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### I. Definitions and General Properties of Acids and Bases
* **Acids:**
* Are **sour** in taste.
* Change the colour of **blue litmus to red**.
* Due to the formation of $\text{H}^{+}(\text{aq})$ ions in solution.
* **Bases:**
* Are **bitter** in taste.
* Change the colour of **red litmus to blue**.
* Due to the formation of $\text{OH}^{-}(\text{aq})$ ions in solution.
* **Neutralization:** Acids and bases have the ability to **nullify each other’s effect**. The
reaction between an acid and a base to give a **salt and water** is known as a neutralisation
reaction.
### II. Indicators and Testing
* **Indicators (Acid-Base Indicators):** Dyes or mixtures of dyes used to indicate the
presence of acids and bases, typically by a change in colour.
* **Natural Indicators:**
* **Litmus:** A purple dye extracted from lichen (a plant belonging to the division
Thallophyta). Its colour is purple when neither acidic nor basic.
* **Turmeric:** Another natural indicator. A curry stain (turmeric) becomes reddish-brown
when scrubbed with soap (basic) and turns yellow again when washed.
* Other Examples: Red cabbage leaves, coloured petals of flowers like Hydrangea,
Petunia, and Geranium.
* **Synthetic Indicators:** Methyl orange and phenolphthalein.
* **Olfactory Indicators:** Substances whose **odour changes** in acidic or basic media.
Examples include onion, vanilla essence, and clove oil.
### III. Chemical Reactions
| Reaction Type | General Summary/Equation | Key Details/Products |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| **Acid + Metal** | Acid + Metal $\rightarrow$ **Salt + Hydrogen gas**. | The metal displaces
hydrogen atoms from the acid. $\text{H}_2$ gas is tested by observing its burning properties.
|
| **Base + Metal** | $2\text{NaOH}(\text{aq}) + \text{Zn}(\text{s}) \rightarrow
\text{Na}_2\text{ZnO}_2(\text{s}) + \text{H}_2(\text{g})$. | Forms hydrogen gas and a salt
(like Sodium zincate). **Not possible with all metals**. |
| **Acid + Metal Carbonate/Hydrogencarbonate** | $\text{MC}/\text{MHC} + \text{Acid}
\rightarrow$ **Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water**. | Limestone, chalk, and marble are forms of
calcium carbonate. $\text{CO}_2$ turns lime water ($\text{Ca}(\text{OH})_2$) milky (white
precipitate). |
| **Acid + Base (Neutralisation)** | Base + Acid $\rightarrow$ **Salt + Water**. | Ionic
reaction: $\text{H}^{+}(\text{aq}) + \text{OH}^{-}(\text{aq}) \rightarrow
\text{H}_2\text{O}(\text{l})$. |
| **Acid + Metallic Oxide** | Metal oxide + Acid $\rightarrow$ **Salt + Water**. | **Metallic
oxides are basic oxides** because they react like bases. |
| **Base + Non-metallic Oxide** | Base + Non-metallic oxide $\rightarrow$ Salt + Water. |
**Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature** because they react like acids. |
### IV. Acids and Bases in Water Solution and Strength
* **Acidic Character in Water:**
* Acids contain $\text{H}^{+}$ ions as cations.
* Acidic nature is shown only in the **presence of water**.
* **Hydrogen ions ($\text{H}^{+}$) cannot exist alone**; they combine with water to form
the **hydronium ion ($\text{H}_3\text{O}^{+}$)**.
* Acid solutions conduct electricity because the $\text{H}^{+}$ ions carry the electric
current. Solutions of compounds like alcohol and glucose, though containing hydrogen, do
not show acidic character or conduct electricity.
* **Basic Character in Water:**
* Bases generate **hydroxide ($\text{OH}^{-}$) ions** in water.
* **Alkalis:** Bases that are **soluble in water**. They are soapy to touch, bitter, and
corrosive.
* Basic solutions also conduct electricity due to the $\text{OH}^{-}$ ions.
* **Dilution Process:**
* Dissolving an acid or base in water is a **highly exothermic process**.
* **Safety:** Acid must always be added **slowly to water** with constant stirring to
prevent splashing or breakage due to excessive local heating.
* **Definition:** Dilution is the process of mixing an acid or base with water, resulting in a
**decrease in the concentration of ions** ($\text{H}_3\text{O}^{+}$/$\text{OH}^{-}$) per unit
volume.
* **Acid/Base Strength:**
* Strength depends on the number of $\text{H}^{+}$ ions or $\text{OH}^{-}$ ions
produced.
* **Strong Acids:** Acids that give rise to **more** $\text{H}^{+}$ ions.
* **Weak Acids:** Acids that give **less** $\text{H}^{+}$ ions.
### V. The pH Scale
* **Definition:** A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
* **Potenz:** The 'p' in pH stands for 'potenz' in German, meaning power.
* **Range:** Measures generally from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline).
* **Relationship to Ions:** **Higher** hydronium ion concentration ($\text{H}_3\text{O}^{+}$)
means a **lower** pH value.
* **pH Values:**
* **Neutral Solution:** pH is exactly **7**.
* **Acidic Solution:** pH is **less than 7**.
* **Basic/Alkaline Solution:** pH is **more than 7** (up to 14). Increasing pH above 7
means increasing $\text{OH}^{-}$ concentration and alkali strength.
* **Universal Indicator:** A mixture of several indicators used to measure pH, showing
different colours at different hydrogen ion concentrations.
### VI. Importance of pH in Everyday Life
* **Body pH:** Living organisms survive in a narrow pH range. The human body works
within **pH 7.0 to 7.8**.
* **Acid Rain:** Rain water with a pH **less than 5.6**. It lowers the pH of river water,
making survival difficult for aquatic life.
* **Digestive System:** The stomach produces hydrochloric acid ($\text{HCl}$).
* **Indigestion:** Caused by the stomach producing too much acid.
* **Antacids:** Bases (like Magnesium hydroxide/Milk of magnesia) used to **neutralize
excess acid** and provide relief.
* **Tooth Decay:** Starts when mouth pH is **lower than 5.5**.
* Tooth enamel (calcium hydroxyapatite) is corroded below pH 5.5.
* Toothpastes, generally basic, neutralize the acid produced by bacteria.
* **Self-Defence:**
* **Bee-sting:** Leaves an **acid**; baking soda (mild base) gives relief.
* **Nettle sting:** Injects **methanoic acid**. The traditional remedy is rubbing the area
with the dock plant leaf.
### VII. Salts
* **Salt Family:** Salts belong to the same family if they share the same positive or
negative radicals (e.g., Sodium salts share the $\text{Na}^{+}$ radical).
* **pH of Salts:**
* Strong Acid + Strong Base $\rightarrow$ **Neutral Salt** (pH = 7).
* Strong Acid + Weak Base $\rightarrow$ **Acidic Salt** (pH < 7).
* Strong Base + Weak Acid $\rightarrow$ **Basic Salt** (pH > 7).
* **Common Salt ($\text{NaCl}$):**
* Formed from $\text{HCl}$ and $\text{NaOH}$, and is a **neutral salt**.
* Obtained from seawater or mined as solid deposits called **rock salt**.
* It is an essential raw material for various chemicals.
### VIII. Chemicals from Common Salt
* **1. Sodium Hydroxide ($\text{NaOH}$):**
* **Process:** Chlor-alkali process (named for products: *chlor*ine and *alkali* for
$\text{NaOH}$).
* **Raw Material:** Brine (aqueous solution of $\text{NaCl}$).
* **Products:** $\text{NaOH}$ (near cathode), $\text{Cl}_2$ gas (at anode), $\text{H}_2$
gas (at cathode).
* **2. Bleaching Powder ($\text{Ca}(\text{ClO})_2$):**
* **Manufacture:** Chlorine gas reacts with **dry slaked lime**
[$\text{Ca}(\text{OH})_2$].
* **Uses:** Bleaching (textile/paper industries), oxidising agent, making drinking water
germ-free.
* **3. Baking Soda (Sodium Hydrogencarbonate, $\text{NaHCO}_3$):**
* **Nature:** Mild, non-corrosive **basic salt**.
* **Thermal Decomposition (during cooking):** $\text{NaHCO}_3$ heats to produce
$\text{Na}_2\text{CO}_3$, $\text{H}_2\text{O}$, and $\text{CO}_2$.
* **Uses:** Used in antacids; ingredient in baking powder (mix of $\text{NaHCO}_3$ and
edible acid like tartaric acid, releasing $\text{CO}_2$ to make bread soft); used in soda-acid
fire extinguishers.
* **4. Washing Soda ($\text{Na}_2\text{CO}_3 \cdot 10\text{H}_2\text{O}$):**
* Obtained by heating baking soda to get sodium carbonate ($\text{Na}_2\text{CO}_3$),
followed by **recrystallisation**.
* **Uses:** Used in glass, soap, and paper industries; manufacture of borax; cleaning
agent; removing **permanent hardness of water**.
### IX. Water of Crystallisation and Plaster of Paris
* **Water of Crystallisation (Definition):** The **fixed number of water molecules** present
in one formula unit of a salt.
* Examples: Copper sulphate ($\text{CuSO}_4 \cdot 5\text{H}_2\text{O}$); Gypsum
($\text{CaSO}_4 \cdot 2\text{H}_2\text{O}$).
* Heating removes this water, causing the crystals to lose colour (e.g., blue copper
sulphate turns white).
* **Plaster of Paris (POP):**
* **Chemical Name:** Calcium sulphate hemihydrate ($\text{CaSO}_4 \cdot
\frac{1}{2}\text{H}_2\text{O}$).
* **Preparation:** Heating Gypsum ($\text{CaSO}_4 \cdot 2\text{H}_2\text{O}$) at **373
K**.
* The formula shows half a water molecule because two formula units of
$\text{CaSO}_4$ share one molecule of water.
* **Setting Property:** When mixed with water, it sets into a hard solid mass (Gypsum).
* $\text{CaSO}_4 \cdot \frac{1}{2}\text{H}_2\text{O} + 1\frac{1}{2}\text{H}_2\text{O}
\rightarrow \text{CaSO}_4 \cdot 2\text{H}_2\text{O}$.
* **Uses:** Used for supporting fractured bones in the right position; making toys and
decorative materials; making surfaces smooth. It must be stored in a **moisture-proof
container**.