Politechnika Morska w Szczecinie
System Zarządzania Jakością ISO 9001:2015
ZAŁĄCZNIK: 15
Instrukcja do
Wersja: 6.1 ćwiczeń/laboratorium/symulatora
Strona: 1/17
POLITECHNIKA MORSKA W SZCZECINIE
JEDNOSTKA ORGANIZACYJNA:
Wydział Nawigacyjny / Faculty of Navigation
Katedra Symulacji Morskich / Department of Maritime Simulation
INSTRUKCJA
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The identification of echoes
Opracował: Stefan Jankowski, Agnieszka Nowy
Zatwierdził: Stefan Jankowski
Obowiązuje od: 01.10.2025
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CONTENTS
1. OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF EXERCISE
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
3. PROCEDURE
4. REQUIREMENTS FOR PASSING
5. LEARNING OUTCAMS
6. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
7. REFERENCES
8. FORMS, APPENDICES
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1. OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF EXERCISE
The aim of the exercise is to achieve both theoretical and practical familiarization with
echo identification problems, including passive and active methods of echo enhancement, as
well as the recognition of unwanted echoes such as clutter and false echoes.
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1. Radar echo identification
Factors affecting the accuracy of the echo identification process (radar image
interpretation) include:
– technical parameters of the radar and the reflective properties of objects,
– hydrometeorological conditions, and
– conditions of radio wave propagation.:
The above mentioned factors make the radar image look different from the situation
shown on the navigation map. Differences between the radar image and the conventional map
result from:
– distortion of the radar picture,
– the occurrence of unwanted echoes (clutter), and
– false echoes.
2.2. Radar image generation
When recording detected targets in polar coordinates, each radar cycle is stored as a
separate row of memory cells. Therefore, the angular position of a target corresponds to the
row number, and the radial distance corresponds to the number of the selected memory cell
within that row.
60 B d t c
i= PRF , a=⌊ R i ⌋ , b=⌊ j ⌋ , d= e [Nm ]
n 360 ° Range scale 2
Where:
i – number of radar cycles for one scan (360° turn of radar antenna),
j – number of memory cells in the radar cycle,
n – antenna rotation speed [rot/min],
PRF – pulse repetition frequency [Hz],
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BR – relative bearing to the target [°],
d – distance to the target [Nm],
te – czas powrotu echa [s].
To display a PPI on CRT, LCD, or LED screens, polar coordinates must be converted into
Cartesian coordinates using the following formulas:
x e =x 0+ bsin B R
y e = y 0 +bcos B R
2.3. Echo dimensions
Radial dimension of an echo.
The radial length of an echo is
equal to the sum of the dot’s
diameter and half the length of
the echo pulse. The duration of
the echo pulse, in turn, may take
the minimum value equal to the
duration of the transmitted pulse,
or it may be greater by the time it
takes for the microwaves to travel
across the object.
Angular dimension of an echo.
If the next pulse also strikes the object,
it will produce another light dot, slightly
shifted in the direction of the time base
rotation but usually overlapping with the
previous one.
Typically, several or even dozens of
successive pulses hit the same point target,
producing additional flashes on the screen,
which together form the resultant radar echo
image.
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Generally, the dimensions of the echo
can be determined by the following
relationships:
where :
Ae – radial dimension of the echo,
e – angular dimension of the echo,
r, - radial dimension of the object, the object's angle of view - provided that the object
reflects the entire surface
2.4. Factors having an impact on target response, strength of echo pulse:
The aspect The shape
Irradiated area The effect of coherence
2.5. Radar cross section
Radar cross section (RCS) – is a surface area, which reflects in isotropic way the radiations
(the energy) reaching the object and creating an echo which equals the echo reflected by the
object:
2 PD 2
RCS=4 π R [m ]
PS
2.6. Target enhancement
Some targets like aids of navigation, boats (built of wood, glass fiber etc.) have poor radar
responses, but to provide a safety of navigation, it is necessary to detect them in sufficient
distance, and to identify them in a proper way. There are two methods of target enhancement
passive and active.
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Radar reflector is the passive method of target enhancement. It minimizes the dispersion
of energy in undesirable directions, which means reflecting as much of the radiation as
possible back toward the radar antenna.
Resolution MSC.164(78), adopted on 17 May 2004, says that the radar reflector should be
mounted at a minimum height of 4 m above water level and provide a performance measured
in square meters of RCS (radar cross section) of at least: 7.5 m2 in X-band, and 0.5 m2 in S-
band.
The active methods are as follows:
Racon is a radar transponder beacon (radar response station). It is a radio station that
transmits radio waves at frequencies corresponding to those of marine navigational radars,
activated by a pulse from the radar. The response signal is longer and carries more energy
than the original radar pulse. As a result, on the screen — in the direction and at the distance
of a possible echo from a buoy or beacon equipped with a racon — the observer will notice,
just behind the real echo, an artificial echo with an angular width of 1°–2° and a radial length
of 1.5–3 Nm.
Ramark, radar station with continuous transmission. In contrast to a racon, a ramark
continuously transmits a series of pulses at frequencies corresponding to those of marine
navigational radars, without prior activation by a radar pulse. The pulse frequencies, within
the 9200–9500 MHz range, change so rapidly that a continuous echo is produced on the
screen of any radar. The appearance of the ramark signal is coded similarly to that of a racon
echo but does not contain distance information.
Radar flare, is used in marine rescue operations, radar flares can be used similarly to
light signal rockets. The flare is fired from a pistol to an altitude of approximately 400 m,
where it emits a bright light and releases a large number of electric dipoles that effectively
reflect radio waves with a wavelength of 3 cm. The maximum detection range of such a cloud
of dipoles is about 12 NM, and the effect lasts for approximately 15 minutes.
Search and Rescue Transponder (SART) – Racon on Lifeboats and Liferafts. These
stations operate in the standard X band (9.2–9.5 GHz) used by marine navigational radars.
When activated by a radar pulse, they transmit a signal that appears on the radar screen as a
series of 12 “dots.” The racon signal always appears at the same distance and bearing as the
object, thereby indicating the location of the object requiring assistance. SARTs are
additionally equipped with visual or audible indicators, which alert survivors upon receiving a
radar signal and provide reassurance by confirming the presence of a radar-equipped vessel
nearby.
2.7. Clutter in the radar image
Thermal noise is caused by thermal movements of electrons in the elements of the
receiver (mainly the IF amplifier). When the high gain level is set the thermal noise in the
input circuits of the receiver appears on the screen as a background in form of randomly
speckled spots. If amplified too much, they blur the image and make it impossible to detect
weak echoes. Easy to identify - spots which are much smaller than real echoes; they appear
randomly on the entire screen.
Sea clutter echoes are generated by the reflection of the pulses from those parts of the
waves that are perpendicular to the direction of microwave propagation. Signals reflected
from the waves resemble the thermal noise because appear in random places with a random
amplitude, but have a duration depending on the length of the pulse and occur only in a
certain area - close to radar antenna (own position). The size and range of sea clutter echoes
depend on the following factors:
o the size, type, shape and direction of the wave movement,
o vertical characteristic of antenna,
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o height of radar antenna placement.
Rain clutter echoes are similar to the thermal noise due to randomly appearing on the
radar, but the size of individual echoes depends on the length of the radar pulse, similar to the
case of echoes from sea waves. They clutter the radar image, causing difficulties in detection
and identification of the desired echoes, and reduce radar coverage as well. They can occur
anywhere within the operational area, and their strength depends on the type, intensity and
shape of the particles of rainfall and the wavelength on which the radar operates.
2.8. False echoes
Side lobes’ effect are associated with targets that are at close range, and result from the
radar beam being surrounded by smaller beams or lobes. In the case of the farther target in the
radar beam sweeping over it will result in the display of an echo of angular width which is
approximately equal to the horizontal beamwidth. In the case of the nearer target, if energy is
returned as each lobe sweeps over it, the angular width of the displayed echo will be of the
order of 100°. Some of the echoes will appear to be separate but all will be at the same range.
Indirect echoes arise as a result of mirror reflection of the transmitted and received pulses
from an object with good reflective properties located along the propagation path.
Depending on the position of the reflecting element, two types of indirect echoes can be
distinguished:
– Internal – caused by elements of the ship’s own structure.
– External – caused by other nearby objects.
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Multiple echoes arise as a result of repeated rebound of the pulse between the own ship
and the object with a large radar cross section (RCS). They are in the same direction as the
real echo and distances to these echoes are a multiple of the distance to the real echo from the
position of your own ship. These echoes can occur near the traverses while passing in parallel
with large ships, or when approaching the bridge. In this case multiple echoes will be on the
opposite side of the bridge, giving the impression of a ship sailing towards us (dangerous
when sailing in limited visibility).
Second-trace echoes occur under very good atmospheric conditions for microwave
propagation. On the radar screen, echoes may appear from objects located at distances several
times greater than the current range scale of the radar. These echoes appear because the
receiver detects signals from pulses transmitted during the previous radar cycle. Objects
detected in this way must have a large radar cross-section (RCS) to achieve the required
extended detection range.
Radar-to-radar interferences arise as a result of receiving radar pulses transmitted by
other radars operating at similar frequencies. On the radar screen, they appear as clearly
visible dots or dashes that form characteristic patterns. They occur in areas with heavy ship
traffic and when two radars are installed on the same vessel at a short distance from each
other. The extent of interference depends on the distance and power of the other radar, as well
as on the range scale of the vessel’s own radar
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PROCEDURE
STAND 1
Highlander HLD-RADAR 900 (magnetron)
Identification of echoes from close objects on the example of the southern end of Grodzka
Island and the islands of Mały Róg and Kopa.
1. Switch the radar to operating mode and adjust the radar according to Instruction 1.
2. Switch the operating range to 0.5 NM.
3. Using the A/C Sea control, adjust the image to identify the southern end of Grodzka
Island – Bielawa Island (object no. 2).
4. Set range to 3 NM. Identify Mały Róg Island (object no. 7) and Kopa Island (object
no. 8). Ensure the radar is operating on the short pulse (SP).
5. Using the A/C Sea and/or A/C Rain, adjust the radar image.
6. Switch to the long pulse (LP). Using the A/C Sea and/or A/C Rain again, adjust the
radar image. Note any differences in settings used when operating with different
pulse lengths.
7. Reset all radar settings and switch to standby mode.
STAND 2
Highlander HLD-RADAR 900 (solid-state)
Identification of characteristic echoes on the example of Kępa Jeżyka island.
1. Switch the radar to operating mode and adjust the radar according to Instruction 1.
2. Identify Kępa Jeżyka Island (object no. 14). Switch to the 3 NM range.
3. Observe and describe the effect of changing the pulse length (SP, MP, LP) on the
displayed target echo. Record your conclusions.
4. Reset all radar settings and switch to standby mode.
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STAND 3
Kelvin Hughes (solid-state)
The effect of shadows on identification and detection using the example of the quay and the EWA
grain elevator.
1. Switch the radar to operating mode and adjust the radar according to Instruction 1.
2. On the 1.5 NM range, identify Orli Przesmyk (object no. 6). If necessary, use the
A/C Sea.
3. Identify the shadow from the EWA grain elevator.
4. Activate the ETD (Enhanced Target Detection) function. Observe and note any
changes in the image. Explain the meaning of this function.
5. Reset all radar settings and switch to standby mode.
STAND 4
Wärtsilä RADARPILOT Platinum (magnetron)
Identification of echoes against a land background using the example of the quay and the EWA
grain elevator.
1. Switch the radar to operating mode and adjust the radar according to Instruction 1.
2. On the 0.75 NM range, with Long Pulse turned off, identify the EWA Elevator
(object no. 3).
3. Using the A/C Sea, locate the elevator building located on this quay.
4. Sketch the quay and elevator building for three A/C Sea settings (10, 40, and 60). At
which setting did the echo from the elevator disappear from the screen? Explain in a
written note the mechanism for identifying objects against the land.
5. Reset all radar settings and switch to standby mode.
STAND 5
Koden MDC 1860 (magnetron)
Identification of echoes from objects with weak reflective surfaces, on the example of Bystrzańska
Kępa Island on Lake Dąbie.
1. Switch the radar to operating mode and adjust the radar according to instructions 1.
2. Set the radar to long pulse operation and a 6 NM range. Identify Bystrzańska Kępa
Island (object no. 11).
3. Switch the radar to short pulse operation.
4. Note any changes in the radar image and make a sketch.
5. Change the range to 3 NM and switch the radar to long pulse operation.
6. Decenter the image to obtain an image of the island.
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7. Switch to short pulse operation.
8. Observe and describe the effect of the sounding pulse length on the echo dimensions
from the island.
9. Reset all radar settings and switch to standby mode.
STAND 6
Furuno FR2115 (magnetron)
Identification of characteristic echoes on the example of Sadliński Cape.
1. Switch the radar to operating mode and adjust the radar according to Instruction 1.
2. Using the 6 NM range, identify the headland on Lake Dąbie (object no. 10).
3. Switch to short pulse operation.
4. Observe the changes and make sketches.
5. Explain the changes (in the form of a note).
6. Reset all radar settings and switch to standby mode.
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4. REQUIREMENTS FOR PASSING
Correct execution of the exercise at all stations and completion of homework
5. EFEKTY KSZTAŁCENIA / LEARNING OUTCAMS
6. INFORMACJE DODATKOWE / ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
7. LITERATURA / REFERENCES
8. FORMS, APPENDICES
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Report on
Exercise 3
The identification of echoes
Name and Surname: Group Number:
Date, a teacher signature: Date, evaluation:
STAND 1
Highlander HLD-RADAR 900 (magnetron)
STAND 2
Highlander HLD-RADAR 900 (solid-state)
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STAND 3
Kelvin Hughes (solid-state)
STAND 4
Wärtsilä RADARPILOT Platinum (magnetron)
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STAND 5
Koden MDC 1860 (magnetron)
STAND 6
Furuno FR2115 (magnetron)
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Homework:
1. Factors influencing the accuracy of the echo identification process (radar image
interpretation).
2. Describe passive and active methods of echo signal enhancement.
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