Computer network:-

A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked together. A
network connection can be established using either cable or wireless media. The integration of
computers and other different devices allows users to communicate more easily. Hardware and
software are used to connect computers and tools in any network.
Goals Of Networking:

(i) Resource Sharing – Multiple machines can share printers, tape drives, and other peripherals,
due to which reduced the cost.
(ii) Reliability – If one machine fails, another can take its place.
(iii) Performance– Computer networks must provide high performance to ensure that applications
and services are responsive and available when needed.
(iv) Scalability- Computer networks must be designed to scale up or down as needed to
accommodate changes in the number of users, devices, and data traffic.
(v) Flexible access – Files can be accessed from any computer in the network. The project can be
begun on one computer and finished on another.
Network Criteria: -A network must follow a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.
(i) Performance
(ii) Reliability
(iii) Security:
Applications of computer networks

(i) Resource Sharing

(ii) Information Sharing

(iii) Communication

(iv) Entertainment

(v) Access to Remote Databases:- Computer networks allow us to access the Remote Database of
the various applications by the end-users. Some applications are Reservation for Hotels,
Airplane Booking, Automated Newspaper etc.

(vi) Home applications

(vii) Business applications

(viii) Mobile users

(ix) Social media

(x) Online Education

(xi) Cloud Computing: Computer Networking has facilitated the development of cloud
computing, which allows users to store and access data and applications from via the
internet.
Advantages of Computer Networking
(i) Central Storage of Data
(ii) Connectivity.
(iii) Reliability: Reliability implies backing up information. Due to some reason equipment crashes, and
so on, the information gets undermined or inaccessible on one PC, and another duplicate of similar
information is accessible on another workstation for future use,
(iv) Security through Authorization
(v) Storage capacity
(vi) File sharing
(vii) Resource sharing

Disadvantages of Computer Networking

Some of the main disadvantages of Computer Networking are discussed below:
(i) Expensive: Execution of the network can be expensive in the case of an initial setup, as the
wires and the cost of the cable are high and sometimes equipment is also costly.
(ii) Virus and Malware: Computer Networking can lead to the spreading of viruses to another computer
through the network.
(iii) Management of the network: Management of the Network is quite difficult as it requires skilled
persons to handle that large network. It requires training of people who are employed in this work.
(iv) Loss of Information: In case of a crash of the Computer Network, it can lead to the loss of
information or not being able to access information for some time.
(v) The system can be Hacked: In the case of Wide Area Networks(WAN), there is a threat of Hacking of
the System. Some security features should be added to prevent such things.

There are various types of networks that can be used for different functions:

(i) Local Area Network:-> A local area network is a computer network that interconnect computers
within a limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university campus or office, after
connect the computers they can share the information. In LAN Network size is limited and
generally data transfer rate is high. The number of computers connected to a LAN is usually
restricted in other words we can say that limited no of computers connected. LAN uses only one
type of transmission medium.

(ii) Wide Area Network:-> A wide area network is a large network that covers large
Geographical area. It connects computers over large distances and they can share data.
WANs have a large capacity connecting a large number of computers over a large area. It
can also connect different LAN and MAN

Eg: Internet
(iii)Metropolitan Area Network:> A Metropolitan Area Network constitutes a computer network that links
users to computer resources within a metro area. It connects different LANs. A MAN is larger than a
LAN but Smaller than a WAN.

(iv)Personal Area Network:->A Personal area network is a computer network for interconnecting electronic
devices within the range of an individual person.

Protocols :- A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines what
is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a
protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
(i) Syntax:- The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the
first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address
of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
(ii) Semantics:- The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based
on that interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be taken
or the final destination of the message?
(iii) Timing:- The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps
but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the
receiver and some data will be lost.
Protocol Stack
A protocol is called a set of rules, whereas a protocol stack means a group of protocols running
concurrently for implementing the network protocol suite.
It determines the interconnectivity rules just like OSI and TCP/IP models for a layered network
model.
Every module in the Protocol stack communicates with two layers, to make work and designing
easier. The lower layers add more features to the upper layer. Eg: SS7
SS7:-The full form of SS7 is Signaling System 7, this protocol stack is arranged like a multi-
layered stack which corresponds to the layers of the standard OSI model.

SS7 Protocol Stack:-

1. SS7 Level 1 [Physical layer]: The SS7 protocol stack of physical layer supports 56 or 64kbps of
data rate and which carry raw signaling data, and it defines the physical and electrical
characteristics of the link. It is virtually the same as layer 1 of the OSI model called level
connectivity.
2. SS7 Level 2 [Data Link, MTP level 2]: Message transfer part level 2 provides a link layer
function, making sure that the messages are exchanged reliably. It provides flow control,
sequence checking, and error checking. In this layer, we use sequential numbering to determine
if any messages are lost during transmission.
3. SS7 Level 3 [Network Layer, MTP level 3]: This layer depends on the services of Level 2 for
providing routing, message distribution, and message discrimination, it includes node
addressing, routing and congestion control, and alternate routing.
[Upper Layers]
4. TUP (Telephone User Part): This layer is used to set up a telephone call between two SS7
nodes. It provides telephone calls to be set up and torn down. It will establish immediately
before a call is established and immediately before it terminates.
5. ISUP (Integrated Services User Part): It is the same as TUP, but it is a more sophisticated
function available with primary rate ISDN.
Integrated Services consists of:
1. Calling and called number notifications,
2. It can control billing rates,
3. Performs telephony functions, and
4. Control over whether the voice channel is used for voice, data, or fax.
6. SCCP (Signalling Connection Control Part): It runs above MTP layers and provides facilities
similar to UDP and TCP layers of TCP/IP
7. TCAP (Transaction Capabilities Application Part): TCAP is used to implement functions
unrelated to the origination and termination of actual telephone calls in the SS7 network.
8. MAP (Mobile Application Part): It is the most complex SS7 component and is mainly used in
GSM mobile telephone systems to pass information between the network components.
Internet :- Internet is a networks of networks. Millions of computers around the world which
are connected through to share the information from the internet. When people talk about
online, it means they are connected to the internet.
Uses of internet
(i) It provides information on any topic.
(ii) We can perform banking operation.
(iii) Book airline/railway/cinema tickets.
(iv) We can check exam results.

Advantages of the Internet:->

(I)Online Banking and Transaction
(ii)Online jobs, Online Education
(iii) Entertainment
(iv) New job roles
(v) Best communication medium
(vi) GPS Tracking and Google maps
Disadvantages of the Internet:->
(i)Time wastage
(ii) Bad impact on health
(iii) Cyber Crimes
(iv) Effect on children
(v)Spreading negativity
Standard Organizations for Data Communication :
1) International Standard Organization (ISO) –
ISO is the International Organization for Standardization. It creates set of rules and standards
for graphics , document exchange , data communication etc.
2) Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy (CCITT) –
CCITT is now standard organization for the United States. CCITT developer’s recommended set
of rules and standards for telephone and telegraph communication.
It has developed 3 set of specifications :
 V Series for Modern Interfacing.
 X series for Data Communication.
 Q series for Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN).
3) American National Standard Institute (ANSI) –
ANSI is primary organization for fostering the development of technology standards in the
United States and providing various set of rules and standard for Data Communication.
4) Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (IEEE) –
It is US based professional organization of electronic , computer and communication
engineering. It provides various set of rules and standard in communication and networking
field.
5) Electronic Industries Association(EIA) –
This organization establish and recommends industrial standards. EIA has developed the
RS(Recommended Standards) series of Standards for data and telecommunication.
6) Standard Council of Canada (SCC) –
It is an official Standard Agency for Canada . It has Similar responsibilities as ANSI has.