fro or back and forth motion of an
object is called vibration. When a
tightly stretched band is plucked, it
vibrates and produces sound. When it
stops vibrating, it does not produce
any sound.

Activity 10.3
Take a metal dish. Pour water in it.
Strike it at its edge with a spoon
(Fig. 13.4). Do you hear a sound?
Again strike the dish and then
touch it. Can you feel the dish
vibrating? Strike the dish again.
Fig. 10.2 : Striking a pan
Look at the surface of water. Do you
Again strike the plate with the stick see any waves there? Now hold the
and hold it tightly with your hands dish. What change do you observe
immediately after striking. Do you on the surface of water? Can you
still hear the sound? Touch the explain the change? Is there a hint
plate after it stops producing sound. to connect sound with the
Can you feel the vibrations now? vibrations of a body?
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 Table 10.1 : Musical Instruments and
their Vibrating Parts

[Link]. Musical Vibrating Part

Instrument Producing Sound
1. Ve e n a Stretched string
2. Tabla Stretched
membrane
3.
Fig. 10.4 : Vibrating dish produces waves
4.
in water
5.
We see that a vibrating object 6.
produces sound. In some cases, the
7.
vibrations are easily visible to us. But
in most cases, their amplitude is so small
that we cannot see them. However, we Many of you might have seen the
can feel them. manjira (cymbals), the ghatam, and the
noot (mudpots) and the kartal. These
Activity 10.4 musical instruments are commonly
used in many parts of our country. These
Take a hollow coconut shell and instruments are simply beaten or struck
make a musical instrument ektara. (Fig. 10.6). Can you name a few other
You can also make it with the help musical instruments of this type?
of an earthen pot (Fig. 10.5). Play You too can make a musical
this instrument and identify its instrument.
vibrating part. Ghatam

Fig. 10.5 : Ektara

Make a list of familiar musical

instruments and identify their vibrating
Manjira
parts. A few examples are given in
Table 10.1. Complete rest of the Table. Fig. 10.6 : A few more musical instruments
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Activity 10.5
Take 6-8 bowls or tumblers. Fill
them with water up to different
When we speak, does
levels, increasing gradually from any part of our body
one end to the other. Now take vibrate?
a pencil and strike the bowls gently.
Strike all of them in succession. You
will hear pleasant sounds. This is
10.2 Sound Produced by
your jaltrang (Fig.10.7). Humans
Speak loudly for a while or sing a song,
or buzz like a bee. Put your hand on
your throat as shown in Fig. 10.8. Do
you feel any vibrations?
In humans, the sound is produced
by the voice box or the larynx. Put your
fingers on the throat and find a hard
bump that seems to move when you
swallow. This part of the body is known
as the voice box. It is at the upper end
of the windpipe. Two vocal cords, are
stretched across the voice box or larynx
in such a way that it leaves a narrow
slit between them for the passage of air
(Fig.10.8).

Fig. 10.7 : Jaltrang

When we pluck the string of an

instrument, like the sitar, the sound
that we hear is not only that of the
string. The whole instrument is forced
Fig.10.8 : Voice box in humans
to vibrate, and it is the sound of the
vibration of the instrument that we When the lungs force air through the
hear. Similarly, when we strike the slit, the vocal cords vibrate, producing
membrane of a mridangam, the sound sound. Muscles attached to the vocal
that we hear is not only that of the cords can make the cords tight or loose.
membrane but of the whole body of When the vocal cords are tight and thin,
the instrument.
the type or quality of voice is different
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from that when they are loose and The vocal cords in men are about
thick. Let us see how the vocal cords 20 mm long. In women these are about
function. 15 mm long. Children have very short
vocal cords. This is the reason why
Activity 10.6 the voices of men, women and
children are different.
Take two rubber strips of the same
size. Place these two pieces one
10.3 Sound Needs a Medium
above the other and stretch them
tight. Now blow air through the gap for Propagation
between them [Fig. 10.9(a)]. As the When you call up your friend who is
air blows through the stretched standing at a distance, your friend is
rubber strips, a sound is produced. able to hear your voice. How does the
You can also take a piece of paper sound propagate or travel to her?
with a narrow slit and hold it
between your fingers as shown in Activity 10.7
Fig. 10.9 (b). Now blow through the
slit and listen to the sound. Our Take a metal or glass tumbler. Make
vocal cords produce sound in a sure that it is dry. Place a cell phone
similar manner. in it. (Remember that the cell phone
must not be kept in water.) Ask your
friend to give a ring on this cell
phone from another cell phone.
Listen to the ring carefully.
Now, surround the rim of the
tumbler with your hands
(Fig. 10.10). Put your mouth on the

(a)

(b)
Fig. 10.9 (a), (b) : Working of vocal cords Fig. 10.10 : Sound needs a medium to travel

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 opening between your hands. Place your ear gently on the water
Indicate to your friend to give a ring surface (Fig. 10.11). (Be careful : the
again. Listen to the ring while water should not enter in your ear.)
sucking air from the tumbler. Can you hear the sound of the bell?
Does the sound become fainter Does it indicate that sound can
as you suck air? travel through liquids?
Remove the tumbler from your
mouth. Does the sound become
loud again?
Oh ! That is how whales
Can you think of an explanation? Is and dolphins might be
it possible that the decreasing amount communicating under
of air in the tumbler had something to water.
do with decreasing loudness of the ring?
Let us find out if sound can travel
Indeed, if you had been able to suck
through solids also.
all the air in the tumbler, you will not
listen any sound. Actually, sound needs
Activity 10.9
a medium to travel. When air has been
removed completely from a vessel, it is said Take a metre scale or a long metal
that there is a vacuum in the vessel. The rod and hold its one end to your
sound cannot travel through a vacuum. ear. Ask your friend to gently
Does sound travel in liquids? Let us scratch or tap at the other end of
find out. the scale (Fig. 10.12).

Activity 10.8
Take a bucket or a bathtub. Fill it
with clean water. Take a small bell
in one hand. Shake this bell inside
the water to produce sound. Make
sure that the bell does not touch
the body of the bucket or the tub.

Fig. 10.12 : Sound travelling through a

metre scale

Can you hear the sound of the

scratching? Ask your friends
around you if they were able to hear
Fig. 10.11 : Sound travelling through water the same sound?

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 You can also perform the above 10.4 We Hear Sound through
activity by placing your ear at one end Our Ears
of a long wooden or metallic table and
asking your friend to gently scratch the The shape of the outer part of the ear is
other end of the table (Fig. 10.13). like a funnel. When sound enters it, it
travels down a canal at the end of which
there is a thin stretched membrane. It
is called the eardrum. It performs an
important function. To understand what
the eardrum does, let us build a tin-can
model of the eardrum.

Activity 10.10
Take a plastic or tin-can. Cut its
ends. Stretch a piece of rubber
Fig. 10.13 : Sound can travel through solids
balloon across one end of the can
We find that sound can travel and fasten it with a rubber band.
through wood or metal. In fact, sound Put four or five grains of dry cereal
can travel through any solid. You can on the stretched rubber. Now ask
perform interesting activities to show your friend to speak “Hurrey,
that sound can also travel through Hurrey” from the open end
strings. Have you ever made a toy (Fig.10.15). Observe what happens
telephone (Fig. 10.14). Can you say that to the grain. Why do the grains
sound can travel through strings? jump up and down?

Fig. 10.14 : A toy telephone

We have learnt so far that vibrating

objects produce sound and it is carried
in all directions in a medium. The
medium could be a gas, a liquid or a
solid. How do we hear it? Fig. 10.15 : Understanding action of an eardrum

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 The eardrum is like a stretched You have already learnt in earlier classes
rubber sheet. Sound vibrations make about the oscillatory motion and its
the eardrum vibrate (Fig. 10.16). The time period.
eardrum sends vibrations to the inner The number of oscillations per
ear. From there, the signal goes to the second is called the frequency of
brain. That is how we hear. oscillation. Frequency is expressed in
hertz. Its symbol is Hz. A frequency of
1 Hz is one oscillation per second. If an
object oscillates 20 times in one second,
what would be its frequency?
You can recognise many familiar
sounds without seeing the objects
producing them. How is it possible?
These sounds must be different to
enable you to recognise them. Have you
Inner ear ever thought what factors make them
different? Amplitude and frequency are
two important properties of any sound.
Can we differentiate sounds on the basis
of their amplitudes and frequencies?

Loudness and Pitch

Eardrum
Activity 10.11
Take a metallic tumbler and a
Fig. 10.16 : Human ear tablespoon. Strike the tablespoon
gently at the brim of the tumbler.

We must NEVER put a sharp,

pointed or hard thing into our
ear. It can damage the
eardrum. The damaged
eardrum can impair hearing.

10.5 Amplitude, Time Period

and Frequency of a
Vibration
We have learnt that the to and fro motion
of an object is known as vibration. This Fig. 10.17 : Thermocol ball touching the
motion is also called oscillatory motion. vibrating glass tumbler

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 Compare the sound of a baby with
Hear the sound produced. Now bang
that of an adult. Is there any difference?
the spoon on the tumbler and hear
Even if two sounds are equally loud,
the sound produced again. Is the
they differ in some way. Let us see how.
sound louder when the tumbler is
struck hard?
Now suspend a small thermocol I wonder why my voice
ball touching the rim of the tumbler is different from that of
(Fig. 10.17). Vibrate the tumbler by my teacher.
striking it. See how far the ball is
displaced. The displacement of the The frequency determines the
ball is a measure of the amplitude shrillness or pitch of a sound. If the
of vibration of the tumbler. frequency of vibration is higher we say
Now, strike the tumbler gently that the sound is shrill and has a higher
and then a little harder. Compare pitch. If the frequency of vibration is
the amplitudes of vibrations of the lower, we say that the sound has a lower
tumbler in the two cases. In which pitch. For example, a drum vibrates with
case is the amplitude larger? a low frequency. Therefore, it produces

Loudness of sound is proportional to

the square of the amplitude of the
vibration producing the sound. For
example, if the amplitude becomes
twice, the loudness increases by a
factor of 4. The loudness is expressed
in a unit called decibel (dB). The
following table gives some idea of the
loudness of sound coming from
various sources.

Normal breathing 10 dB
Soft whisper (at 5m) 30 dB
Normal conversation 60 dB
Busy traffic 70 dB
Average factory 80 dB

Above 80 dB the noise becomes

physically painful.

The loudness of sound depends on

its amplitude. When the amplitude of
vibration is large, the sound produced
is loud. When the amplitude is small, Fig. 10.18 : Frequency determines the
the sound produced is feeble. pitch of a sound
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a low-pitched sound. On the other 10.7 Noise and Music
hand, a whistle has a high frequency
We hear different types of sounds
and therefore, produces a sound of
around us. Is the sound always
higher pitch (Fig. 10.18). A bird makes
pleasing? Does a sound sometimes
a high-pitched sound whereas a lion
cause discomfort to you? Some sounds
makes a low-pitched roar. However, the
are pleasant to the ear, whereas some
roar of a lion is very loud while the are not.
sound of the bird is quite feeble. Suppose construction work is going
Every day you hear the voices of on in your neighbourhood. Are the
children and adults. Do you find any sounds coming from the construction
difference in their voices? Can you say site pleasing? Do you enjoy the sounds
that the frequency of the voice of a child produced by horns of buses and trucks?
is higher than that of an adult? Such unpleasant sounds are called
Usually the voice of a woman has noise. In a classroom, if all the students
a higher frequency than that of a speak together, what would the sound
man. produced be called?
On the other hand you enjoy sounds
10.6 Audible and Inaudible from musical instruments. Musical
Sounds sound is one which is pleasing to the
ear. Sound produced by a harmonium
We know that we need a vibrating body
is a musical sound. The string of a sitar
for the production of sound. Can we
also gives out a musical sound. But, if
hear the sound of all vibrating bodies?
a musical sound becomes too loud,
The fact is that sounds of frequencies
would it remain melodious?
less than about 20 vibrations per second
(20 Hz) cannot be detected by the human 10.8 Noise Pollution
ear. Such sounds are called inaudible.
On the higher side, sounds of frequencies You already know about air pollution.
higher than about 20,000 vibrations per Presence of unwanted gases and
second (20 kHz) are also not audible to particles in air is called air pollution.
the human ear. Thus, for human ear, Similarly, presence of excessive or
the range of audible frequencies is unwanted sounds in the environment
roughly from 20 to 20,000 Hz. is called noise pollution. Can you list
some sources of noise pollution? Major
Some animals can hear sounds of causes of noise pollution are sounds of
frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz. vehicles, explosions including bursting
Dogs have this ability. The police use of crackers, machines, loudspeakers etc.
high frequency whistles which dogs can What sources in the home may lead to
hear but humans cannot. noise? Television and transistor radio
The ultrasound equipment, familiar at high volumes, some kitchen
to us for investigating and tracking appliances, desert coolers, air
many medical problems, works at conditioners, all contribute to noise
frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.
pollution.
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What are the Harms of Noise must be installed in air craft engines,
Pollution? transport vehicles, industrial
Do you know that presence of excessive machines and home appliances.
noise in the surroundings may cause How can the noise pollution be
many health related problems. Lack of controlled in a residential area?
sleep, hypertension (high blood- All n o i s y o p e r a t i o n s m u s t b e
pressure), anxiety and many more health conducted away from any residential
disorders may be caused by noise area. Noise producing industries
pollution. A person who is exposed to a should be set up away from such
loud sound continuously may get areas. Use of automobile horns
temporary or even permanent should be minimised. TV and music
impairment of hearing. systems should be run at low
volumes. Trees must be planted along
Measures to Limit Noise Pollution the roads and around buildings to
To control noise, we must control the cut down on the sounds reaching the
sources of noise. How can this be residents, thus reducing the harmful
achieved? For this, silencing devices effects of noise pollution.

Hearing Impairment
Total hearing impairment, which is rare, is usually from birth itself. Partial
disability is generally the result of a disease, injury or age. Children with
impaired hearing need special care. By learning sign language, such children
can communicate effectively. Because speech develops as the direct result of
hearing, a child with a hearing loss may have defective speech also.
Technological devices for the hearing-impaired have made it possible for such
persons to improve their quality of life. Society can do much to improve the
living environment for the hearing-impaired and help them live normal lives.

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KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
AMPLITUDE Ü Sound is produced by vibrating objects.

EARDRUM Ü In human beings, the vibration of the vocal

cords produces sound.
FREQUENCY Ü Sound travels through a medium (gas, liquid
or solid). It cannot travel in vacuum.
hertz (Hz)
Ü The eardrum senses the vibrations of sound,
LARYNX It sends the signals to the brain. This process
is called hearing.
LOUDNESS
Ü The number of oscillations or vibrations per
NOISE second is called the frequency of oscillation.
Ü The frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz)
OSCILLATION
Ü Larger the amplitude of vibration, the louder
PITCH is the sound.
Ü Higher the frequency of vibration, the higher
TIME PERIOD
is the pitch, and shriller is the sound.
VIBRATION Ü Unpleasant sounds are called noise.
Ü Excessive or unwanted sounds lead to noise
VOICE BOX pollution. Noise pollution may pose health

WIND PIPE problems for human beings.

Ü Attempts should be made to minimise noise
pollution.
Ü Plantation on the roadside and elsewhere can
reduce noise pollution.

Exercises

1. Choose the correct answer.

Sound can travel through

(a) gases only (b) solids only

(c) liquids only (d) solids, liquids and gases.
2. Voice of which of the following is likely to have minimum frequency?
(a) Baby girl (b) Baby boy
(c) A man (d) A woman

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 3. In the following statements, tick ‘T’ against those which are true, and ‘F’
EXERCISES against those which are false.
(a) Sound cannot travel in vacuum. (T/F)
(b) The number of oscillations per second of a vibrating object is called
its time period. (T/F)
(c) If the amplitude of vibration is large, sound is feeble. (T/F)
(d) For human ears, the audible range is 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. (T/F)
(e) The lower the frequency of vibration, the higher is the pitch. (T/F)
(f) Unwanted or unpleasant sound is termed as music. (T/F)
(g) Noise pollution may cause partial hearing impairment. (T/F)

4. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

(a) Time taken by an object to complete one oscillation is called
__________.
(b) Loudness is determined by the __________ of vibration.
(c) The unit of frequency is __________
(d) Unwanted sound is called __________ .
(e) Shrillness of a sound is determined by the __________ of vibration.
5. A pendulum oscillates 40 times in 4 seconds. Find its time period and
frequency.

6. The sound from a mosquito is produced when it vibrates its wings at an

average rate of 500 vibrations per second. What is the time period of the
vibration?

7. Identify the part which vibrates to produce sound in the following

instruments.
(a) Dholak (b) Sitar (c) Flute

8. What is the difference between noise and music? Can music become noise
sometimes?

9. List sources of noise pollution in your surroundings.

10. Explain in what way noise pollution is harmful to human.

11. Your parents are going to buy a house. They have been offered one on the
roadside and another three lanes away from the roadside. Which house
would you suggest your parents should buy? Explain your answer.
12. Sketch larynx and explain its function in your own words.

13. Lightning and thunder take place in the sky at the same time and at the
same distance from us. Lightning is seen earlier and thunder is heard
later. Can you explain why?

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 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. Visit the music room of your school. You may also visit musicians
in your locality. Make a list of musical instruments. Note down the
parts of these instruments that vibrate to produce sound.

2. If you play a musical instrument, bring it to the class and

demonstrate how you play it.

3. Prepare a list of famous Indian musicians and the instruments

they play.
4. Take a long thread. Place your hands over your ears and get some
one to place this thread round your head and hands. Ask her to
make the thread taut and hold its ends in one hand. Now ask her
to draw her finger and thumb tightly along the thread (Fig. 10.19).
Can you hear a rolling sound like that of a thunder? Now repeat
the activity while another friend stands near both of you. Can he
hear any sound?

Fig. 10.19

5. Make two toy telephones. Use them as shown in Fig. 10.20. Make
sure that the two strings are taut and touch each other. Let one of
you speak. Can the remaining three persons hear? See how many
more friends you can engage in this way. Explain your observations.

Fig. 10.20

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 6. Identify the sources of noise pollution in your locality. Discuss with
your parents, friends and neighbours. Suggest how to control noise
pollution. Prepare a brief report and present it in the class.

You can read more on the related topics on the following websites:
l [Link]/Class/sound/[Link]
l [Link]/[Link]

Did You Know?

Golconda fort, near Hyderabad, is one of the most magnificient

forts in India. It is famous for many engineering and architectural
marvels. One of the marvels is the water supply system. But,
perhaps, more astonishing is a dome near the entrance to the fort.
A hand-clap at a particular point under the dome reverberates
and can be heard at the highest point of the fort, about a kilometre
away. This was devised as a warning system. If a guard saw a
suspicious movement outside the fort, he clapped at the particular
point under the dome, and the army inside the fort was alerted to
the danger of the approaching enemy.

Golconda fort

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 CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT

Y
our elders might have cautioned plastic and wood do not conduct
you against touching an electrical electricity. However, so far we have used
appliance with wet hands. But our tester to test materials which were
do you know why it is dangerous to in solid state. But what about liquids?
touch an electrical appliance with wet Do liquids also conduct electricity? Let
hands? us find out.
We have learnt earlier that the
materials, which allow electric current
to pass through them, are good Paheli and Boojho want to
conductors of electricity. On the other remind you that one
hand, materials, which do not allow should not experiment
electric current to pass through them with the electric supply
easily, are poor conductors of electricity. from the mains or a
In Class VI, we made a tester to test generator or an inverter.
whether a particular material allows the Use only electric cells for
electric current to pass through it or not. all the activities suggested
here.
Do you recall how the tester helped us
in deciding that?
We found that metals such as copper 11.1 Do Liquids Conduct
and aluminium conduct electricity Electricity?
whereas materials such as rubber,
To test whether a liquid allows electric
current to pass through it or not, we
can use the same tester (Fig.11.1).

Fig.11.1 : A tester

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However, replace the cell by a battery.
of the tester glow? Does lemon juice
Also, before using the tester we
or vinegar conduct electricity? How
should check whether it is working
would you classify lemon juice or
or not.
vinegar— a good conductor or a poor
conductor?
Activity 11.1
Join the free ends of the tester
together for a moment. This
completes the circuit of the tester
and the bulb should glow. However,
if the bulb does not glow, it means
that the tester is not working. Can
you think of the possible reasons?
Is it possible that the connections
are loose? Or, the bulb is fused? Or,
your cells are used up? Check that
all the connections are tight. If they
are, then replace the bulb with
another bulb. Now test if the tester
is working or not. If it is still not Fig. 11.2 : Testing conduction of electricity in
working then replace the cells with lemon juice or vinegar
fresh cells.
When the liquid between the two
Now that our tester is working, let ends of the tester allows the electric
us use it to test the various liquids. current to pass, the circuit of the tester
(Caution: While checking your tester, becomes complete. The current flows in
the circuit and the bulb glows. When
do not join its free ends for more than a
the liquid does not allow the electric
few seconds. Otherwise the cells of the
current to pass, the circuit of the tester
battery will drain very quickly.)
is not complete and the bulb does not
glow.
Activity 11.2
In some situations even though the
Collect a few small plastic or rubber liquid is conducting, the bulb may not
caps of discarded bottles and clean g l o w . It may have happened in
them. Pour one teaspoon of lemon Activity 11.2. What can be the reason?
juice or vinegar in one cap. Bring Do you remember why the bulb
your tester over this cap and let the glows when the electric current passes
ends of the tester dip into lemon juice through it? Due to the heating effect
or vinegar as shown in Fig.11.2. Take of current, the filament of the bulb gets
care that the ends are not more than heated to a high temperature and it
1 cm apart but at the same time do starts glowing. However, if the current
not touch each other. Does the bulb through a circuit is too weak, the
filament does not get heated
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sufficiently and it does not glow. And Activity 11.3
why is the current in the circuit weak?
Well, though a material may conduct Take the tray from inside a discarded
electricity, it may not conduct it as matchbox. Wrap an electric wire a few
easily as a metal. As a result, the times around the tray. Place a small
circuit of the tester may be complete compass needle inside it. Now
and yet the current through it may be connect one free end of the wire to
too weak to make the bulb glow. Can the terminal of a battery. Leave the
we make another tester which can other end free. Take another piece of
detect a weak current? wire and connect it to the other
terminal of the battery (Fig. 11.4).
We can use another effect of an electric
current to make another kind of tester.
Do you recall that electric current
produces a magnetic effect? What
happens to a compass needle kept nearby
when current flows in a wire? Even if
the current is small, the deflection of the
magnetic needle can be seen. Can we
make a tester using the magnetic
effect of currents? Let us find out in
Activity 11.3.
You may use an LED (Fig. 11.3) in
Fig 11.4 : Another tester
place of the electric bulb in the tester
of Fig. 11.2. LED glows even when a Join the free ends of two wires
weak electric current flows through momentarily. The compass needle
it. should show deflection. Your tester
There are two wires (called leads) with two free ends of the wire is ready.
attached to an LED. One lead is Now repeat Activity 11.2 using this
slightly longer than the other. tester. Do you find a deflection in the
Remember that while connecting to compass needle the moment you dip
a circuit, the longer lead is always the free ends of the tester in lemon
connected to the positive terminal of
juice?
the battery and the shorter lead is
Take out the ends of the tester
connected to the negative terminal of
the battery. from the lemon juice, dip them in
water and then wipe them dry.
Repeat the activity with other liquids
such as tap water, vegetable oil, milk,
honey. (Remember to wash and wipe
dry the ends of tester after testing
each liquid). In each case observe
whether the magnetic needle shows
deflection or not. Record your
Fig. 11.3 : LEDs observations in Table 11.1.

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 Table 11.1 : Good/Poor Conducting Liquids
[Link]. Material Compass Needle Shows Good Conductor/
Deflection Yes/No Poor Conductor
1. Lemon juice Yes Good Conductor
2. Vinegar
3. Tap Water
4. Vegetable oil
5. Milk
6. Honey
7.
8.
9.
10.

From Table 11.1, we find that some We have tested the conduction of
liquids are good conductors of electricity electricity through tap water. Let us now
and some are poor conductors. test the conduction of electricity through
distilled water.

When the free ends of the

Activity 11.4
tester do not touch each Take about two teaspoonfuls of
other, there is an air gap distilled water in a clean and dry
between them. Paheli knows
plastic or rubber cap of a bottle. (You
that air is a poor conductor of
may obtain distilled water from your
electricity. But she has also read
that during lightning, an electric school science lab. You may also get
current passes through air. She distilled water from a medical store
wonders if air is indeed a poor or a doctor or a nurse). Use the tester
conductor under all conditions. to test whether distilled water
This makes Boojho ask whether conducts electricity or not. What do
other materials classified as you find? Does distilled water
poor conductors also allow conduct electricity? Now dissolve a
electricity to pass under pinch of common salt in distilled
certain conditions. water. Again test. What do you
conclude this time?

Actually, under certain conditions When salt is dissolved in distilled

most materials can conduct. That is why water, we obtain salt solution. This is a
it is preferable to classify materials as conductor of electricity.
good conductors and poor conductors The water that we get from sources
instead of classifying as conductors and such as taps, hand pumps, wells and
insulators. ponds is not pure. It may contain
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several salts dissolved in it. Small Most liquids that conduct electricity
amounts of mineral salts are naturally are solutions of acids, bases and salts.
present in it. This water is thus a good When an electric current flows
conductor of electricity. On the other through a conducting solution, does it
hand, distilled water is free of salts and produce an effect on the solution?
is a poor conductor.
11.2 Chemical Effects of
Electric Current
Small amounts of mineral salts
present naturally in water are In Class VII, we have learnt some effects
beneficial for human health. of electric current. Can you list these
However, these salts make water effects? What effect does the current
a good conductor. So, we should produce when it flows through a
never handle electrical conducting solution? Let us find out.
appliances with wet hands or
while standing on a wet floor. Activity 11.6
We have found that common salt, Take out carbon rods carefully from
when dissolved in distilled water, makes
two discarded cells. Clean their
it a good conductor. What are the other
metal caps with sand paper. Wrap
substances which, when dissolved in
copper wires around the metal caps
distilled water, make it conducting? Let
us find out. of the carbon rods and join them to
a battery (Fig. 11.5). We call these
Caution: Do the next activity under the two rods electrodes. (Instead of
supervision of your teacher/parent or
some elderly person, because the use of
acid is involved in it.

Activity 11.5
Take three clean plastic or rubber caps
of bottles. Pour about two teaspoonfuls
of distilled water in each of them. Add
a few drops of lemon juice or dilute
hydrochloric acid to distilled water in
one cap. Now in the second cap
containing distilled water, add a few Metal Cap
drops of a base such as caustic soda
or potassium iodide. Add a little sugar Carbon Carbon
to the distilled water in the third cap rod rod
and dissolve it. Test which solutions
conduct electricity and which do not. Water
What results do you obtain? Fig.11.5 : Passing current through water

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 carbon rods, you may take two iron
nails about 6 cm long .) Pour a
cupful of water in a glass/plastic Boojho decided to test
bowl. Add a teaspoonful of salt or a whether some fruits and
vegetables also conduct
few drops of lemon juice to water to
electricity or not. He cut
make it more conducting. Now a potato into two halves and
immerse the electrodes in this inserted the copper wires of a tester
solution. Make sure that the metal into it. Just then his mother called
caps of the carbon rods are outside him and he forgot to take out the
the water. Wait for 3-4 minutes. wires of the tester inserted into the
Observe the electrodes carefully. Do potato. When he came back after
you notice any gas bubbles near the half an hour, he noticed that there
was a greenish blue spot on the
electrodes? Can we call the change
potato around one wire whereas
taking place in the solution a there was no such spot around the
chemical change? Recall the other wire (Fig. 11.6).
definition of a chemical change that
you learnt in Class VII.

In 1800, a British chemist, William

Nicholson (1753–1815), had shown
that if electrodes
were immersed
in water, and a
current was passed,
bubbles of oxygen
and hydrogen were
produced. Oxygen
bubbles formed
on the electrode Fig. 11.6 : Testing potato
connected to the positive terminal of
He was surprised with this
the battery and hydrogen bubbles
observation and along with Paheli
formed on the other electrode.
repeated this activity many times. They
The passage of an electric current found that it was always the wire
through a conducting solution causes connected to the positive terminal,
which had a greenish blue spot around
chemical reactions. As a result, bubbles
it. They felt that this discovery was very
of a gas may be formed on the electrodes. useful because it could be used for
Deposits of metal may be seen on identifying the positive terminal of a
electrodes. Changes of colour of cell or a battery concealed in a box.
solutions may occur. The reaction would They decided to report their finding to
depend on what solution and electrodes a children’s magazine.
are used. These are some of the chemical Remember that Boojho set out to
effects of the electric current. test whether potato conducted

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 electricity or not. What he found was
that current produced a chemical
effect in the potato. To him this was
very exciting. In fact, this is how
science sometimes works. You are
looking for something and you
discover something else. Many
Copper plate
important discoveries have been
made in this manner.
Copper plate Copper sul-
11.3 Electroplating phate
solution
You know that a brand new bicycle has
shiny handlebar and wheel rims. Fig.11.7 : A simple circuit showing
However, if these are accidentally electroplating
scratched, the shiny coating comes off Allow the current to pass for
revealing a not so shiny surface beneath. about 15 minutes. Now remove the
You might have also seen women using electrodes from the solution and
ornaments, which appear to be made of look at them carefully. Do you find
gold. However, with repeated use, the any difference in any one of them?
gold coating wears off, revealing silver or Do you find a coating over it? What
some other metal beneath. colour is the coating? Note down the
In both these cases, a metal has a terminal of the battery with which
coating of another metal. Do you wonder this electrode is connected.
how a layer of one metal can be
deposited on top of another? Well, let
us try doing it ourselves. After doing the electroplating
activity, Paheli interchanged
Activity 11.7 the electrodes and repeated
We will need copper sulphate and the activity. What do you think
she would observe this time?
two copper plates of size around
10 cm × 4 cm. Take 250 mL of
distilled water in a clean and dry When electric current is passed
beaker. Dissolve two teaspoonfuls of through the copper sulphate solution,
copper sulphate in it. Add a few drops copper sulphate dissociates into
of dilute sulphuric acid to copper copper and sulphate. The free copper
sulphate solution to make it more gets drawn to the electrode connected
conducting. Clean copper plates with to the negative terminal of the battery
sand paper. Now rinse them with and gets deposited on it. But what
water and dry them. Connect the about the loss of copper from the
copper plates to the terminals of a solution?
battery and immerse them in copper From the other electrode, a copper
sulphate solution (Fig. 11.7). plate, an equal amount of copper gets
dissolved in the solution. Thus, the
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loss of copper from the solution is
restored and the process continues.
This means that copper gets
transferred from one electrode to the
other.

Boojho could get only one

copper plate. So he
performed Activity 11.7 by
connecting a carbon rod in
place of the copper plate
which was connected to
the negative terminal of
the battery. He succeeded
in obtaining a coating of
copper on carbon rod.

The process of depositing a layer of

any desired metal on another material
by means of electricity is called Fig. 11.8 : Some electroplated objects
electroplating. It is one of the most
silver and gold on less expensive metals.
common applications of chemical effects
These ornaments have the appearance
of electric current.
of silver or gold but are much less
Electroplating is a very useful
expensive.
process. It is widely used in industry
Tin cans, used for storing food, are
for coating metal objects with a thin
made by electroplating tin onto iron. Tin
layer of a different metal (Fig.11.8). The
is less reactive than iron. Thus, food
layer of metal deposited has some
does not come into contact with iron and
desired property, which the metal of the
is protected from getting spoilt.
object lacks. For example, chromium
Iron is used in bridges and
plating is done on many objects such
automobiles to provide strength.
as car parts, bath taps, kitchen gas
However, iron tends to corrode and rust.
burners, bicycle handlebars, wheel rims
So, a coating of zinc is deposited on iron
and many others.
to protect it from corrosion and
Chromium has a shiny appearance.
formation of rust.
It does not corrode. It resists scratches.
However, chromium is expensive and it In the electroplating factories the
may not be economical to make the disposal of the used conducting
whole object out of chromium. So the solution is a major concern. It is a
object is made from a cheaper metal and polluting waste and there are specific
only a coating of chromium over it is disposal guidelines to protect the
environment.
deposited. Jewellery makers electroplate
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KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ELECTRODE Ü Some liquids are good conductors of electricity

ELECTROPLATING and some are poor conductors.

Ü Most liquids that conduct electricity are
GOOD CONDUCTOR solutions of acids, bases and salts.
Ü The passage of an electric current through a
LED
conducting liquid causes chemical reactions.
POOR CONDUCTOR The resulting effects are called chemical effects
of currents.
Ü The process of depositing a layer of any desired
metal on another material, by means of
electricity, is called electroplating.

Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks.

(a) Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of ,

______________ and ______________.
(b) The passage of an electric current through a solution causes
______________ effects.

(c) If you pass current through copper sulphate solution, copper gets
deposited on the plate connected to the terminal of the
battery.

(d) The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another

material by means of electricity is called .

2. When the free ends of a tester are dipped into a solution, the magnetic
needle shows deflection. Can you explain the reason?
3. Name three liquids, which
when tested in the manner
shown in Fig.11.9, may
cause the magnetic needle
to deflect.

Fig. 11.9

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 4. The bulb does not glow in the setup shown in Fig.11.10. List the possible
EXERCISES reasons. Explain your answer.

Fig. 11.10
5. A tester is used to check the conduction of electricity through two liquids,
labelled A and B. It is found that the bulb of the tester glows brightly for
liquid A while it glows very dimly for liquid B. You would conclude that
(i) liquid A is a better conductor than liquid B.
(ii) liquid B is a better conductor than liquid A.
(iii) both liquids are equally conducting.
(iv) conducting properties of liquid cannot be compared in this manner.
6. Does pure water conduct electricity? If not, what can we do to make it
conducting?

7. In case of a fire, before the firemen use the water hoses, they shut off the
main electrical supply for the area. Explain why they do this.

8. A child staying in a coastal region tests the drinking water and also the
seawater with his tester. He finds that the compass needle deflects more
in the case of seawater. Can you explain the reason?

9. Is it safe for the electrician to carry out electrical repairs outdoors during
heavy downpour? Explain.
10. Paheli had heard that rainwater is as good as distilled water. So she
collected some rainwater in a clean glass tumbler and tested it using a
tester. To her surprise she found that the compass needle showed
deflection. What could be the reasons?

11. Prepare a list of objects around you that are electroplated.

12. The process that you saw in Activity 11.7 is used for purification of copper.
A thin plate of pure copper and a thick rod of impure copper are used as
electrodes. Copper from impure rod is sought to be transfered to the thin
copper plate. Which electrode should be attached to the positive terminal
of the battery and why?

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 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Test the conduction of electricity through various fruits and

vegetables. Display your result in a tabular form.

2. Repeat Activity 11.7 with a zinc plate in place of the copper plate
connected to the negative terminal of the battery. Now replace zinc
plate with some other metallic object and again repeat the activity.
Which metal gets deposited over which other metal? Discuss your
findings with your friends.

3. Find out if there is a commercial electroplating unit in your town.

What objects are electroplated there and for what purpose? (The
process of electroplating in a commercial unit is much more complex
than what we did in Activity 11.7). Find out how they dispose off the
chemicals they discard.
4. Imagine that you are an ‘entrepreneur’ and have been provided a
loan by a bank to set up a small electroplating unit. What object
would you like to electroplate and for what purpose? (Look up the
meaning of ‘entrepreneur’ in a dictionary).

5. Find out the health concerns associated with chromium

electroplating. How are people trying to resolve them?
6. You can make a fun pen for yourself. Take a conducting metal plate
and spread a moist paste of potassium iodide and starch. Connect
the plate to a battery as shown in Fig. 11.11. Now using the free
end of the wire, write a few letters on the paste. What do you see?

Fig. 11.11

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 For more information on this topic visit:
l [Link]/[Link]

Did You Know?

LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are available in

many colours such as red, green, yellow, blue,
white and are increasingly being used for many
applications, for example in traffic signal lights.
LEDs are increasingly being used for lighting. A
cluster of white LEDs grouped together forms a
LED light source. LED light sources consume
less electricity and have longer lifetime than
light bulbs and fluorescent tubes. Hence these
are gradually becoming the preferred lighting
source.

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 SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA

In this chapter we shall discuss two kind of resin) was rubbed with fur, it
destructive natural phenomena. These attracted light objects such as hair. You
are lightning and earthquakes. We shall might have seen that when you take
also discuss what steps we can take to off woollen or polyester clothes, your
hair stands on end. If you take off these
minimise destruction caused by
clothes in the dark, you even see a
these phenomena.
spark and hear a crackling sound. In
1752 Benjamin Franklin, an American
12.1 Lightning
scientist, showed that lightning and the
You might have seen sparks on a spark from your clothes are essentially
electric pole when wires become loose. the same phenomena. However, it took
This phenomenon is quite common 2000 years for this realisation to occur.
when wind is blowing and shaking the
wires. You might also have seen sparks
when a plug is loose in its socket. I wonder why they took so
Lightning is also an electric spark, but many years to realise the
on a huge scale. similarity.
In ancient times, people did not
understand the cause of these sparks.
They were, therefore, afraid of lightning
and thought that the wrath of gods was Scientific discoveries are a
visiting them. Now, of course, we result of hardwork by many
understand that lightning is caused by people. It can sometimes take
the accumulation of charges in the a long time.
clouds. We need not be afraid of
lightning, but we have to take We shall now study some properties
precautions to protect ourselves from of electric charges. We shall also see how
the deadly sparks. they are related to the lightning in the
sky.
The Sparks that the Greeks Knew Let us perform some activities to
About understand the nature of electric
The ancient Greeks knew as early as charges. But recall first what you might
600 B.C. that when amber (amber is a have played as a game. When you rub

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a plastic scale on your dry hair, the
small pieces of dry leaf, husk and
scale can attract very small pieces of
mustard seeds. Record your
paper.
observations.
12.2 Charging by Rubbing
When a plastic refill is rubbed with
Activity 12.1 polythene, it acquires a small electric
Take a used ballpen refill and rub charge. Similarly, when a plastic comb
it vigorously with a piece of is rubbed with dry hair, it acquires a
polythene. Bring it close to small small charge. These objects are called
pieces of paper. Take care not to charged objects. In the process of
touch the rubbed end of the refill charging the refill and the plastic comb,
with your hand or with a metallic polythene and hair also get charged.
object. Repeat the activity with Let’s try to charge some other
objects that are familiar to you.

Activity 12.2
Collect the objects and the materials listed in Table 12.1. Try to charge each
by rubbing with the materials mentioned in the Table. Record your findings.
You can add more items to the Table.

Table 12.1

Objects Rubbed Materials Attracts/does not Charged/

Used for Rubbing Attract Pieces Not Charged
of Paper
Refill Polythene,
woollen cloth
Balloon Polythene, woollen
cloth, dry hair

Eraser Wool

Steel spoon Polythene,

woollen cloth

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12.3 Types of Charges and Rub the other refill also with
Their Interaction polythene. Bring it close to the
We will select some objects fr om charged refill. Be careful not to
Table 12.1 for the next activity. touch the charged end with your
hand. Is there any effect on the refill
Activity 12.3 in the tumbler? Do the two attract
each other, or repel each other?
(a) Inflate two balloons. Hang them In this activity we have brought
in such a way that they do not touch close together the charged objects
each other (Fig. 15.1). Rub both the that were made of the same
balloons with a woollen cloth and material. What happens if two
release them. What do you observe? charged objects made of different
materials are brought close to each
other? Let’s find out.
(b) Rub a refill and place it gently in
a glass tumbler as before
(Fig. 12.3). Bring an inflated charged
balloon near the refill and observe.

Fig. 12.1 : Like charges repel each other

Now let us repeat this activity
with the used pen refills. Rub one
refill with polythene. Place it
carefully in a glass tumbler using
the tumbler as a stand (Fig. 12.2).
Fig. 12.3 : Unlike charges attract each other

Let’s summarise the observations:

l A charged balloon repelled a charged
balloon.
l A charged refill repelled a charged
refill.
l But a charged balloon attracted a
charged refill.
Does it indicate that the charge on
the balloon is of a different kind from
the charge on the refill? Can we say
Fig. 12.2 : Interaction between like charges then, that there are two kinds of
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charges? Can we also say that the it with the end of the paper clip.
charges of the same kind repel each Observe what happens. Is there any
other, while charges of different kind effect on the foil strips? Do they
attract each other? repel each other or attract each
It is a convention to call the charge other? Now, touch other charged
acquired by a glass rod when it is bodies with the end of the paper clip.
rubbed with silk as positive. The Do foil strips behave in the same
other kind of charge is said to be way in all cases? Can this apparatus
negative. be used to detect whether a body is
It is observed that when a charged charged or not? Can you explain
glass rod is brought near a charged why the foil strips repel each other?
plastic straw rubbed with polythene
there is attraction between the two.
What do you think would be the kind
of charge on the plastic straw? Your
guess, that the plastic straw would carry
a negative charge is correct.
The electrical charges generated by
rubbing are static. They do not move by
themselves. When charges move, they
constitute an electric current. You have
been reading about electric current since
Class VI. The current in a circuit which
makes a bulb glow, or the current that
makes a wire hot, is nothing but a
motion of charges.
Fig 12.4 : A simple electroscope
12.4 Transfer of Charge
The aluminium foil strips receive the
Activity 12.4 same charge from the charged refill
Take an empty jam bottle. Take a through the paper clip (remember that
piece of cardboard slightly bigger in metals are good conductors of
size than the mouth of the bottle. electricity). The strips carrying similar
Pierce a hole in it so that a metal charges repel each other and they
paper clip can be inserted. Open out become wide open. Such a device can
the paper clip as shown in Fig. 12.4. be used to test whether an object is
Cut two strips of aluminium foil carrying charge or not. This device is
about 4 cm × 1 cm each. Hang them known as electroscope.
on the paper clip as shown. Insert Thus, we find that electrical charge
the paper clip in the cardboard lid can be transferred from a charged object
so that it is perpendicular to it to another through a metal conductor.
(Fig. 12.4). Charge a refill and touch Touch the end of the paper clip gently
with hand and you will find a change in
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the foil strips. They come back to their During the development of a
original state. Repeat charging of foil thunderstorm, the air currents move
strips and touching the paper clip. Every upward while the water droplets move
time you will find that the foil strips downward. These vigorous movements
collapse as soon as you touch the cause separation of charges. By a
paperclip with hand. Why does it process, not yet completely understood,
happen? The reason is that the foil strips
the positive charges collect near the
lose charge to the earth through your
upper edges of the clouds and the
body. We say that the foil strips are
discharged. The process of transferring negative charges accumulate near the
of charge from a charged object to the lower edges. There is accumulation of
earth is called earthing. positive charges near the ground also.
When the magnitude of the
Earthing is provided in buildings to
accumulated charges becomes very
protect us from electrical shocks due large, the air which is normally a poor
to any leakage of electrical current. conductor of electricity, is no longer able
to resist their flow. Negative and positive
12.5 The Story of Lightning charges meet, producing streaks of
bright light and sound. We see streaks
It is now possible to explain lightning
as lightning (Fig. 12.5). The process is
in terms of the charges produced by
rubbing. called an electric discharge.

Fig. 12.5 : Accumulation of charges leading to lightning.

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 The process of electric discharge can metal objects. Do not lie on the ground.
occur between two or more clouds, or Instead, squat low on the ground. Place
between clouds and the earth. Today we your hands on your knees with your
need not get frightened by lightning like head between the hands (Fig. 12.6). This
our ancestors did. Now we understand position will make you the smallest
the basic phenomenon. Scientists are target to be struck.
trying hard to improve this
understanding. However, lightning
strike could destroy life and property. It
is, therefore, necessary to take measures
to protect ourselves.

12.6 Lightning Safety

During lightning and thunderstorm no
open place is safe.
l Hearing thunder is an alert to rush
to a safer place.
l After hearing the last thunder, wait
for some time before coming out of
the safe place.

Finding a Safe Place

A house or a building is a safe place.
If you are travelling by car or by bus, Fig. 12.6 : Safe position during lightning
you are safe inside with windows and
doors of the vehicle shut. Inside the house
Lightning can strike telephone cords,
Do’s and Don’ts during a electrical wires and metal pipes (Do you
Thunderstorm remember, lightning is an electrical
Outside discharge?). During a thunderstorm
Open vehicles, like motorbikes, tractors, contact with these should be avoided. It
construction machinery, open cars are is safer to use mobile phones and
not safe. Open fields, tall trees, shelters cordless phones. However, it is not wise
in parks, elevated places do not protect to call up a person who is receiving your
us from lightning strokes. phone through a wired phone.
Carrying an umbrella is not at all a Bathing should be avoided during
good idea during thunderstorms. thunderstorms to avoid contact with
If in a forest, take shelter under running water.
shorter trees. Electrical appliances like computers,
If no shelter is available and you are TVs, etc., should be unplugged. Electrical
in an open field, stay far away from all lights can remain on. They do not cause
trees. Stay away from poles or other any harm.
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Lightning Conductors 12.7 Earthquakes
Lightning Conductor is a device used You just learnt about thunderstorm and
to protect buildings from the effect of lightning. These natural phenomena can
lightning. A metallic rod, taller than the cause large scale destruction of human
building, is installed in the walls of the life and property. Fortunately, these
building during its construction. One phenomena can be predicted to some
end of the rod is kept out in the air and extent. The weather department can
the other is buried deep in the ground warn about a thunderstorm developing
(Fig. 12.7). The rod provides easy route in some area.
for the transfer of electric charge to the If a thunderstorm occurs there is
ground. always a possibility of lightning and
The metal columns used during cyclones accompanying it. So, we get
construction, electrical wires and water time to take measures to protect
pipes in the buildings also protect us to ourselves from the damage caused by
an extent. But do not touch them during these phenomena.
a thunderstorm.

lightning
conductor

copper
plate

Fig. 12.7 : Lightning conductor

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 There is, however, one natural caused by these earthquakes from
phenomenon which we are not yet able newspapers and magazines of those
to predict accurately. It is an
days. Prepare a short report on the
earthquake. It can cause damage to
suffering of the people during and
human life and property on a huge scale.
after the earthquakes.
A major earthquake occurred in
India on 8 October 2005 in Uri and
Tangdhar towns of North Kashmir What is an earthquake? What
(Fig. 12.8). Before that a major happens when it occurs? What can we
earthquake occurred on 26 January do to minimise its effects? These are
2001 in Bhuj district of Gujarat. some of the questions which we shall
discuss below.
Activity 12.5
What is an Earthquake?
Ask your parents about the huge
An earthquake is a sudden shaking or
damage to life and property caused
trembling of the earth which lasts for a
by these earthquakes. Collect a few
very short time. It is caused by a
pictures showing the damage
disturbance deep inside the earth’s

Fig. 12.8 : Kashmir earthquake

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crust. Earthquakes occur all the time,
all over the earth. They are not even What could cause a
noticed. Major earthquakes are much disturbance inside
less frequent. They can cause immense the earth?
damage to buildings, bridges, dams and
people. There can be a great loss to life Now we know that the tremors are
and property. Earthquakes can cause caused by the disturbance deep down
floods, landslides and tsunamis. A inside the uppermost layer of the earth
major tsunami occurred in the Indian called the crust (Fig. 12.9).
Ocean on 26 December 2004. All the
coastal areas around the ocean suffered
huge losses. crust

Activity 12.6
mantle
Take an outline map of the world.
Locate the eastern coast and outer
core
Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
India. Mark other countries around
inner
the Indian Ocean which could have core
suffered damage. Collect accounts
of the devastation caused by the
tsunami in India from your parents, Fig. 12.9 : Structure of the earth
or other elders in the family or in
the neighbourhood. The outermost layer of the earth is
not in one piece. It is fragmented. Each
What Causes an Earthquake? fragment is called a plate (Fig. 12.10).
These plates are in continual motion.
When they brush past one another,
My grandmother told me
that the earth is balanced
on the horn of a bull and
when the bull shifts it to
the other horn, an
earthquake takes place.
How could it be true?
Eurasian
In ancient times, people did not know Plate
the true cause of earthquakes. Their Arabian
ideas were, therefore, expressed in Plate Indan
mythical stories such as the one told by Plate
Boojho’s grandmother. Similar myths
were prevalent in other parts of
the world. Fig. 12.10 : Earth plates

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or a plate goes under another due to carried out. However, most earthquakes
collision (Fig. 12.11), they cause are caused by the movement of earth’s
disturbance in the earth’s crust. It is plates.
this disturbance that shows up as an Since earthquakes are caused by the
earthquake on the surface of the earth. movement of plates, the boundaries of
the plates are the weak zones where
earthquakes are more likely to occur.
The weak zones are also known as
seismic or fault zones. In India, the
Colliding
areas most threatened are Kashmir,
Western and Central Himalayas, the
whole of North-East, Rann of Kutch,
Rajasthan and the Indo–Gangetic Plane.
Some areas of South India also fall in
Brushing
the danger zone (Fig. 12.12).
past

Fig. 12.11 : Movements of earth’s plates

If scientists know so much

about earthquakes, can
they also predict when and
where the next one will
strike?

Although, we know for sure what

causes an earthquake, it is not yet
possible to predict when and where the
next earthquake might occur.

Fig. 12.12 : Movements of Indian earth’s plate

I read somewhere that
underground explosions
The power of an earthquake is
could also cause expressed in terms of a magnitude
tremors. on a scale called the Richter scale.
Really destructive earthquakes have
Tremors on the earth can also be magnitudes higher than 7 on the
caused when a volcano erupts, or a Richter scale. Both Bhuj and Kashmir
meteor hits the earth, or an earthquakes had magnitudes greater
underground nuclear explosion is than 7.5.
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 The tremors produce waves on the surface of the earth. These are called
seismic waves. The waves are recorded by an instrument called the
seismograph (Fig. 12.13). The instrument is simply a vibrating rod, or a
pendulum, which starts vibrating when tremors occur. A pen is attached to
the vibrating system. The pen records the seismic waves on a paper which
moves under it. By studying these waves, scientists can construct a complete
map of the earthquake, as shown in Fig. 12.14. They can also estimate its
power to cause destruction.

String
Earth’s
Focus Surface Seismic
waves
Support Pendulum Bob Epicentre
Pen
Rotating
Drum

Chart
Paper

Inside the earth

A typical seismograph record

Fig. 12.13 : A seismograph Fig. 12.14 : Map of the earthquake

Like many other scales in science (decibel is another example), Richter scale
is not linear. This means that an earthquake of magnitude 6 does not have
one and half times the destructive energy of an earthquake of magnitude 4.
In fact, an increase of 2 in magnitude means 1000 times more destructive
energy. Therefore, an earthquake of magnitude 6 has thousand times more
destructive energy than an earthquake of magnitude 4.

Protection against Earthquakes living in seismic zones, where the

We know from the earlier pages that earthquakes are more likely to occur,
earthquakes cannot be predicted. We have to be specially prepared. First of
have also seen that they can be highly all, the buildings in these zones should
destructive. It is, therefore, important be so designed that they can withstand
that we take necessary precautions to major tremors. Modern building
protect ourselves all the time. People technology can make it possible.

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 It is advisable to make the structure The Central Building Research
simple so that it is ‘Quake Safe’. Institute, Roorkee, has developed
knowhow to make quake-resistant
l Consult qualified architects and
houses.
structural engineers.
In the event that an earthquake does
l In highly seismic areas, the use of
strike, take the following steps to protect
mud or timber is better than using
yourself.
heavy construction material. Keep
roofs as light as possible. In case 1. If you are at home
the structure falls, the damage will l Take shelter under a table and stay
not be heavy. there till the shaking stops.
l It is better if the cupboards and l Stay away from tall and heavy objects
shelves are fixed to the walls, so that that may fall on you.
they do not fall easily. l If you are in bed, do not get up.
l Be careful where you hang wall Protect your head with a pillow.
clocks, photo-frames, water heaters
etc., so that in the event of an 2. If you are outdoors
earthquake, they do not fall on l Find a clear spot, away from
people. buildings, trees and overhead power
l Since some buildings may catch fire lines. Drop to the ground.
due to an earthquake, it is necessary l If you are in a car or a bus, do not
that all buildings, especially tall come out. Ask the driver to drive
buildings, have fire fighting slowly to a clear spot. Do not come
equipment in working order. out till the tremors stop.

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KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
CRUST Ü Some objects can be charged by rubbing with
other objects.
DISCHARGE
Ü There are two kinds of charges — positive
EARTH’S PLATES
charge and negative charge
EARTHQUAKE Ü Like charges repel and unlike charges attract
each other.
ELECTROSCOPE
Ü The electrical charges produced by rubbing
LIGHTNING are called static charges.
Ü When charges move, they constitute an
LIGHTNING
electric current.
CONDUCTOR
Ü An electroscope may be used to detect
NEGATIVE CHARGE whether a body is charged or not.
Ü The process of transfer of charge from a
POSITIVE CHARGE
charged object to the earth is called earthing.
RICHTER SCALE Ü The process of electric discharge between
clouds and the earth or between different
SEISMOGRAPH clouds causes lightning.

THUNDER Ü Lightning strike could destroy life and

property.
THUNDERSTORM Ü Lightning conductors can protect buildings
from the effects of lightning.
TRANSFER OF
Ü An earthquake is a sudden shaking or
CHARGE
trembling of the earth.
TSUNAMI Ü Earthquake is caused by a disturbance deep
inside the earth’s crust.
TREMOR
Ü It is not possible to predict the occurrence of
an earthquake.
Ü Earthquakes tend to occur at the boundaries
of earth’s plates. These boundaries are known
as fault zones.
Ü Destructive energy of an earthquake is
measured on the Richter scale. The
earthquake measuring 7 or more on Richter
scale can cause severe damage to life and
property.
Ü We should take necessary precautions to
protect ourselves from earthquakes.
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 Exercises
Select the correct option in Questions 1 and 2.
1. Which of the following cannot be charged easily by friction?
(a) A plastic scale
(b) A copper rod
(c) An inflated balloon
(d) A woollen cloth.
2. When a glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk cloth the rod
(a) and the cloth both acquire positive charge.
(b) becomes positively charged while the cloth has a negative charge.
(c) and the cloth both acquire negative charge.
(d) becomes negatively charged while the cloth has a positive charge.
3. Write T against true and F against false in the following statements.
(a) Like charges attract each other (T/F)
(b) A charged glass rod attract a charged plastic straw (T/F)
(c) Lightning conductor cannot protect a building from lightning (T/F)
(d) Earthquakes can be predicted in advance (T/F)

4. Sometimes, a crackling sound is heard while taking off a sweater during

winters. Explain.
5. Explain why a charged body loses its charge if we touch it with our hand.

6. Name the scale on which the destructive energy of an earthquake is

measured. An earthquake measures 3 on this scale. Would it be recorded
by a seismograph? Is it likely to cause much damage?

7. Suggest three measures to protect ourselves from lightning.

8. Explain why a charged balloon is repelled by another charged balloon
whereas an uncharged balloon is attracted by another charged balloon?

9. Describe with the help of a diagram an instrument which can be used to

detect a charged body.
10. List three states in India where earthquakes are more likely to strike.

11. Suppose you are outside your home and an earthquake strikes. What
precaution would you take to protect yourself?
12. The weather department has predicted that a thunderstorm is likely to
occur on a certain day. Suppose you have to go out on that day. Would you
carry an umbrella? Explain.

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 Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. Open a water tap. Adjust the flow so that it forms a thin stream.
Charge a refill. Bring it near the water stream. Observe what
happens. Write a short report on the activity.
2. Make your own charge detector. Take a paper strip roughly 10 cm ×
3 cm. Give it a shape as shown in Fig. 12.15. Balance it on a
needle. Bring a charged body near it. Observe what happens. Write
a brief report, explaining its working.

Paper 10 cm × 3 cm

Fold along the dotted line

Cut along the dotted line

Needle

ThermoCole

Fig. 12.15
3. This activity should be performed at night. Go to a room where there
is a fluorescent tube light. Charge a balloon. Switch off the tube light
so that the room is completely dark. Bring the charged balloon near
the tubelight. You should see a faint glow. Move the balloon along
the length of the tube and observe how the glow changes.
Caution : Do not touch the metal parts of the tube or the wires
connecting the tube with the mains.
4. Find out if there is an organisation in your area which provides
relief to those suffering from natural disaster. Enquire about the
type of help they render to the victims of earthquakes. Prepare a
brief report on the problems of the earthquake victims.
For more information on these topics, visit:
l [Link]/[Link]
l [Link]/[Link]

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 LIGHT

T
he world is largely known through comb and close all its openings
the senses. The sense of sight except one in the middle. You can
is one of the most important use a strip of black paper for
senses. Through it we see mountains, this purpose. Hold the comb
rivers, trees, plants, chairs, people and perpendicular to the sheet of paper.
so many other things around us. We also
Throw light from a torch through
see clouds, rainbows and birds flying
the opening of the comb from one
in the sky. At night we see the moon
side (Fig. 13.1). With slight
and the stars. You are able to see the
adjustment of the torch and the
words and sentences printed on this
page. How is seeing made possible? comb you will see a ray of light along
the paper on the other side of the
13.1 What makes Things comb. Keep the comb and the torch
steady. Place a strip of plane mirror
Visible
in the path of the light ray
Have you ever thought how we see (Fig. 13.1). What do you observe?
various objects? You may say that eyes
see the objects. But, can you see an
object in the dark? It means that eyes
alone cannot see any object. It is only
when light from an object enters our
eyes that we see the object. The light
may have been emitted by the object, or
may have been reflected by it.
You learnt in Class VII that a polished
or a shiny surface can act as a mirror. A
mirror changes the direction of light
that falls on it. Can you tell in which
direction the light falling on a surface Fig. 13.1 : Arrangement for showing reflection
will be reflected? Let us find out.
After striking the mirror, the ray of
13.2 Laws of Reflection light is reflected in another direction.
Activity 13.1 The light ray, which strikes any surface,
is called the incident ray. The ray that
Fix a white sheet of paper on a comes back from the surface after
drawing board or a table. Take a reflection is known as the reflected ray.

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 A ray of light is an idealisation. In Table 13.1 : Angles of Incidence
reality, we have a narrow beam of and Reflection
light which is made up of several S. Angle of Angle of
rays. For simplicity, we use the term No. Incidence (∠∠i) ∠r)
Reflection (∠
ray for a narrow beam of light.
1.
Draw lines showing the position of 2.
the plane mirror, the incident ray and
3.
the reflected ray on the paper with the
help of your friends. Remove the mirror 4.
and the comb. Draw a line making an 5.
angle of 90º to the line representing the
mirror at the point where the incident Do you see any relation between the
ray strikes the mirror. This line is known angle of incidence and the angle of
as the normal to the reflecting surface reflection. Are they approximately equal?
at that point (Fig. 13.2). The angle If the experiment is carried out carefully,
it is seen that the angle of incidence is
always equal to the angle of reflection.
This is one of the laws of reflection.
Let us perform another activity on
reflection.

Fig. 13.2 : Drawing the normal

What would happen if I
between the normal and incident ray is threw the light on the
called the angle of incidence (∠i). The mirror along the normal.
angle between the normal and the
reflected ray is known as the angle of Activity 13.2
reflection (∠r) (Fig. 13.3). Measure the
angle of incidence and the angle of Perform Activity 13.1 again. This
reflection. Repeat the activity several time use a sheet of stiff paper or a
times by changing the angle of chart paper. Let the sheet project a
incidence. Enter the data in Table 13.1. little beyond the edge of the Table
(Fig. 13.4). Cut the projecting
portion of the sheet in the middle.
Look at the reflected ray. Make sure
Reflected Incident that the reflected ray extends to the
ray ray
projected portion of the paper. Bend
Normal that part of the projected portion on
which the reflected ray falls. Can
you still see the reflected ray? Bring
Fig. 13.3 : Angle of incidence and angle of the paper back to the original
reflection
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 position. Can you see the reflected with the Sun as the source of light
ray again? What do you infer? instead of a torch. You, too, can use the
Sun as the source of light.

These activities can also be performed

by making use of the Ray Streak
Apparatus (available in the kit
prepared by NCERT).

Boojho remembered that in Class VII,

he had studied some features of the
image of an object formed by a plane
mirror. Paheli asked him to recall
(a)
those features:
(i) Was the image erect or upside
down?
(ii) Was it of the same size as the
object?
(iii) Did the image appear at the same
distance behind the mirror as the
object was in front of it?
(iv) Could it be obtained on a screen?
Let us understand a little more about
(b) the formation of an image by a plane
Fig. 13.4 (a), (b) : Incident ray, reflected ray
and the normal at the point mirror in the following way:
of incidence lie in the same
plane Activity 13.3
When the whole sheet of paper is A source of light O is placed in front
spread on the table, it represents one of a plane mirror PQ. Two rays OA
plane. The incident ray, the normal at and OC are incident on it (Fig. 13.5).
the point of incidence and the reflected Can you find out the direction of
ray are all in this plane. When you bend the reflected rays?
the paper you create a plane different Draw normals to the surface of
from the plane in which the incident the mirror PQ, at the points A and
ray and the normal lie. Then you do not C. Then draw the reflected rays at
see the reflected ray. What does it the points A and C. How would you
indicate? It indicates that the incident draw these rays? Call the reflected
ray, the normal at the point of rays AB and CD, respectively.
incidence and the reflected ray all lie Extend them further. Do they meet?
in the same plane. This is another law Extend them backwards. Do they
of reflection. meet now? If they meet, mark this
Paheli and Boojho performed the point as I. For a viewer’s eye at E
above activities outside the classroom (Fig. 13 .5), do the reflected rays
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 Fig. 13.6 : Parallel rays incident on
an irregular surface

Fig. 13.5 : Image formation in a plane mirror

appear to come from the point I.
Since the reflected rays do not
actually meet at I, but only appear
to do so, we say that a virtual image Fig. 13.7 : Rays reflected from irregular
of the point O is formed at I. As you surface
have learnt already in Class VII,
such an image cannot be obtained When all the parallel rays reflected
on a screen. from a rough or irregular surface are
You may recall that in an image not parallel, the reflection is known as
formed by a mirror the left of the object diffused or irregular reflection.
appears on the right and the right Remember that the diffused reflection
appears on the left. This is known as is not due to the failure of the laws of
lateral inversion. reflection. It is caused by the
irregularities in the reflecting surface,
13.3 Regular and Diffused like that of a cardboard.
On the other hand, reflection from
Reflection
a s m o o t h s u r face like that of a
Activity 13.4 mirror is called regular reflection
(Fig. 13.8). Images are formed by
Imagine that parallel rays are regular reflection.
incident on an irregular surface as
shown in Fig. 13.6. Remember that
the laws of reflection are valid at
each point of the surface. Use these
laws to construct reflected rays at
various points. Are they parallel to
one another? You will find that
these rays are reflected in different
directions. (Fig. 13.7) Fig. 13.8 : Regular reflection

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 Do We See all Objects due to Reflected Light?
Nearly everything you see around is seen due to reflected light. Moon, for example,
receives light from the Sun and reflects it. That’s how we see the moon. The objects
which shine in the light of other objects are called illuminated objects. Can you
name some other such objects?
There are other objects, which give their own light, such as the Sun, fire, flame
of a candle and an electric lamp. Their light falls on our eyes. That is how we see
them. The objects which emit their own light are known as luminous objects.

Paheli recalls having constructed a

periscope as an Extended Activity in
I have a question. Can the Class VI. The periscope makes use of
reflected rays be further reflected two plane mirrors. Can you explain
if incident on another mirror? how reflection from the two mirrors
enables you to see objects which are
Let us find out.
not visible directly? Periscopes are
13.4 Reflected Light Can be used in submarines, tanks and also
Reflected Again by soldiers in bunkers to see things
outside.
Recall the last time you visited a hair
dresser. She/he makes you sit in front of 13.5 Multiple Images
a mirror. After your hair cut is complete,
You are aware that a plane mirror forms
she/he holds a mirror behind you to show
you how the hair has been cut only a single image of an object. What
(Fig. 13.9). Do you know how you could happens if two plane mirrors are used
see the hair at the back of your head? in combination? Let us see.

Fig. 13.9 : Mirror at the hair dresser shop

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Activity 13.5 Can you now explain how you can
see the back of your head at the hair
Take two plane mirrors. Set them dresser’s shop?
at right angles to each other with This idea of number of images formed
their edges touching (Fig. 13.10). To by mirrors placed at an angle to one
hinge them you can use adhesive another is used in a kaleidoscope to
tape. Place a coin in between the make numerous beautiful patterns. You
mirrors. How many images of the can also make a kaleidoscope yourself.
coin do you see (Fig. 13.10)?
Kaleidoscope
Activity 13.6
To make a kaleidoscope, get three
rectangular mirror strips each about
15 cm long and 4 cm wide. Join
them together to form a prism as
shown in Fig. 13.12(a). Fix this
arrangement of mirrors in a circular
Fig. 13.10 : Images in plane mirror at right cardboard tube or tube of a thick
angle to each other chart paper. Make sure that the tube
Now hinge the mirrors using the is slightly longer than the mirror
adhesive tape at different angles, say strips. Close one end of the tube by
45°, 60°, 120°, 180° etc. Place some a cardboard disc having a hole in
object (say a candle) in between the centre, through which you can
them. Note down the number of see [Fig. 13.12(b)]. To make the disc
images of the object in each case. durable, paste a piece of transparent
Finally, set the two mirrors plastic sheet under the cardboard
parallel to each other. Find out
how many images of a candle
placed between them are formed
(Fig. 13.11).

(a)

mirrors

(b) (c)
Fig. 13.11 : Image in plane mirror parallel
to each other Fig. 13.12 : Making a kaleidoscope

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 disc. At the other end, touching the
13.6 Sunlight — White or
mirrors, fix a circular plane glass Coloured
plate [Fig. 13.12(c)]. Place on this In Class VII, you learnt that the sunlight
glass plate several small pieces of is referred to as white light. You also
coloured glass (broken pieces of learnt that it consists of seven colours.
coloured bangles). Close this end of Here is another activity (Activity 13.7)
the tube by a ground glass plate. showing that sunlight consists of several
Allow enough space for the colour colours.
pieces to move around.
13.7 What is inside Our Eyes?
Your kaleidoscope is ready. When
you peep through the hole, you will be We see things only when light coming
able to see a variety of patterns in the from them enters our eyes. Eye is one
tube. An interesting feature of a of our most important sense organs. It
kaleidoscope is that you will never see is, therefore, important to understand
the same pattern again. Designers of its structure and working.
wallpapers and fabrics and artists often The eye has a roughly spherical
use kaleidoscopes to get ideas for new shape. The outer coat of the eye is
patterns. To make your toy attractive, white. It is tough so that it can protect
you can wrap the kaleidoscope in a the interior of the eye from accidents.
coloured paper. Its transparent front part is called

Activity 13.7
Get a plane mirror of a suitable size. prism. As you learnt in Class VII,
Place it in a bowl (katori) as shown this breaks up the light into its
in Fig. 13.13. Fill the bowl with colours, Splitting of light into its
water. Put this arrangement near a colours is known as dispersion of
window in such a way that direct light. Rainbow is a natural
sunlight falls on the mirror. Adjust phenomenon showing dispersion.
the position of the
bowl so that the
reflected light from
the mirror falls on
a wall. If the wall is
not white, fix a sheet
of white paper on it.
Reflected light will
be seen to have
many colours. How
can you explain
this? The mirror
and water form a Fig. 13.13 : Dispersion of light

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cornea (Fig. 13.14). Behind the cornea, Class VII. The lens focuses light on the
we find a dark muscular structure back of the eye, on a layer called retina
called iris. In the iris, there is a small (Fig. 13.14). The retina contains several
opening called the pupil. The size of nerve cells. Sensations felt by the nerve
the pupil is controlled by the iris. The cells are then transmitted to the brain
iris is that part of eye which gives it its through the optic nerve. There are two
distinctive colour. When we say that a kinds of cells–
person has green eyes, we refer actually (i) cones, which are sensitive to bright
to the colour of the iris. The iris controls light and
the amount of light entering into the (ii) rods, which are sensitive to dim light.
eye. Let us see how. Cones sense colour. At the junction
of the optic nerve and the retina, there
Ciliary
are no sensory cells, so no vision is
muscle
possible at that spot. This is called the
Iris blind spot. Its existence can be
Optic
Nerve demonstrated as follows:
Lens

Cornea
Activity 13.9
Make a round mark and a cross on
Retina
a sheet of paper with the spot to the
Fig. 13.14 : Human eye right of the cross (Fig. 13.15). The
distance between two marks may be
Caution : For this activity, never use 6-8 cm. Hold the sheet of paper at
a laser torch. an arm’s length from the eye. Close
Activity 13.8 your left eye. Look continuously at
the cross. Move the sheet slowly
Look into your friend’s eye. Observe towards you, keeping your eye on
the size of the pupil. Throw light on the cross. What do you find? Does
her eye with a torch. Observe the the round mark disappear at some
pupil now. Switch off the torch, and point? Now close your right eye.
observe her pupil once again. Do Look at the round mark now and
you notice any change in the size repeat the activity. Does the cross
of the pupil? In which case was the disappear? The disappearance of the
pupil larger? Why do you think it cross or the round mark shows that
was so? there is a point on the retina which
In which case do you need to cannot send messages to the brain
allow more light in the eye, when when light falls on it.
the light is dim or bright?

Behind the pupil of the eye is a lens

which is thicker in the centre. What
kind of lens is thicker at the centre?
Fig. 13.15 : Demonstration of blind spot
Recall what you learnt about lenses in
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 The impression of an image does not Nature has provided eyes with
vanish immediately from the retina. It eyelids to prevent any object from
persists there for about 1/16th of a entering the eye. Eyelids also shut out
second. So, if still images of a moving light when not required.
object are flashed on the eye at a rate Eye is such a wonderful instrument
faster than 16 per second, then the eye that it (normal) can clearly see distant
perceives this object as moving. objects as well as objects nearby. The
minimum distance at which the eye can
Activity 13.10 see objects distinctly varies with age. The
most comfortable distance at which one
Get a square piece of cardboard of can read with a normal eye is about
size 6-8 cm. Make two holes as 25 cm.
shown in Fig. 13.16. Thread a Some persons can see objects close
string through the two holes. Draw/ to them clearly but cannot see distant
paste a cage on one side of the
objects so clearly. On the other hand,
cardboard and a bird on the other
some persons cannot see objects nearby
side. Twist the string and make the
clearly but they can see distant objects
card twirl rapidly. Do you see the
quite well. With suitable corrective
bird in the cage?
lenses, these defects of the eye can
be corrected.
Sometimes, particularly in old age,
eyesight becomes foggy. It is due to the
Reverse side Front side of eye lens becoming cloudy. When it
of cardboard cardboard
happens, persons are said to have
cataract. There is a loss of vision,
sometimes extremely severe. It is
possible to treat this defect. The opaque
lens is removed and a new artificial
lens is inserted. Modern technology
has made this procedure simpler
and safer.

13.8 Care of the Eyes

It is necessary that you take proper care
Fig. 13.16 : Bird in cage
of your eyes. If there is any problem
you should go to an eye specialist. Have
The movies that we see are actually
a regular checkup—
a number of separate pictures in
l If advised, use suitable spectacles.
proper sequence. They are made to
move across the eye usually at the rate l Too little or too much light is bad
of 24 pictures per second (faster for eyes. Insufficient light causes
than 16 per second). So, we see a eyestrain and headaches. Too much
moving picture. light, like that of the Sun, a powerful

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 Did you know?
Animals have eyes shaped in different ways. Eyes of a crab are quite small but
they enable the crab to look all around. So, the crab can sense even if the enemy
approaches from behind. Butterflies have large eyes that seem to be made up
of thousands of little eyes
(Fig. 13.17). They can see not only
in the front and the sides but the Eyes
back as well.
A night bird (owl) can see very
well in the night but not during
the day. On the other hand, day
light birds (kite, eagle) can see
well during the day but not in the
night. The owl has a large cornea
and a large pupil to allow more
light in its eye. Also, it has on its
retina a large number of rods and
only a few cones. The day birds
on the other hand, have more Fig. 13.17 : Eyes of a butterfly
cones and fewer rods.

lamp or a laser torch can injure the vegetables (such as spinach) and cod
retina. liver oil are rich in vitamin A. Eggs,
l Do not look at the Sun or a powerful
milk, curd, cheese, butter and fruits
such as papaya and mango are also rich
light directly.
in vitamin A.
l Never rub your eyes. If particles of
dust go into your eyes, wash your 13.9 Visually Impaired
eyes with clean water. If there is no Persons Can Read and
improvement go to a doctor. Write
l Always read at the normal distance
for vision. Do not read by bringing Some persons, including children, can
the book too close to your eyes or be visually impaired. They have very
keeping it too far. limited vision to see things. Some
You learnt about balanced diet in persons cannot see at all since birth.
Class VI. If food is deficient in some Some persons may lose their eyesight
components, eyes may also suffer. Lack because of a disease or an injury. Such
of vitamin A in foodstuff is responsible persons try to identify things by
for many eye troubles. Most common touching and listening to voices more
amongst them is night blindness. carefully. They develop their other
One should, therefore, include in the senses more sharply. However,
diet components which have vitamin A. additional resources can enable them
Raw carrots, broccoli and green to develop their capabilities further.

174 SCIENCE

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 Non-optical and optical aids for visually impaired
Non-optical aids include visual aids, tactual aids (using the sense of touch), auditory
aids (using the sense of hearing) and electronic aids. Visual aids, can magnify
words, can provide suitable intensity of light and material at proper distances.
Tactual aids, including Braille writer slate and stylus, help the visually challenged
persons in taking notes, reading and writing. Auditory aids include cassettes, tape
recorders, talking books and other such devices. Electronic aids, such as talking
calculators and computers, are also available for performing many computational
tasks. Closed circuit television, also an electronic aid, enlarges printed material
with suitable contrast and illumination. Nowadays, use of audio CDs and voice boxes
with computers are also very helpful for listening to and writing the desired text.
Optical aids include bifocal lenses, contact lenses, tinted lenses, magnifiers
and telescopic aids. While the lens combinations are used to rectify visual
limitations, telescopic aids are available to view chalkboard and class
demonstrations.

13.10 What is the Braille Braille system has 63 dot patterns or

System? characters. Each character
represents a letter, a combination of
The most popular resource for visually letters, a common word or a
challenged persons is Braille. grammatical sign. Dots are arranged
in cells of two vertical rows of three
Louis Braille, himself a visually dots each.
challenged person, developed a Patterns of dots to represent some
system for visually challenged persons English letters and some common
and published it in 1821. words are shown below.

Louis Braille Fig. 13.18 : Example of dot patterns used

in Braille System
The present system was adopted in These patterns when embossed on
1932. There is Braille code for common Braille sheets help visually
languages, mathematics and scientific challenged persons to recognise words
notation. Many Indian languages can by touching. To make them easier to
be read using the Braille system. touch, the dots are raised slightly.

LIGHT 175

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 Visually impaired people learn the character has to be memorised. Braille
Braille system by beginning with texts can be produced by hand or by
letters, then special characters and machine. Typewriter-like devices and
letter combinations. Methods depend printing machines have now been
upon recognition by touching. Each developed.

Some visually impaired Indians have great achievements to their

credit. Diwakar, a child prodigy has given amazing performances
as a singer.
Ravindra Jain, born completely visually impaired, obtained
his Sangeet Prabhakar degree from Allahabad. He had shown his
excellence as a lyricist, singer and music composer.
Lal Advani, himself visually impaired, established an
Helen A. Keller Association for special education and rehabilitation of disabled
in India. Besides this, he represented India on Braille problems
in UNESCO.
Helen A. Keller, an American author and lecturer, is perhaps the most well-
known and inspiring visually challenged person. She lost her sight when she was
only 18 months old. But because of her resolve and courage she could complete
her graduation from a university. She wrote a number of books including The
Story of my Life (1903).

176 SCIENCE

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KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ANGLE OF Ü Light is reflected from all surfaces.
INCIDENCE Ü Regular reflection takes place when light is
ANGLE OF incident on smooth, polished and regular
REFLECTION surfaces.

BLIND SPOT Ü Diffused or irregular reflection takes place from

rough surfaces.
BRAILLE
Ü Two laws of reflection are
CONES (i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle
CORNEA of reflection.
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal
DIFFUSED OR
drawn at the point of incidence to the
IRREGULAR
reflecting surface, lie in the same plane.
REFLECTION
Ü Image formed in a plane mirror undergoes
INCIDENT RAYS
lateral inversion.
IRIS Ü Two mirrors inclined to each other give multiple
KALEIDOSCOPE images.
Ü Beautiful patterns are formed in a
LATERAL INVERSION
kaleidoscope because of multiple reflections.
LAWS OF
Ü Sunlight, called white light, consists of seven
REFLECTION
colours.
PUPIL Ü Splitting of light into its constituent colours is
REFLECTED RAYS known as dispersion.
Ü Parts of the eye are cornea, iris, pupil, lens,
REFLECTION
retina and optic nerve.
REGULAR
Ü A normal eye can see nearby and distant
REFLECTION
objects clearly.
RETINA Ü Visually impaired persons can read and write
RODS using the Braille system.
Ü Visually impaired persons develop their other
senses more sharply to improve their interac-
tion with their environment.

LIGHT 177

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 Exercises

1. Suppose you are in a dark room. Can you see objects in the room? Can
you see objects outside the room. Explain.
2. Differentiate between regular and diffused reflection. Does diffused
reflection mean the failure of the laws of reflection?

3. Mention against each of the following whether regular or diffused reflection

will take place when a beam of light strikes. Justify your answer in each
case.

(a) Polished wooden table (b) Chalk powder

(c) Cardboard surface (d) Marble floor with water
spread over it
(e) Mirror (f) Piece of paper
4. State the laws of reflection.
5. Describe an activity to show that the incident ray, the reflected ray and
the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
6. Fill in the blanks in the following.
(a) A person 1 m in front of a plane mirror seems to be _______________ m
away from his image.
(b) If you touch your ____________ ear with right hand in front of a plane
mirror it will be seen in the mirror that your right ear is touched with
____________.
(c) The size of the pupil becomes ____________ when you see in dim light.
(d) Night birds have ____________ cones than rods in their eyes.

Choose the correct option in Questions 7 – 8

7. Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
(a) Always (b) Sometimes
(c) Under special conditions (d) Never
8. Image formed by a plane mirror is
(a) virtual, behind the mirror and enlarged.
(b) virtual, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
(c) real at the surface of the mirror and enlarged.
(d) real, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
9. Describe the construction of a kaleidoscope.
10. Draw a labelled sketch of the human eye.
178 SCIENCE

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 11. Gurmit wanted to perform Activity 13.8 using a laser torch. Her teacher
EXERCISES advised her not to do so. Can you explain the basis of the teacher’s advise?
12. Explain how you can take care of your eyes.
13. What is the angle of incidence of a ray if the reflected ray is at an angle of
90° to the incident ray?
14. How many images of a candle will be formed if it is placed between two
parallel plane mirrors separated by 40 cm?
15. Two mirrors meet at right angles. A ray of light is incident on one at an
angle of 30° as shown in Fig. 13.19. Draw the reflected ray from the second
mirror.

Fig. 13.19
16. Boojho stands at A just on the side of a plane mirror as shown in
Fig. 13.20. Can he see himself in the mirror? Also can he see the image of
objects situated at P, Q and R?

Fig. 13.20

17. (a) Find out the position of the image of an object situated at A in the
plane mirror (Fig. 13.21).
(b) Can Paheli at B see this image?
(c) Can Boojho at C see this image?
(d) When Paheli moves from B to C, where does the image of A move?

Fig. 13.21

LIGHT 179

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 Extended Learning — Activities and Project
1. Make your own mirror. Take a glass strip or glass slab. Clean it and
put it on a white sheet of paper. See yourself in the glass. Next put
the glass slab on a black sheet of paper. Again look into the glass.
In which case do you see yourself better and why?
2. Make friends with some visually impaired students. Enquire from
them how they read and write. Also find out how they are able to
recognise objects, hurdles and currency notes.
3. Meet an eye specialist. Get your eye sight checked and discuss how
to take care of your eyes.
4. Survey your neighbourhood. Find out how many children below
the age of 12 years use spectacles. Find out from their parents
what, in their view, could be the reason for the weak eyesight of
their children.

Did You Know?

Eyes can be donated by any person as an invaluable gift to visually
impaired persons suffering from corneal blindness, The person may be
(a) a male or female.
(b) of any age.
(c) of any social status.
(d) using spectacles.
(e) suffering from any normal disease but not AIDS, Hepatitis B or C,
rabies, leukemia, lymphoma, tetanus, cholera, encephalitis.
The eyes have to be donated within 4-6 hours after death at any
place, home or hospital.
A person who wants to donate the eyes may pledge eyes during his/her
lifetime to any registered eye bank. He/she should also inform his/her
relatives about this pledge so that they can take necessary action after
his/her death.
You can also donate a Braille kit.

180 SCIENCE

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Notes

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Notes

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SCIENCE
TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS VIII

2024-25
0854 – SCIENCE ISBN 978-81-7450-812-6
Textbook for Class VIII

First Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
January 2008 Magha 1929
q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
Reprint Edition system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
December 2008, January 2010, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior
permission of the publisher.
November 2010, January 2012, q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of
November 2012, October 2013, trade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the
publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in
December 2014, December 2015, which it is published.
February 2017, December 2017, q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page,
December 2018, August 2019, Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any
other means is incorrect and should be unacceptable.
January 2021 and November 2021
Revised Edition
November 2022 Kartika 1944
Reprinted OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
DIVISION,, NCERT
March 2024 Chaitra 1946
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© National Council of Educational Hosdakere Halli Extension
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Publication Team
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Division
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Officer
Chief Business : Amitabh Kumar
Manager (In charge)
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT
watermark Assistant Editor : Shashi Chadha
Published at the Publication Division, Production Officer : Atul Saxena
by the Secretary, National Council of
Educational Research and Training,
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 and Cover, Layout and Illustrations
printed at Eye Vision Printograph, 78, Ashwani Tyagi
Mohkampur Industrial Complex, Phase-I,
Delhi Road, Meerut - 250 002 (U.P.)

2024-25
 Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s life
at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a
departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system
and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and
textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic
idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us
significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined
in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space,
time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the
information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the
sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites
of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we
perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed
body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days
are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation
will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at
school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus
designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring
and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child
psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance
this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for
contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups and activities requiring
hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates
the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this
book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in science and
mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor V.B. Bhatia for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
contributed to the development of this textbook. We are grateful to their principals
for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations
which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring
Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education,

2024-25
 iv

Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of

Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time
and contribution.
As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous
improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments
and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and
refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
30 November 2007 Research and Training

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 Rationalisation of Content
in the Textbooks
In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load
on students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing
the content load and providing opportunities for experiential learning with
creative mindset. In this background, the NCERT has undertaken the
exercise to rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes
already developed by the NCERT across classes have been taken into
consideration in this exercise.

Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the

following:

• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in

the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same
subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much
interventions from teachers and can be learned by children through
self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context
This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the
changes given above.

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2024-25
 Preface
This book is the outcome of the efforts of the textbook development committee
appointed by the NCERT. The committee met a few times to interact with one
another to improve the draft. Then there was a review meeting in which many
experts and practicing school teachers were invited to review the draft and suggest
improvements.
By and large we have stuck to the format of the Class VII book. By now famous
characters, Boojho and Paheli, have been used to make the text interactive. Attempt
has been made to recall children’s own experiences and build concepts around
them. This is designed to connect science that they study in the school with their
everyday life.
Many activities have been suggested to clarify concepts. Some of these activities
are so simple that children can perform them on their own. The requirement of the
apparatus required for the activities is minimal. We performed all the activities
ourselves to ensure that there was no difficulty in performing them in the school
situation. The activities should also help children in developing skills such as
presentation of data in tabular and graphical forms, reasoning and drawing inference
from the given data.
The language of the book has been kept as simple as possible. A large number of
photographs, illustrations, cartoons, etc. have been included to make the book
attractive. To help teachers evaluate children effectively, a large number of exercises
have been given at the end of each chapter. The teachers are encouraged to frame
additional exercises to test children’s understanding. Some challenging exercises
have also been devised for those children who would like to appear for the National
Talent Search Examination conducted by the NCERT.
We are conscious of the fact that there is a paucity of additional reading material
for children. We have tried to address this problem by providing non-evaluative
boxes. These boxes, in light orange, contain additional information, anecdotes,
stories, strange facts and other such interesting materials.
We all know that children are mischievous and playful by nature. Therefore, in
order to prevent any untoward incident during the performance of the activities in
the school or outside, necessary cautions, in magenta, have been inserted at various
places in the book.
To prepare children to assume their roles as responsible citizens of tomorrow,
attempt has been made to sensitise them to the issues concerning gender, religion,
environment, health and hygiene, water scarcity and energy conservation. We have
sought to weave into the text the value of cooperation and the importance of peer
learning.
An important feature of the book is what we call Extended Learning. These are
totally non-evaluative, and purely voluntary activities and projects. Some of the
projects in this section have been designed to enhance children’s interaction with
the experts, teachers, even parents, and society at large. The children are required
to collect information of various kinds and draw conclusions of their own.
My request to teachers and parents is to use the book in the spirit in which it
has been written. Encourage children to perform activities and learn by doing, rather
than by rote. You can supplement, or even replace, the activities given here. If you

2024-25
 viii

feel that you have better alternatives, especially with your local/regional flavour,
please write to us so that these activities could be used in the future editions of
the book.
We have been able to include only a small subset of children’s experiences. You
have a better knowledge of their experiences because you are in touch with them.
Use them to illustrate the concepts being taught. Above all, please do not stifle
children’s natural curiosity. Encourage them to ask questions, even if sometimes
you feel uncomfortable. If you do not know the answer to a question on the spot, do
not feel embarrassed. You can promise them to find the answer and deal with it
later. Make a genuine attempt to get the answer from whatever resources are within
your reach, such as senior school or college teachers, experts, libraries, internet
etc. If, inspite of your efforts, you cannot get the answer to some question, you could
write to NCERT.
I must thank the NCERT for enabling us to talk to children through the medium
of this book. Every member of the NCERT has been courteous and helpful to us.
In the end, I must express my gratitude to the members of the Editing Team,
who worked tirelessly to help me bring the book to the present form. If you and your
students find this book useful and enjoy teaching/learning science through this
book, the Editing Team and I shall consider ourselves well-rewarded.

V.B. BHATIA
Chief Advisor
Textbook Development Committee

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Textbook Development Committee
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter University Centre for Astronomy and
Astrophysics (IUCCA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISOR
V.B. Bhatia, Professor (Retd.) (Physics), Delhi University, Delhi
MEMBERS
Bharati Sarkar, Reader (Retd.) (Zoology), Maitreyi College, Delhi University, Delhi
C. V. Shimray, Lecturer, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics,
(DESM), NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Gagandeep Bajaj, Lecturer, Department of Education, SPM College, Delhi
University, Delhi
H.C. Jain, Principal, (Retd.) Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
Harsh Kumari, Headmistress, CIE Experimental Basic School, Department of
Education, Delhi University, Delhi
J. S. Gill, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Kanhiya Lal, Principal (Retd.), Directorate of Education, Delhi
Lalita S. Kumar, Reader (Chemistry), School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU), Maidan Garhi, New Delhi
P.C. Agarwal, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
P.S. Yadava, Professor, Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Imphal
Puranchand, Professor and Joint Director (Retd.), Central Institute of Educational
Technology (CIET), NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
R. Joshi, Lecturer (SG), DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Rachna Garg, Lecturer, Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET),
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Rashmi Sharma, Lecturer, North-East Regional Institute of Education, Shillong
R.K. Parashar, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneshwar
Ruchi Verma, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Shashi Prabha, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Sunila Masih, Teacher, Mitra GHS School, Suhagpur, P.O. Hoshangabad,
Madhya Pradesh

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
R. S. Sindhu, Professor, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi

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 Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
acknowledges the valuable contribution of the individuals and
organisations involved in the development of this book. The Council
acknowledges the valuable contribution of the following academics for
reviewing and refining the manuscript of this book: K.C. Sharma, Reader
(Physics), Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer; Charu Verma, Lecturer
(Science), DIET, Pitampura, Delhi; Geeta Bajaj, TGT (Science), K.V. No. 3,
Delhi Cantt., New Delhi; K.D. Sharma, TGT (Science), R.P.V.V. Civil Lines,
Delhi; Manohar Lal Patel, Teacher, Govt. R.N.A. Higher Secondary School,
Pipariya, Madhya Pradesh; Reeta Sharma, Reader (Botany), Regional
Institute of Education, Bhopal; Kamal Deep Peter, OEI, Oracle India,
Bangalore; Puneeta Sharma, TGT (Science), L.D. Jain Girls Senior
Secondary School, Sadar Bazar, Delhi; M.C. Das, Teacher (Science), Govt.
Secondary School, Zoom, West Sikkim; Deepti Kohli, P.D. Public School,
Shalimar Bagh, Delhi; Sulekha Chandra, Reader (Chemistry), Zakir
Husain College, Delhi University, Delhi; R.S. Tomar, TGT (Science), J.N.V.
Mothuka, Faridabad (Haryana); Anjali Khirwadkar, Lecturer, Department
of Education, M.S. University, Baroda (Gujrat); Suresh Chand, TGT
(Science), J.N.V. Ghaziabad Uttar Pradesh; Satheesh H.L., TGT (Science),
Demonstration School, Regional Institute of Education, Mysore; Simminder
Kaur Thukral, NIIT, Kalkaji, New Delhi; M.M. Kapoor, Professor (Retd.)
(Chemistry), Delhi University, Delhi; Sarita Kumar, Reader (Zoology),
Acharya Narendra Dev College, Delhi University, Delhi. The contributions
of Pushplata Verma, R.R. Koireng, Pramila Tanvar and Ashish K.
Srivastava, Assistant Professors, are acknowledged for being a part of
the review of this textbook.
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable suggestions received
from the National Monitoring Committee in the development of the
manuscript of this textbook.
The dynamic leadership of Professor Hukum Singh, Head, DESM, for
providing guidance at different stages of development of the textbook and
extending infrastructure facilities is highly acknowledged. Special thanks
are due to Shveta Uppal, Chief Editor and Shashi Chadha, Assistant
Editor for going through the manuscript and suggesting relevant changes.
The Council also acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor,
Incharge Computer Station, Inder Kumar, DTP Operator; K.T. Chitralekha,
Copy Editor and Ritu Jha, Proof Reader.
The contributions of APC-office, administration of DESM, Publication
Department and Secretariat of NCERT is also acknowledged.

2024-25
 A Note for the Students
The team of Paheli and Boojho will be with you as you journey through this
textbook. They love to ask questions. All kinds of questions come to their
minds and they collect them in their sacks. Sometimes, they may share some
of the questions with you, as you read through the chapters.
Paheli and Boojho are also on the lookout for answers to many
questions — sometimes the questions seem answered after they discuss them
with each other, sometimes through discussions with other classmates, teachers
or their parents. Answers to some questions do not seem available even after
all these. They might need to experiment on their own, read books in the library,
send questions to scientists. Just dig and dig and dig into all possibilities and
see if the questions can be answered. Perhaps, they would carry some of the
unanswered questions in their sacks to higher classes.
What will really thrill them would be your adding questions to their sacks
or answers to their questions. Sometimes, activities are suggested in the
textbook, results or findings of these by different groups of students would be
of interest to other students and teachers. You can complete the suggested
activities and send your results or findings to Paheli and Boojho. Do keep in
mind that activities that involve using blades, scissors or fire need to be done
strictly under the care of your teachers. Stick to the precautions given and
then enjoy doing all the suggested activities. Mind, the book will not be able to
help you much, if the activities are not completed!
We would like to advise you that you must make observations yourself
and record whatever results you get. Keen and true observations are necessary
for exploring any subject of study. For some reason your results may turn out
to be different from those of your classmates. Do not worry. Try to find out the
reason for these results instead of disregarding them. Do not ever copy results
from your classmate.
You can send your feedback for Paheli and Boojho at:

To
The Head
Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics,
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg,
New Delhi 110016

2024-25
 THE CONSTITUTION OF
INDIA
PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having
solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
1
[SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure
to all its citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and
political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief,
faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of
the individual and the 2[unity and
integrity of the Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do
HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO
OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
1. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2,
for "Sovereign Democratic Republic" (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
2. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2,
for "Unity of the Nation" (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)

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CONTENTS FOREWORD
RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS
PREFACE

Chapter 1
iii
v
vii

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 1

Chapter 2
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 17

Chapter 3
COAL AND PETROLEUM 32

Chapter 4
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 40

Chapter 5
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 53

Chapter 6
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 66

Chapter 7
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 79

Chapter 8
FORCE AND PRESSURE 93

Chapter 9
FRICTION 112

Chapter 10
SOUND 123

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 xiv

CONTENTS Chapter 11
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Chapter 12
138

SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA 150

Chapter 13
LIGHT 165

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