1.

4 METHODS

Method is a word that comes from the Greek term methodos ('path' or 'way') and that
refers to the means used to achieve an end. Its original meaning points to the path that leads
to a place. It is a way, manner, or form of carrying out something systematically, organized and/or
structured. It refers to a technique or set of tasks to develop a task.

1.4.1 DEFINITION OF METHOD AND TECHNIQUE

Method: Method is a way, manner, or form of doing something systematically, organized.

or structured. It refers to a technique or set of tasks to develop a task.
In some cases, it is also understood as the usual way of doing something by a person.
based on experience, custom, and personal preferences.

Technique: The technique is a set of practical knowledge or procedures to obtain the

desired outcome. A technique can be applied in any human field: sciences, art,
education, etc. Although it is not exclusive to man, its techniques are usually more complex than the
of animals, which respond only to their need for survival. The technique requires
manual and/or intellectual skill, generally with the use of tools. The techniques are usually
transmitted from person to person, and each person adapts it to their tastes or needs and can
improve them.

1.4.2 TYPES OF METHODS: NON-SCIENTIFIC LOGICAL AND SCIENTIFIC

They can also be classified according to the techniques they use in:

Analytical method: They do not study the desired object in its entirety, but rather do so in
smaller fractions, and then analyze their relationship with each other. It is a widely used method in
the world of finance.

Inductive: In this case, the aim is to reach knowledge from the generalization of the
particular data obtained. That is, from particular knowledge I can induce
general knowledge, which can be applied to a larger population.

Synthetical: This gathers data that is not organized to be able to be

understood. For this, a hypothesis is used, that is to say, a supposition is made about a
determined fact or object. To explain it, the obtained data is organized and placed
tests to corroborate or discard the created hypothesis.
Deductive: This method is considered the opposite of the inductive method since it starts from
general knowledge is sought specific knowledge. For this, it seeks to classify
determined elements. This set of techniques is widely used in medicine.

There are also the so-called specific methods, which can be classified into:
The Statistician: In this field, data is investigated and interpreted, which will then be expressed in figures or
cups.

Experience: These techniques are used to analyze the alterations that occur when a
a new cause is introduced in the process being studied. It is widely used in biology, chemistry and
Physics. Observation: In this type of methods, phenomena are observed in a...
systematic and detailed in order to analyze it

1.4.3 CHARACTERISTICS, STAGES AND RULES OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Empirical: The scientific method is empirical. This means that it is based on the

direct observation of the world, and dismisses the hypotheses that go against

the observable facts. This contrasts with methods that rely on the

pure reason (including that proposed by Plato) and with the methods that

depend on emotional factors and other subjective factors.

Replicable: Scientific experiments are replicable. This means that if another person

duplicate the experiment, it must obtain the same results. The scientists

they must publish enough about their method, so that another person,

with the appropriate training, it can replicate the results. This contrasts

with the methods that rely on experiences that are unique to a particular individual or a
small group of individuals.

Provisional: The results obtained through the scientific method are provisional; they are (or
they should be) open to questioning and debate. If new data arises that contradicts a
theory, this must be modified. For example, the phlogiston theory of fire and combustion was
rejected when evidence emerged against her.
Objective: The scientific method is objective. It is based on facts and on the world as it is, rather than
in beliefs, desires, or yearnings. Scientists attempt (with varying degrees of success) to eliminate
their biases when making observations.

Systemic: Strictly speaking, the scientific method is systematic; that is, it depends on
carefully planned studies rather than chaotic or random observations. Of all
In many ways, science can begin from a random observation. Isaac Asimov said that the
The most exciting phrase to hear in science is not 'Eureka' but 'How funny.' After that
The scientists observe something funny, they proceed. a investigate it systematically.

Source: Zacatecas Institute of Technology

BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH FOUNDATIONS_1.pdf ([Link])

1.4 Methods

Method is the way taken to achieve a goal. For the realization of any activity
There is a way or method to achieve the objective. In cognitive activity, to satisfy.
The desire to understand reality has led man to create different forms of approach. The
Different paths to generate knowledge are the methods.
1.4.1 Definition of method and technique

By its origin: Method comes from the Latin methodus, which in turn has its origin in Greek.
word (meta=goal) and (hodos=way), so method means a way to reach a
specific place.

Concept: 1. It is the series of steps that lead us to achieve a goal. 2. It is the cane that the
science is used to increase knowledge.

1.4.2 Types of methods; Non-scientific logical and scientific

1. Unscientific methods are assessments that have allowed man to explain himself the
world in which he/she lives.

2. We constantly use logical methods, and the correct use of the premises in which
the conclusions that are reached depend on the veracity of the basis, that is, there are rules in the
reasoning.
3. They are called scientific methods, although it is said that there is only one scientific method.
(experimental) here other methods will be presented that have allowed social sciences
acquire knowledge.
1.4.3 Characteristics, stages, and rules of the scientific method

Characteristics of the scientific method

It is real, it adheres to the facts, its reference is empirical.

1. Formulate the problem with complete precision from the beginning: If it is too general, it becomes
philosophical
2. Based on well-founded conjectures: That is, based on a theoretical framework of
knowledge.
3. Subject the hypotheses to hard testing: It means that the hypotheses must be
tested, and to accept the evidence not definitively.
4. Do not declare as true a satisfactorily confirmed hypothesis: It must be
consider as partially true at best.
5. Asking why the answer is this way and not another: The researcher does not
it should be limited to generalizations, adapted to the data, they should be sought
more consistent explanations
1.4 Methods

1.4.1 Definition

According to its etymological meaning, method is understood as the path taken to achieve a
meta. For the completion of any activity, there is a way or method to achieve the goal.
objective. In cognitive activity, to satisfy the desire to know reality, man has
created different ways of approaching. The different paths to generate knowledge are
the methods. As reality is formal (ideas, properties of numbers, etc.) and factual, (soil,
the fall of bodies, organic compounds, etc.) the objects of study have been addressed by
man through different methods.

1.4.2 Types of methods: non-scientific, logical, and scientific

Methods can be classified as: Non-scientific, logical, and scientific. Non-scientific methods do not
scientific explanations have allowed man to understand the world in which he lives.
We constantly use logical methods, and it depends on the correct use of the premises they are based on.
the veracity of the conclusions reached depends, that is, there are rules in reasoning.
They are called scientific methods, although it is said that there is only one scientific method.
(experimental) here other methods will be presented that have allowed the social sciences to acquire
knowledge

a) Non-scientific methods: intuition, authority, and tenacity. Most of our beliefs

they rest on the tacit acceptance of beliefs, attitudes, and assumptions that, unthinkingly,
we accept. According to Cohen and Nagel (pp15-20), these ways of accepting reality are due to the use
of the following methods:

Intuition: They are propositions that are self-evident, considered to be obviously true.
understanding of its meaning is accompanied by an incontrovertible conviction of truth.
Explanation of a phenomenon occurs immediately without requiring reasoning. Examples: the whole
is greater than any of the parts; the right to private property, everything that happens has
a cause that originates it. Authority: The method consists of resorting to respected sources to support.
the defended opinions. Religion and ethics require the support of a sacred text in which one
find the definitive decision. Similarly, social and political issues are resolved,
economic. There are two ways to appeal to authority, the first is to appeal to authority.
when there is a lack of time or preparation to solve a problem; in this case, one leaves the
solution to what an expert says, although the authority is not definitive, there is a relative solution
in the conclusion,

while we have time to verify the knowledge in cues-

The second form of appeal is endowed with infallibility.

dad and inappealability, invokes an external force to sanction

his decisions. In religion, the method is used to eliminate

divergent opinions considered heretical or disloyal.

Tenacity: The habit makes us continue believing in a proposal.

position because we have always believed in it, we close our

enabling all possibility of questioning, or element of jui-

what contradicts it. Religious sects, political parties

they rely on this method for their action. Any criticism of

our belief is considered disloyal. Given the freedom of

thought, not everyone agrees with our way of thinking,

we are not always going to have the same ideas, there is a possibility

of change. The method of tenacity does not accept antagonisms.

These three methods are inflexible, they do not accept that they can.

lead to errors.

b) Logical Methods: induction, deduction, analogy, analysis

and synthesis

They are considered general methods since they can be

employees across all sciences. Its basis is reasoning,

understood as the chaining of judgments in which one is

consequence of another or others. The judgments contain propositions-

these can be:

a) Individuals or General:

Individual proposition: Juan is a man

General proposition: All men are mortal.

b) Affirmative or Negative.

General affirmative proposition: All men are mor-

tales.

Negative individual proposition: The sun does not move.

General negative proposition: No man is mortal.

For there to be a judgment, one premise must be derived from another, at the

a judgment derived is called a conclusion, while the one or the judgments

cios que dan apoyo se llaman premisas.

Judgments can be related without reasoning.

The trees have leaves.

The book has pages

Then the book is a tree.

In this example, the term sheet has a different meaning.

López Cano (pp45-46) explains them as follows:

Induction: "it is the form of reasoning in which from

particular premises lead to general conclusions. (López

Cano p.45).

The inductive method is primarily used by science

Hi. Part of the observation of particular cases to arrive at con-

conclusions or generalizations.

Medina Lozano mentions the inductive method in four

types that are: of agreement, of differences, of variations

concomitants and residues.

John Stuart Mill was the one who created the main procedures of

induction with its four canons or methods.

I. Matching Method: When in several phenomena aná-

It is evident that there is a common circumstance and only one, this cir-

Circumstance is the cause of the observed phenomenon. Example:

If a person experiences stomach pain when eating meat,

and we want to know the cause that has produced, we observe

various cases in which the type of meat varies and its pre-process
paración; but we know that in all of them the mis- has been used

My meat tenderizer, from which we draw the conclusion

that this is the cause of the stomach pain.

p.45).

II. Method of Differences: If a phenomenon is observed repeatedly

There are times when a circumstance disappears and also dis-

the effect appears, that is the direct cause of this. Example:

If we have six fuses in a car and remove one,

leaving the others in service, and we notice that the engine turns off

sabremos que la falta de ese fusible es la causa de que no fun-

turn on the engine. (López Cano, pp. 45-46).

III. Method of Concomitant Variations: When in a phenomenon-

it is observed that, by causing variations in one of the

circumstances that concur in it vary proportionally

conditional the effect, it is concluded that this circumstance is the cause-

of the phenomenon. Example:

If a person increases the number of study hours and

increase the rating, we could say that the variation in

one variable is the cause of the other.

IV. Waste Method: If from a set of causes and effects

some elements can be separated, knowing that they do not stop

in the phenomenon, in the rest of the circumstances it must be

the cause of the produced effect. Example:

López Cano (p.45) uses to illustrate the following example: If

a public official receives a telephone call, being

only three people can do it because they are the only ones

cases that know that phone number, and two of them

are unable to do so, it is concluded that the

The person who remains, the residue, is the one who marked the number.

Deduction: A form of reasoning in which judgments are made based on other judgments.

General conclusions are reached from particular judgments. Part

Ordinarily of general laws discovered by the inductive method.

go, and try to apply them to other cases or events that are still unexplained

Galileo discovered the law of falling bodies through deductive reasoning.

bodies.

Rodríguez Cepeda expresses that: Euclid (315-225 BC), developed

lló el método deductivo en el campo de la geometría y descu-

broke in mathematics the way to express the relationships between

the objects studied by him. (Rodríguez Cepeda, p.86).

What characterizes deduction is the impossibility of denying the

consequence, without contradicting itself, once the principles are admitted.

Deduction is a very complicated process, and it should not be with-

fused with the syllogism, which only represents the essential part of

deductive process.

Induction and deduction are linked together, first is the

induction since laws are formulated by this method, afterwards

the deduction, since situations are resolved from the law.

Both methods are complementary in obtaining the cone-

foundations.

Rodríguez Cepeda expresses that Aristotle (4th century BC) addresses

the study of physical reality (especially in the field of

biology) based on the inductive method; starting from the experience-

experience and subjecting them to empirical verification, asserts that the area-

sensitive reality can be captured by our understanding, that

through abstraction discovers the hidden ideas in the objects

terms. (Rodríguez Cépeda pp 85-86). Example of deduction:

All metals are conductors of electricity.

copper is a metal,

copper is a conductor of electricity.

Analogy: It is the form of reasoning in which from the jui-

Particular decisions lead to particular conclusions with objects.

that maintain a similarity

Our mind is incapable of working without using analogies, it captures-

the unknown when seeking similarity with cone-like structures

cids. It assumes that if two phenomena are similar in a series

of proven characteristics, they must also match in the

unverified traits. Example:

If person X has a headache and takes an aspirin, it disappears.

receiving the pain, if another person has a headache, admires them

we provide the same type of pill that eliminated the pain for the

first, considering that it will yield the same result. We assume

that both have similar conditions.

Analysis: It is the form of reasoning in which the

elements that make up a whole, its structure, the parts, the

important ideas. It is to detect the fundamental parts of the

things and look for their relationship with the whole. Example:

Los niños desarman sus carritos, las niñas las muñecas, observan
the parts and try to appreciate their relationship with the whole.

Synthesis: It is the mental process in which the elements are integrated.

isolated pieces in a whole. It goes from the simple to the complex, of the cau-

to that effect, from the parts to the whole.

Analysis and synthesis are closely linked, first one

they detect the parts and then they integrate into a whole. Example:

Once the girls identify the parts of the doll and how

each of them is articulated with the whole they would be able to

reconstruct the whole, assemble it.

Every day we use one of these methods, and in that mo-

we don't think whether we are inducing, deducing, making-

make analogies, analyzing or synthesizing.

c) Scientific Methods:
Although there is talk of a single scientific method, it is considered the

experimental as the only one the sciences have employed others too

with scientific rigor and knowledge has been generated such as

the descriptive-comparative, the dialectical among other employees

by the social sciences.

Experimental Method. It is the method proper to factual science.

it involves subjecting the object of study (dependent variable

to a series of controlled tests or stimuli (independent variables

pending) to analyze in a controlled environment its variation

The following characteristics stand out in this method:

The phenomenon is induced.

Variables are manipulated to observe the modifications in

the studied phenomenon.

The phenomenon is repeatable as many times as necessary.

Use measurement to detect changes in the variables.

Experimentation is not necessarily in a laboratory, because

to be experienced aided by deduction, and subsequently-

creating models and experimenting with them, astronomy is

an example.
Descriptive-comparative method: The method consists of describing-

a phenomenon in an intensive manner, compare it with other situations

related actions, to find by analogy the similarities and be able to

based on prior experiences find a common cause and with

Hello the solution to the problem. It was used by sociologists for

the study of various societies in their search for laws that

the rules.

It is the method used in social sciences to address phenomena.

less than they cannot be subject to empirical verification given

that the phenomenon is impossible to provoke. For example, have

mos: the war, a revolution, inflation, etc.

Dialectical. It is the method that consists of opposing a statement.

contrary to the existing thesis to find the synthesis or super-

ration. (Rodríguez Cepeda, pp. 85-86).

The dialectical method was first used by Aristotle,

presenting the contrast of the original ideas with the

opposite, to make way for the new idea, later several

philosophers like Hegel and Marx made their contribution. Carlos Marx

he used it to explain the evolution of societies, he took

as a basis the laws of dialectics in which it is expressed that

absolutely everything has a contradiction which provokes the

overcoming and with it constant change.

An example is the antagonism over the existence of property.

private, against common property, which gave rise to a new

mode of production in the primitive community. The struggle against-

struggle between two classes has caused the change of a way of

production of the primitive community, to the slave-owning one, from there to the

feudal, later to capitalist, in some societies to

the socialist and in others to communism

The different methods through which the hom- have been cited.
when it comes to knowledge, it is advisable to mention the importance of

the impact that chance has had, as the generator of the cone-
knowledge, as many researchers trying to discover a

knowledge reaches another of which they didn't even have an idea.

d) Qualitative methods:

Phenomenological. It essentially studies the structure of objects.

The natural activity consists of faithfully receiving in the way

more natural, the phenomenon as it occurs or presents itself practically

when making a selection between essential elements and accidents

tales". (Malagón Infante, p.77).

Martínez explains that the phenomenological method studies the rea-

reality that can be captured from the inter- reference framework

not of the subject that lives and experiences them. What is studied

it is not the objective and external reality but the internal and per-

personal, unique and own to each human being, a reality whose

essence depends on the way it is lived. The phenomena are

studied in the way they were perceived and experienced

two for the man. (Martínez, p. 167).

Hermeneutic. As a method, it is present in interpretation.

from the research results, in the choice of approach,

from the methodology, in the selection of the instrument, in the collection

action and interpretation of the data, since all the activities

they involve interpretation.

Regarding hermeneutics, Martínez (p.119) mentions that it has

not as a vision, to discover the meanings of things, to interpret-

make the best possible use of the words, the texts, the writings, and the ges-

so, as well as any act or work, preserving its uniqueness

in the context of which it is a part.

Martínez cites that the hermeneutic method is developed by

Dilthey under the following points:

Every expression of human life is a natural object of interpretation.

station.

Every human action is understood through history.

The method of hermeneutics 'is a circle that goes from the whole to
the parts and from the parts to the whole" (Martínez, p.119).

Martínez mentions to us that Paul Ricoeur (1971) contributed a

"text model" for understanding the meaning of the

human action according to which conscious processes sometimes

they cover up the real reasons for their actions. It gives importance to the

social context, to make human science as objective as possible, already

that actions leave a footprint or mark. (Martínez, p.121).

Martínez states: "The difference between the phenomenological method

The difference between the gico and the hermeneutic lies in that the hermeneutic seeks to

to immerse oneself in the content and dynamics of the studied person

and in its implications, and seeks to structure an interpretation

coherent of the whole, while the phenomenological respects ple-

namely the revelation that the person makes of their own experiences

faces". (Martínez, p.169).

Ethnographic. A method that consists of conducting descriptive analyses.

of the customs, beliefs, social practices of tribes, peoples

and communities. An ethnographic study requires people

experts in the use of cinematography, sound recordings,

photogrammetry and linguistics, in addition to the effective interpretation of

the facts that he experiences and observes. He must skillfully handle the observation

participant observation and the interview.

Characteristics of ethnographic studies:

It assumes that what people say and do is shaping.

dead consciously or unconsciously due to the social situation. From

there that the researcher will influence how they are perceived by the

community, depending on the level of participation and compro-

I put what shows inside it.

They are specific, particular, and unique cases that can be

stopped to seek the generality.

Interactionism. As a method, it consists of seeking the uni- relationship

directional of the variables, using the principle of superposition

of effects. The only variables that are analyzed are the indepen-
teeth and not the causal relationship between the Independent and

the saleswoman.

1.4.3 characteristics, stages, and rules of the scientific method

characteristics
The characteristics of the scientific method can be summarized as follows:

It is factual, it adheres to the facts, its reference is empirical.

2. Transcend the facts: discard, produce, and explain new facts, do not conform to the
appearances.

3. It makes use of empirical verification, requiring a confrontation with reality.

4. It is self-correcting, rejecting or adjusting its own conclusions.

It is progressive, its conclusions are not infallible and final.

6. It is general, so it ignores the isolated fact; its formulation is of a general type.

It is didactic, allowing for the posing, discussing, and re-posing of the researched problem.

8. It is objective, seeks factual truth without taking into account the values and beliefs of the scientist.

9. It is rational, it is based on logic.

10. It is legal, seeks to make laws.

11. It is communicable, its results are disseminated to all types of people.

12. It is systematic, the new knowledge is interconnected with the existing one.

Stages

The scientific method has a series of steps that guide us in research towards the search for
the truth.

1. Observation. In this first stage, the individual finds some problem within reality.
obstacle, experience that causes discomfort, doubt. In this stage, the problem is perceived, it is
Investigate the reality of everything that exists.

2. Problem statement. The obstacle is posed as a question.

3. Hypothesis. The individual tries to answer the question or problem, whether in the answer to the question
existe una relación causa-efecto, se trata de una hipótesis explicativa, si únicamente se describe el
In the affirmative form, the hypothesis takes on the character of an assumption. It is important to clarify that the
The conjectures made are based on the subject's experience and knowledge of theories that he/she
they allow to explain the cause tentatively. It is generally stated that the hypothesis is the
solution to the problem, research does not solve problems, it finds the causes that produce them
and from there the application of knowledge in the solution. The formulation of the hypothesis is part
of the deductive method

The construction of hypotheses involves establishing a theoretical model so that the assumptions have
a theoretical foundation must provide rational or empirical support; if possible, the hypotheses should be
expressed in a mathematical language
.4. Hypothesis verification. To test the relationship between variables in the proposed hypothesis,
the researcher must demonstrate or prove the observable facts, for this, not only is one tested
hypothesis, but several, until finding the real cause of the problem or difficulty raised. This stage in
purely inductive, since testing a hypothesis over and over again allows us to find the cause
General that provokes the phenomenon. It is a demonstrative phase of the real connection between the results.
acquired and the experimental verification of them.

5. Formulation of conclusions. Once the hypothesis has been tested, a conclusion is drawn by comparing.
the predictions or assumptions with the results can confirm the hypothesis; or reject it
in case the expected result was not obtained, which would imply a readjustment of the model
theoretical or in the empirical procedures used.

Rules of the scientific method

Scientific work is based on rules that guide the activity of the researcher.
1. Formulate the problem with all precision and at the beginning. If it is too general, it becomes philosophical.

2. To be based on well-founded conjectures, that is, based on a theoretical body of knowledge.

3. Subject the hypotheses to rigorous testing, not lax. It means that the hypotheses must be tested,
and to accept the evidence not definitively.

4. Not declaring as true a satisfactorily confirmed hypothesis; it should be considered as

partially true at best.

5. To ask oneself why the answer is this way and not another.

The researcher should not limit themselves to generalizations, adapted to the data, but should seek
more consistent explanations.

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