PHYSICS SSS ONE

SALVATION TERM
TOPIC 1: QUANTITIES, UNITS & MEASUREMENTS
WHAT IS PHYSICS?
Physics is the science that studies the link between matter and
energy. This definition of physics shows the connection between
two important quantities in science – matter and energy. The unit of force is Newton (N) obtained by multiplication and
division of the basic units of mass, length (displacement) and time.
Measurements in physics The basic unit of force is kilogram metre per second per second
Basic (fundamental) units and derived units (kg m s-2). Table 1.2 shows derived units and their definitions using
Basic (fundamental) units their basic units.
The units of quantities measured in science are of two types: the
basic units or the derived units. The basic units are also called
fundamental units because they are the foundation of other units
in science. The derived units rely on the basic units for their
definition. The seven basic units and the quantities they indicate
are shown in Table 1.1 below.

Table 1.1 Fundamental quantities or basic units, abbreviations and

dimensional symbols
The basic units shown in table 1.1 are stated in the internationally
accepted units i.e. System International units (SI units).
NOTE: Table 1.2 Derived quantities and their definitions using basic units
Supplementary Fundamental Units: Supplementary units are one
that have a close link between geometrical and physical Multiples and sub-multiples of units
descriptions of events. They are: the radian (rad) and the The basic units can be expressed in higher units called multiples or
steradian (sr) lower units called sub-multiples. Prefixes are used to represent
Radian and steradian are two supplementary fundamental units. multiples and sub-multiples of units in physics. Table 1.3 shows
It measures plane angle and solid angle respectively. the prefix, their symbols and meaning.
S/N Supplementary Supplementary Symbols
Fundamental Units
Quantities
1. Plane angle Radian Rad
2. Solid angle Steradian Sr

The derived units

The derived units are got by combining basic units either by
multiplication, division or by a combination of multiplication and
division of the basic units. Table 1.3 Prefixes, symbols and meaning
Example: Volume = Length x Breadth x Height
The unit of volume is cubic metre (m3). This is obtained by Dimensional Analysis Most derived units are obtained by
multiplying the length by itself three times. combining one or more of these basic units; length, mass, time,
electric current and temperature. These basic units are called
dimensions. The dimension of a quantity is written inside a square
bracket. [Length] is the dimension of length and [L] is the
The unit of density is kilogram per cubic metre (kg / m3), obtained dimensional symbol. The dimensions and the dimensional symbols
by dividing the unit of mass by the unit of volume. of other basic units are shown in table 1.1. By using the
dimensions of the basic units, it is possible to express the derived
units in terms of these basic units without referring to their units constant
or sizes. The process of doing this is called dimensional analysis. 17. Moment of inertia ML2 kgm2
The method of dimension can be used: 18. Angular velocity T-1 rads-1
 To find the relationship between quantities when 19. Angular acceleration T-2 rads-2
mathematics is too difficult. 20. Angular momentum ML2T-1 kgm2s-1
 Extensively in hydrodynamics, to show the formula is 21. Specific heat L2T-2ϴ-1 kcal kg-
correct or homogeneous. 1 -1
K
 To change a physical quantity from one system of units to 22. Latent heat L2T-2 kcalkg-1
another system of units. 23. Planck’s constant ML2T-1 Js-1
Volume = Length x Breadth x Height = For a cube, [Volume] = L x L 24. Universal gas ML2T-2ϴ-1 Jmol-1k-
x L = L3 constant 1

The dimension of speed or velocity, Table 1.4 Dimension and quantity

Worked examples
1. Use the dimensional analysis to prove the correctness of the
following formulae.
(a) Kinetic energy = mv2 (b) Potential energy = mgh (c) Work
done = Force x distance
Solution
The dimension of energy = ML2 T-2
(a) [K.E] = M (LT-1)2 = ML2 T2 (b) [P.E] =M (LT-2) L = ML2 T-2 (c) [W] =
(MLT-2)L = ML2T-2
The three formulae are dimensionally correct.
Note that constants and numbers are dimensionless and are not
considered.
The dimension of force [F] = MLT-2
2. Given that Mx Ly Tz is the dimension of pressure, what are the
[Force] = (mass) x (acceleration) = MLT-2
values of x, y and z?
Solution
Table 1.4 shows the dimensions of some derived quantities and
their corresponding dimensions.
S/N Physical Quantity Dimensional MKS
Formula Units
1. Area L2 m2
2. Volume L 3
m3
3. Velocity LT -1
ms-1
4. Acceleration LT -2
ms-2
5. Force MLT-2 newton 3. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is related to its
(N) length (l) and acceleration due to gravity (g) by T = 2πlxgy Where x
6. Work or energy/ ML2T-2 joule(J) and y are constants, find the values x and y.
Moment of a force Solution
7. Power ML2T-3 Js-1 or
watt
8. Pressure or stress ML-1T-2 Nm-2
9. Linear momentum MLT -1
kgms-1
or Impulse
10. Density ML-3 kgm-3
11. Strain or Relative Dimensionless Unit
Density less
12. Modulus of ML-1T-2 Nm-2
elasticity / Young’s
modulus
13. Surface tension ML-2 Nm-1
14. Velocity gradient T -1
s-1
15. Coefficient of ML-1T-1 kgm-1s-1
velocity
16. Gravitational M-1L3T-2 Nm2kg-2
Uncertainties in measurement scale. Every direct measurement made with a metre rule is
The precision or accuracy of any measuring instrument depends recorded correct to the number of decimal places of its
on the skill of the user in using the instrument and the sensitivity uncertainty. For example, the length of a physics textbook 50.50
of the instrument. If the same measurement is taken many times cm.
by the same observer or by different observers, their observations
may vary. There is always an uncertainty in every measurement.
For this reason, all measurements in physics are stated within a
range that contains the correct value.
This is added or subtracted to give the range of the accepted
measurement. The uncertainty of a metre rule is 0.05cm or
0.1cm to 1 decimal place; therefore, when the measurement of
length is stated as 43 it means that the length measured is correct
within a range of 42.9 cm and 43.1 cm. Uncertainty is sometimes
called accuracy of the measuring instrument. Figure 1.2 Correct method of measuring length with metre rule
The uncertainty of an instrument is the least measurement it can For accurate measurements, the eye must be placed vertically
determine. Usually, this is half of the smallest division on its above the mark being read. This is to avoid parallax errors which
scale. give rise to inaccurate measurements.
 The vernier calipers
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH Length is the distance between The vernier calipers measures length with greater precision than
two points. The standard or the SI unit of length is metre (m). the metre rule. The uncertainty or accuracy of vernier calipers is
The sub-multiple units of length are centimetre (cm), millimetre 0.01 cm, which is smaller than that of the metre rule. It has two
(mm), micrometre (µm), etc. These sub-units are related to the SI scales:
unit as follows: (i) the main (M) scale and
(ii) the vernier (V) scale.
1 cm = 0.01m 1m = 100 cm.
= 1.0x10-2 m or
1 mm = 0.001m. 1m= 1000 mm.
= 1.0 x 10-3 m
or
1 mm = 0.000001m
= 1.0x10-6 m.
The higher multiples of length are kilometre (km), megametre
(Mm) etc. Figure 1.2 Vernier calipers
1km = 1000 m and 1 Mm = 1,000,000 m. The uncertainty (accuracy) of the vernier calipers is the smallest
1 m = 0.001 or 10-3 km and 1m = 0.000001 or 10-6 Mm. length it can measure. It is the difference between one division on
the M-scale and one division on the V-scale.
Length measuring instruments Uncertainty = One division on the M-scale – One division on the V-
The length of an object can be measured with any of the following scale
instruments depending on the size of the object to be measured: = 0.10 cm – 0.09 cm
(a) The metre rule (b) The vernier = 0.01 cm (0.1 mm)
calipers Vernier calipers can measure lengths correctly to 2 decimal
(c) The micrometre screw (d) The tape rule places in centimetres. Any length measured with the vernier
gauge calipers is correct within the range of its uncertainty or ± 0.01
 The metre rule cm.
The metre rule is suitable for measuring lengths that lie between a Uses of vernier calipers
few centimetres and few metres long. It can be made from wood, The vernier calipers are used to measure:
plastic or metal. The length of a metre rule is 1 metre or 100 cm. (a) the external diameters of a pipe; (b) the internal diameter of a
Each centimetre is subdivided into 10 equal parts (10 mm). The pipe or hollow tube;
smallest division on a metre rule is 1mm (0.1 cm). (c) the depth or cavity of a hollow object like test tube; (d) the
thickness of a disc (e.g. a coin)
Worked example
Obtain the reading of the vernier calipers scale shown in Figure
Figure 1.1 Part of a metre rule 1.3 below.
The uncertainty (accuracy) of the metre rule
The least measurement that a metre rule can measure is 0.5 mm
(0.05 cm). This is the uncertainty or accuracy of the metre rule.
The uncertainty of a metre rule is half the smallest division on its
 MEASUREMENT OF MASS AND WEIGHT
Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter in a body.
Two important facts about mass are:
 The mass of a body is the same anywhere in the universe.
Figure 1.3 Scales of vernier calipers It is always constant. The mass of a given body does not
Solution change from place to place. It is independent of gravity.
The M-scale reading = 7.40 cm  The mass of a body is a scalar. It has magnitude and no
The V-scale reading = + 0.04 cm direction.
Final reading of micrometer = 7.44 cm. The standard or SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg). Mass is also
 The Micrometre Screw Gauge measured in other units like gram (g) and tons. Gram and tons are
A = Anvil, S = Spindle, F = Frame, L = Locking nut, M = Main scale, related to the SI units as follows:
V = Vernier scale, T = Thimble and R = Ratchet.

The mass of a body is measured with the aid of a balance.

Different kinds of balances are used today to determine with
greater precision, the mass of a body. All can be grouped into two:
the analogue and digital balances. The analogue balances include:
 the chemical or beam balances
Figure 1.4 The micrometre screw gauge  the lever or burchart balances
The micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small  top scale pan balances.
lengths with greater precision than the vernier calipers. The The chemical or beam balance
uncertainty or the accuracy is 0.001 cm (0.01 mm). This is the The beam balance is a very sensitive instrument. Its uncertainty or
smallest length a micrometer screw gauge can measure. Like the accuracy varies depending on how sensitive the instrument is. A
vernier calipers, it has two scales: good beam balance can measure mass correctly to about 0.001
(a) The main scale or the sleeve (M) g.
(b) The circular vernier scale (V)
The micrometer screw gauge can give an accurate measurement
of small lengths such as:
 external diameters of pipes;
 thickness of very thin wires, metal sheets, sheet of paper,
discs and pendulum bob.

Worked example
Figure 1.7 Different models of beam balance
What is the reading of the micrometer screw gauge scales in
The lever balance
Figure 1.15 (a) and (b)?
The uncertainty or accuracy of a lever balance is about 0.1 g.

Figure 1.15a Figure 1.15b

Solution
(a) The M-scale reading = 6.50 cm
The V-scale reading = + 0.015 cm
Final reading of micrometer = 6.515 cm.
(b) The M-scale reading = 11.00 cm Figure 1.8 Lever balance
The V-scale reading = + 0.035 cm Weight
Final reading of micrometer = 11.035 cm.
Weight is the gravitational force which attracts every object
inside the earth’s gravitational field towards the centre of the MEASUREMENT OF TIME
earth. Time is measured in seconds (s)
The weight of a body depends on: Time is the interval between two events. The standard unit of
 the mass of the body (m); time is second (s).
 the acceleration due to gravity (g). Time measuring devices are:
Newton in 1687, showed that the weight of body is proportional  Simple pendulum to measure time (e.g. pendulum clock).
to the mass of a body in a particular location.  A balance wheel to measure time as used in wrist and
Weight is mass of the body stopwatches. The vibratory motion of the balance wheel
Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity. transfers energy through the gear systems to the hands
W=mxg of the watches to record time.
The weight of a body is also called gravitational mass because its  Atoms in digital and atomic clocks.
value depends on acceleration due to gravity.  Ticker-tape timer.
Weight varies from place to place. This is because acceleration  Stop watch/clock.
due to gravity is different from one place to another.  Heart-beat
The SI unit of weight is Newton (N). The weight of a body is
measured using a spring balance. Frequency and period of oscillation (vibration)
Frequency is the number of vibrations (oscillations) completed in
Reasons why the weight of a body varies on the earth’s surface one second. The unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz). Period is the time
 The shape of the earth it takes to complete one vibration (oscillation).
The weight of a body increases with latitude. This is because the
earth is geoid (i.e. the earth is not completely round). It is flat at
the poles and bulges at the equator. A body at the pole is nearer The unit of period is second (s).
the centre of the earth and therefore weighs more than a body at T = period of oscillation or vibration, t = time to complete N
any other location on the earth’s surface. The reason is that the vibrations and N = number of vibrations completed in t seconds.
weight of a body decreases as its distance from the centre of the The period of oscillation is related to frequency by
earth increases. Our weights are greatest at the north and south
poles and least at the equator.
 The rotation of the earth
The earth spins about its own axis and rotates round the sun.
Different locations on the earth’s surface move at different MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME
speeds, (a) therefore, weight of a body varies from place to place. Volume is a measure of the amount of space occupied by matter.
Differences between mass and weight The standard unit of volume is cubic metre (m3). A litre is the
Mass Weight volume occupied by one kilogram of water which has maximum
density at 4°C. This is approximately 1000 cm3.
1. Mass is the amount of Weight is the gravitational force Therefore, 1 cm3 = 1 ml.
matter in a body. which attracts every object Conversion from cubic centimetre (cm3) to cubic metre (m3)
towards the centre of the earth. A cubic metre (m3) is the volume occupied by matter with
dimensions 1m each.
2. Mass is constant Weight varies from place to place
anywhere in the depending on gravity.
universe.
3. Mass is a scalar Weight is a vector quantity.
quantity.
4. Mass is measured with Weight is measured with a spring
a beam balance or balance.
other balances.
Volume of regular objects
5. The SI unit of mass is The SI unit of weight is Newton.
Volumes of solids with regular shapes are found by direct
kilogram.
measurement of its dimensions (length, breadth, height,
diameter or radius), and applying mathematical formulae to
calculate their
volumes. Table 1.6 illustrates different geometrical shapes and
the formulae used in calculating their volumes.
Table 1.6 Regular solids, geometric shapes and formulae to
calculate their volumes
Volumes of objects with irregular shapes
Two objects cannot take up the same space at the same time. This
principle is used in finding the volumes of irregular objects. The
irregular object is immersed in a liquid, which does not dissolve it.
The solid displaces the liquid, causing its level to rise in a
measuring cylinder. The rise in the volume of the liquid is
measured and recorded as the volume of the solid. Two methods
used include:
 displacement of liquid in measuring cylinder.
 displacement of liquid in overflow (Eureka) vessel. Figure 1.13 Measurement of volume by displacement of water in
an overflow vessel
Activity 1 Precautions
Apparatus: Measuring cylinder, thread, irregular object (stone) (a) The solid should be immersed gently to avoid splashing of the
and water. liquid.
Procedure (b) The volume of liquid in the measuring cylinder is read with the
(a) Pour water into a measuring cylinder and record the initial eye directly on the concave meniscus of the liquid to avoid
volume of water in the measuring cylinder. parallax error.
(b) Gently lower the solid into the water until it is immersed (c) No liquid should be dripping from the spout of the overflow
completely. vessel before the solid is immersed and at the time of taking the
(c) Measure and record the new volume of water in the final reading of the liquid displaced.
measuring cylinder.
(d) Find the difference between the new volume and the initial
volume.
When the solid is completely immersed, the level of water in the
measuring cylinder rises. This is because the water displaced by
the solid rises above the solid. The volume of solid immersed = V2
– V1

Measurement of volume of liquids

Volume of liquids is measured with graduated vessels like
measuring cylinders, flasks, pipettes and burettes. These
Figure 1.12 Measurement of volume by displacement of water in a instruments are graduated in cubic centimetres (cm3) or millilitre
measuring cylinder (ml). They have different sizes for measuring different amount of
liquid.
Activity 2
Apparatus: Measuring cylinder, overflow (Eureka) vessel, water, MEASUREMENT OF DENSITY Density is the mass per unit
solid and thread. volume of a substance. Or, density is mass contained in a unit
Procedure volume of a substance.
(a) Fill the overflow (Eureka) vessel with water and allow it to
stand until water stops dripping from the spout.
(b) Gently lower the solid until it is completely immersed in
water.
(c) Collect the displaced water in a measuring cylinder.
(d) Read and record the volume of water collected in the
measuring cylinder.
The volume of displaced water in the measuring cylinder is the The units of density are kilogram per cubic metre (kgnr-3) and
volume of solid immersed. gram per cubic centimetre 1gcm-3.
1 g cm-3 = 1000 kg m-3
The density of water is 1 g cm-3 or 1000 kg m-3 .The density of gold
is 19.3 g cm-3, this means that gold is 19.3 times denser than
water.
Relative density (specific gravity)
Water is used as a standard to compare the density of other
substances; therefore, it is assigned by convention, the density of
1g cm-3 is that of pure water.
Relative density is the density of other substances compared with
the density of pure water.

.
Worked examples
1. An aluminium solid of mass 54.3 g has a volume of 20 cm3.
What is the density in:
(i) g cm-3 (ii) kg m-3?
Solution

Note the following important facts about relative density of a

substance.
 Relative density of a substance has no unit. It is the ratio
of two densities.
 Density of substance = Relative density of
substance/Density of water
 Relative density of substance is numerically equal to the
density of the substance but has no unit.
2. A copper cube is melted and recast into a cylinder of base
Differences between density and relative density radius 3 cm and height 7 cm. Calculate the mass of the copper if
S/N Density Relative density the relative density is 9.0.
Solution
1. Density is mass per Relative density is the ratio of
unit volume. density of substance to density of
water.
2. The unit of density Relative density has no unit. It is
is kg m-3or g cm-3. the ratio of two densities.
Density of copper = relative density x density of water
Density of copper = 9.0 x 1 g cm3 = 9.0 g cm-3
The relative density bottle The relative density or the density of a Mass of copper = Density of Copper x Volume
liquid is determined with the density bottle. Mass of copper = 9.0 g cm-3 x 198 cm3
= 1782 g or 1.782 kg

3. 100g of water is mixed with 50g of tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid of

relative density 1.25. What is the density of the dilute acid
formed?
(Density of water = 1 g cm3).
Solution
Figure 1.15 Relative density bottles
  motion of a ball after being kicked by a player;
 a horse running from one town to another;
 human movement.
(b) Rotational or circular motion
The motion of a body in a circular or elliptical path is called
rotational or circular motion.
These types of motion include:
 motion of planets round the sun;
 electrons revolving round the nucleus;
 the blades of an electric fan spinning about its axis;
 motion of a rolling tyre;
 rotation of the earth about its axis.
(c) Vibratory or oscillatory motion
An object vibrates if it moves forward and backward, or to and fro
about a fixed point. A body performing vibratory motion repeats
the same pattern of back and forth movement about a fixed point
in the same time intervals. Examples are:
4. In an experiment to determine the relative density of lead  The motion of simple pendulum about a fixed point;
shots, a student obtained the following results:  Vibration of a mass hanged on a spiral spring;
Mass of relative density bottle = 25.8 g  Vibration of the string fixed at both ends;
Mass of relative density bottle with lead shots only = 69.3 g  The vibration of the skin of a talking drum when it is
Mass of relative density bottle filled with water = 75.8 g beaten;
Mass of relative density bottle with lead shots and water = 115.4 g  The beating of the heart;
Use the above data to find the density of lead shots given that the  Movement of a disturbed diving board.
density of water = 1.0gcm-3. (d) Random motion
Solution This is the type of motion in which a body moves in an irregular or
Mass of lead shots = 69.3 g – 25.8 g = 43.5 g at random or haphazard or disorder manner with no preferred
Mass of water topping the lead shots = 115.4 g – 69.3 g = 46.1 g direction or orientation. A particle undergoing random motion has
Mass of water filling the relative density bottle = 75.8 g – 25.8 g = no definite direction. The direction of such a particle changes
50.0 g continuously such that it follows no particular path. Some
Mass of water having the same volume as the lead shots = 50.0 g examples of random motions are:
– 46.1 g = 3.9 g  The motion of dust particles when it is viewed in a light
beam in a dark room;
 Motion of insects flying around a bright light source in
the night;
 Movement of dust particles suspended in air;
 Movement of gas molecules in a glass container. When
the gas molecules are viewed with the microscope, their
motion is zigzag. This is called Brownian motion.
TOPIC 2: MOTION Brownian motion is a type of random motion.
Motion is the change of position of an object with time.
Dynamics is the study of motion of objects and the forces acting
on them. Machines were designed based on the principles of
dynamics.
Kinematics is the study of motion without considering the forces
causing it.
Figure 1. Random motion
TYPES OF MOTION
It is possible for an object to combine two of the four motions
(a) Translational or linear motion
described above simultaneously. Examples are:
Translational motion is the movement of a body/rigid objects
 A rolling tyre or ball combines both translational and
from one place to another without rotating. When the motion is
rotational motions. The tyre spins about its axis and at
on a straight line, then it is called linear motion. Examples of
the same time, moves forward in a straight line.
translational include:
 The wings of a flapping bird combine both the
 an airplane flying from Kano to Lagos;
translational and vibratory motions. The wings move up
 an ant crawling from one end of the classroom to
and down about the body of the bird and move forward
another end;
from one place to another.
Relative motion 2. A cat and a dog ran in the same direction for 10secs, with
The motion as seen by an observer depends on his frame of a speed of 12.0ms-1 and 10.0ms-1 respectively. Calculate
reference. A frame of reference is the position from which the the cat’s speed relative to that of the dog.
observer sees the event. Two observers A and B will see the same Solution
event from different frame of reference, if observer A is at rest VR = Vc – Vd = 12 – 10 = 2ms-1
relative to the earth while the frame of reference of B is a car
travelling at a speed of 35ms-1 towards the north. Relative to the Causes of Motion
car, the observer B is at rest but relative to the earth, he is Force causes motion. When force is applied to an object, it causes
travelling at a speed of 35ms-1 towards the north. The observer A change. Force is a vector quantity and measured in Newton (N) –
sees the car and B moving towards the north at a speed of 35 m s-1 fundamental unit or Kgms-2 – derived unit.
but the observer B sees himself at rest relative to the car. To him, Force is the action/push/pull that changes/tends to change the
A and every other object on the earth are moving past him state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line.
towards the south at a speed of 35ms1. The speed of the observer Types of forces
is relative to the position of the observer. There are two types of forces namely (a) contact forces and (b)
If the two observers see another car C moving towards the south force fields.
with a speed of 55 m s-1 relative to the earth (Figure 2), the  Contact forces: These are forces which are in contact or
observer A sees car C travelling towards the south at a speed of 55 in touch with the body to which they are applied.
m s-1. To observer B, the car C is travelling at a speed of 90ms-1. If Examples are: push, pull, tension, reaction and frictional
the cars B and C are travelling in the same direction, the observer forces.
B sees the car C moving past him with a speed of 20 m s-1 while  Force field: These are forces whose sources do not
the observer in car C, the car B is moving backward with a speed require contact with the body to which they are applied.
of 20 m s-1. Examples are: gravitational, electrical (electrostatic) and
magnetic forces.

TOPIC 3: SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

Scalars and vectors
A scalar is a quantity that can be specified with number and unit
only. It has only magnitude or size. It has no directions. Distance,
mass, speed, time, work, energy, pressure, temperature, etc., are
examples of scalar. A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude
Figure 2. Relative motion and direction. Examples of vectors are force, velocity,
Therefore, if two bodies are travelling in the opposite direction displacement, acceleration, momentum, etc.
their relative velocity is the sum of their velocities. When they Distance and displacement
move in the same direction, their relative velocity is the Distance is the total length of the path travelled without
difference of their velocities. specifying the direction.
NOTE: It is denoted by S and measured in metre (m). It is calculated as
 In relative motion, when two bodies are moving in the the product of average speed and time. Hence, distance = average
same direction, the relative speed of one to the other is speed x time
the difference between their speeds. Displacement is the distance travelled in a given or specified
i.e. VR = V1 – V2 direction.
V1 > V2 The direction of motion of bodies can be found by using the
 If the two bodies are moving at the same speed, we compass.
have: Differences between distance and displacement
VR = V1 – V2 Distance Displacement
=0 It is the actual length It is distance moved in a
 But when the two bodies are moving in opposite between two points specified direction
directions, their relative motion is the sum of their measured along specified
respective velocities, path
i.e. VR = V1 + V2 It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity
Worked Examples: Distance = Average speed x Displacement = Average
1. The driver of a car moving with a uniform speed of 40ms-1 time velocity x time
observes a truck approaching in the opposite direction It is denoted by S It is denoted by x
with a speed of 20ms-1. Calculate the speed of the car Distance Displacement
relative to the truck. [WASSCE] It is the actual length It is distance moved in a
Solution between two points specified direction
VR = V1 – V2 = 40 + 20 = 60ms-1
 measured along specified
path
It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity
Distance = Average speed x Displacement = Average
time velocity x time
It is denoted by S It is denoted by x The unit of velocity is metre per second (m s-1). Different types of
velocity include:
Similarities between distance and displacement Average velocity: The average velocity during a given time
 They are both measured in metres interval, is the total displacement per total time.
 They both have magnitude

Speed and velocity Uniform velocity: Velocity is said to be uniform if the time rate of
Speed is the time rate of change of distance or distance travelled change of displacement is constant throughout the journey. The
per unit time. body covers equal displacement in equal time interval.
It is the term used to describe the motion of a body when the
direction of movement is not considered. Speed is a scalar
quantity. Acceleration
A body accelerates anytime the velocity increases.
Acceleration is the time rate of increase in velocity.
Acceleration is a vector quantity. The unit of acceleration is metre
per second per second (ms-2).
The unit of speed is metre per second (ms-1) or km/h. However,
you need to convert km/h to m/s whenever you are calculating.
Types of speed
Average speed: To move a body between two points A and B, the
speed may vary continuously between the two points. The
average speed of the body between the points is therefore
defined by:

Uniform speed: When the time rate of change of distance is

constant the body moves with a constant or uniform speed. Such
a body covers the same distance during the same time interval.
The speed is the same no matter which pair of time and distance
is used. Figure 3. Constant speed but changing velocity
Instantaneous speed: This is the time rate of change of distance When a body moves round a circular path with a constant speed
at an instant. The speed registered by the speedometer of a car at it accelerates. This is because velocity is a vector quantity, its
the time you look at it is the instantaneous speed. Suppose a body value changes with change in magnitude or change in direction.
covers very small distance ds in a short time interval dt, the The velocity of a body moving in a circle with a constant speed
instantaneous speed is defined by: changes, because the direction is changing continuously. The
acceleration produced by such a body points towards the centre
of the circle. The velocities of the car at the positions A, B and C
NOTE: point in different directions but the magnitude is the same (20ms-
1
 36kmh-1 = 10ms-1 ) as shown in Figure 3. The velocity is called non-uniform velocity.
The speed of sound in air at room temperature is about 330ms-1 Positive and negative acceleration
or about 1200kmh-1. The fastest speed is that of light in vacuo Acceleration is positive if the time rate of change of velocity is
which is 3 x 108ms-1 positive. The body increases its velocity from rest or from an initial
velocity as time increases.
Velocity Acceleration becomes negative if the rate at which the velocity is
Velocity is speed measured in a given direction. It is defined as changing is negative. Negative acceleration means that the body
time rate of change of displacement slows down from an initial velocity such that its velocity
Velocity is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude and decreases with time. Negative acceleration is called deceleration
direction. or retardation.
Uniform and non-uniform acceleration
A body accelerates uniformly when the velocity increases at a
constant time rate. The time rate of increase in velocity is
constant as long as the motion lasts. This means that the velocity Displacement–time graph is obtained by plotting displacement
increases by equal amount in equal time intervals. against time. The type of graph obtained depends on if the body is
moving with a uniform (constant) speed or with a changing speed.
Two types of displacement (distance) – time graphs are:

Worked examples
1. A boy walks a total distance of 48 km in 4 hours. Calculate his
average speed for the whole journey in
(i) kilometre per hour (ii) metre per second.
Solution

Figure 4. Displacement – time graph for a body moving with a

constant velocity from rest
Displacement (distance) – time graphs for a body moving with
uniform (constant) velocity
When a body moves with a uniform or constant velocity, it covers
equal distances in equal time intervals. The displacement – time
graph is a straight line.
If the body starts its motion from rest, the straight-line graph
passes through the origin or it cuts the displacement axis at the
position when time is zero if it is already in motion. This is
illustrated in figure 5.
The slope (gradient) of a straight-line displacement–time graph
2. A train starts from rest and uniformly increases its velocity represents uniform velocity.
until it attains a velocity of 40 m s-1 in 5 seconds. Find the
acceleration of the train.
Solution

3. A bus initially travelling at 70 m s-1 slows down until it comes to

rest in 20 seconds. What is the deceleration of the bus?
Solution

Figure 5. Displacement – time graph for a body moving with a

constant velocity beginning from an initial velocity
The slope of a straight-line distance – time graph represents
Differences between Speed and Velocity uniform speed.
Speed Velocity Displacement (distance) – time graphs for a body changing its
It is denoted by S It is denoted by V velocity
It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity When a body increases its velocity, it accelerates. The
Speed = distance x time Velocity = displacement x displacement – time graph is a curve: the slope or gradient varies
time along the curve. The velocity at a given point is found by drawing a
It is measured by a It is measured by a velometer tangent at the point.
speedometer

DISPLACEMENT OR DISTANCE-TIME GRAPH

 Figure 8. Constant acceleration from rest
Figure 6. Displacement – time graph for a body changing its
velocity
The velocity is obtained by evaluating the slope of the tangent at
P. This is called the instantaneous velocity.
Instantaneous velocity is the time rate of change of
displacement at an instant.

Velocity – time graph

The velocity – time graph is very useful for finding the total
distance covered and acceleration of the moving body. It gives
information also on average speed and retardation.
Distance covered from the velocity – time graph Figure 9. Constant acceleration from an initial
The area under the line or curve on a velocity – time graph If the velocity increases as time increases, the body accelerates.
represents the total distance covered during the motion. The The slope (gradient) of the v -t graph represents the acceleration
total distance travelled in a given time interval is found by of the body. If the v – t graph is a straight line the slope is
evaluating the area under the line or curve of v–t graph. To uniform acceleration.
explain further let us consider four different cases:
(a) A body moving with a constant or steady velocity
When a body travels at a steady or constant speed between two
points R and S, the acceleration is zero (0). The total distance
covered during this interval is the area of rectangle PRST.
In figure 8, the body moves with a constant velocity of 30 m s-1, The distance covered within the same time interval is the area of
the total distance covered is given by: triangle SPT (the area under the line SP). This evaluated as follows:
Distance covered = Area of rectangle PRST
Distance covered = PR x RS
Distance covered = Velocity x time
Velocity = RS and time = (PT)
Distance covered = 30 x 4 = 120 m

The total distance travelled in Figure 2.12 during the first 5

seconds is the area of trapezium RSPU (area under the line SP).

(c) A body decreasing its velocity (moving with uniform

deceleration)
Figure 7. A body moving with constant velocity A body decelerates if its velocity decreases as time increases (the
(b) A body increasing its velocity (moving with a uniform body slows down from an initial velocity). Figure 2.12 shows the v
acceleration) – t graph for a body slowing down from an initial velocity of 25 m
s-1 in 6 seconds. The deceleration is the slope (gradient) of the line
AB.
 1. The table below shows the velocity of a cyclist as it was
recorded from rest at intervals:
Slope or gradient = uniform deceleration The total distance
covered is the area of triangle OAB.
Distance covered = Area of triangle OAB

(a) Plot a velocity-time graph to represent the motion of the

cyclist.
(b) Describe the motion of the cyclist during each stage.
(c) Calculate the distance covered during each stage.
(d) What is the acceleration of the cyclist in the first 10 seconds?
Solution (a)

Figure 10. Constant deceleration to rest

(d) A body increasing its velocity (moving with non – uniform
velocity)
The acceleration of a body is non – uniform if the velocity does
not increase or decrease in steps. The rate of change of velocity
increases or decreases with time, therefore, the v – t graph is a
curve. The acceleration at any time is obtained by evaluating the
slope of v – t graph at that point, see, Figure 11.

(b) During the first stage of the motion, the cyclist increases his
speed from 0 to 50 m s-1 in 10 seconds (the cyclist is moving with
uniform acceleration). During the second stage of motion, the
cyclist cycles with uniform or constant speed.
(c) The distance covered during the first stage of the motion is the
area of triangle OAD.
Figure 11 Increasing acceleration Distance covered = x 50 x 10 = 250m
Velocity – time graph for variable acceleration The distance covered during the second stage of the motion is the
It is possible for the acceleration of a body to change between two area of rectangle ABCD.
points. The increase or decrease in velocity varies between the Distance covered = 50 x 10 =500 m.
points for the same time interval. The velocity – time graph is a (d) Acceleration is the slope OA of the ν – t graph.
curve or a combination of a curve and a straight line. This is
illustrated in Figure 2.16.
The velocity varies along the curve and the acceleration at
different points C, R, Q and P on the curve varies. The acceleration 2. The table below shows the velocity with time of Olympic gold
at each point C, R, Q and P can be obtained by evaluating the medal winner in a 100 m race:
slope at these points. The distance or displacement covered in the
time interval EN is the area under the curve between C and P.

(a) Plot the v – t graph of the motion.

(b) From your graph, find;
(i) his acceleration and deceleration.
(ii) the total distance covered before coming to rest.
Figure 12. V-t graph for a variable acceleration (iii) his average speed for the whole race.
Worked examples (c) Find the time he braced the tape to win the race.
Solution
(a)

(b) (i) Acceleration = Slope (gradient) of line OP

(b)

(iii)

(c) He embraced the tape after covering a distance of 100 m. If the

time to complete the race is t seconds then:
(iv)

Equations of linear motion with constant acceleration

One of the four equations of motion listed below describes the
motion of a body moving with a constant or uniform acceleration.

3. A bus started from rest and moved with a constant

acceleration of 2 m s-2 until it reached a maximum speed in 20
seconds. It maintained the speed attained for 70 seconds before
coming to rest in 10 seconds.
(a) Sketch the v – t graph of the motion.
(b) Use your graph to find: These equations involve only five variables as follows: s, u, v, a, t.
i the maximum speed reached by the bus; s = distance or displacement covered
ii the deceleration; u = initial velocity (velocity at t = 0)
iii the total distance traveled; v = final velocity (velocity at time t)
iv the average speed of the bus during the journey. a = constant or uniform acceleration
Solution t = time to change velocity from u to v
(a) How to derive equations of linear motion
The average velocity is given by:
 Table 2.1: Equations and their quantities
Guide to solving problems on linear motions
• Write the s, u, v, a, t as shown in Table 2.1
• Identify the quantities given in the problem and select the
correct equation that could solve the problem.
The total distance travelled (s) is the area of the trapezium OECN. • Substitute into the correct equation and simplify to get the
correct answer.
• Write your calculated answer to required significant figure
with the correct unit.
Worked examples
1. A truck starts from rest and moves with a constant acceleration
of 5 ms-1 for 20 seconds. Calculate;
(a) Final velocity of the truck;
(b) The distance it travels after 20 seconds.
Solution

Figure 13: v-t graph of a body moving with constant acceleration

The car increases its velocity from (u) to (v) in t seconds; its
acceleration during this time is given by; (a) v = u + at = 0 + 5 × 20 = 100 ms-1
(b)

Alternative method;

The total distance travelled by the car from E to C is the area of

the trapezium OECN. This area is divided into two parts; the area
of triangle ECP and the area of rectangle OEPN.

2. A car travelling on an expressway decreases its speed to 12 ms-

1
in 3 seconds. If the car covers a total distance 60 m during this
time, calculate:
(a) the initial velocity of the car;
(b) the car’s average retardation.
Solution
(a)

The equations (i – iv) contain five variables s, u, v, a, t.

Each of these equations has four of these variables; the one
chosen to solve any problem on motion depends on the variables
given and the quantity to be calculated. Table 2.1 is a summary to
help you choose the correct equation based on the quantities
given and the quantity to be calculated. A tick ( ) indicates
quantity given in the problem while (?) stands for the quantity to (b)
be calculated.
 Note: Any of the equations of linear motion containing
acceleration could be used to solve the problem.
Solution
Graphical method:
Using equations of linear motion
Distance covered = Area of trapezium OPQR.
s = ½(OP+RQ)OR
60 = ½2(U + 12) 3
u+12 = 40
u = 40 – 12 = 28 ms-1

Distance travelled when the train was moving with constant

3. A train started from rest and travelled with a constant velocity.
acceleration of 2 ms-2 for 6 seconds. It maintained the velocity S = v×t = 12×30 =360 m
reached for 30 seconds and was brought to rest after 5 seconds Total distance travelled = 30+36+360 = 426 m.
when the brake was applied. Find for the motion:
(a) the maximum velocity reached;
(b) the total distance travelled;
(c) the average speed for the whole journey
(d) the average retardation.
Graphical solution

TOPIC 4: FRICTION
When an object moves, rolls or slides against another, a force
acts against it, in the direction opposite to that of the motion of
the object, until it stops moving. This force is called friction.
The friction between our shoes and the ground keeps us from
slipping on the floor. Friction prevents vehicles from skidding,
nails and screws are held in wood by friction.
Friction is the resisting force, which acts when two surfaces in
contact move, or slide against each other.
Alternatively, friction is the force which resists (opposes) relative
motion of two surfaces in contact.
Since friction resists motion, its direction is opposed to the motion Once the body begins to move the static friction is replaced by
of the object. kinetic or dynamic friction. Further experiments reveal that adding
more weights to the body increases the frictional force. Figure 2b
illustrates this; however, friction does not depend on the area of
the surface in contact.
Coefficient of friction (μ)
The weight of the block exerts force on the table; the table resists
this force with an equal and opposite force called normal reaction.
Figure 1. Friction opposes motion As the name implies it acts normally to the surface of the table.
Types of friction Coefficient of friction is the ratio of the limiting friction to the
There are two types of friction, they are: normal reaction.
 the static or limiting friction
 the kinetic or dynamic friction
Static friction
This is friction which tends to prevent a stationary body from
moving. A body at rest will not move until the static friction is
overcome. The magnitude of static friction increases from zero
until it reaches a maximum. The maximum static friction is called The equations above show that friction is proportional to the
limiting or starting friction. normal reaction (R). The constant of proportionality is called the
The limiting friction is that which exists between two surfaces coefficient of friction (μ). Friction increases with coefficient of
when one is about to move relative to the other. friction and the value is high when the surfaces are rough and low
Kinetic or dynamic friction for smooth surfaces. The coefficient of friction varies depending
The direction of the kinetic friction is opposite to the direction of on the nature of two surfaces in contact.
motion of the body. If a body slides over another the kinetic The unit of frictional force or friction is Newton.
friction is called a sliding friction. It is called rolling friction when a The unit of normal reaction is Newton also. Most times normal
body rolls relative to another. Rolling friction is much less than reaction has the same value as the weight of the body in question.
sliding friction. In general, kinetic friction is always less than the Coefficient of friction has no unit.
static friction. Worked examples
Kinetic friction is the friction, which exists between two surfaces 1. A wooden box of mass 10 kg rests on a rough horizontal table.
moving relative to each other with a constant speed. A horizontal force of 35 N is just sufficient to make it slide across
Nature and laws of friction the table surface calculate the coefficient of friction, (g = 10 m s-2)
Solution

2. A block of mass 25 kg was made to slide on a rough horizontal

Figure 2 Friction resists motion of two surfaces in contact ground. If the coefficient of friction is 0.5, find the frictional force
Friction depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact. The between the ground and the block. (g = 10 m s-2)
degree of roughness or smoothness of the surfaces in contact Solution
determines the size of the friction. Friction is high if two surfaces
in contact are rough surfaces and low if the two surfaces in
contact are smooth surfaces. In practice, no surface is smooth.
Very smooth surfaces when magnified many times look rough.
The nature of friction can be studied using in Figure 2.
When a force is exerted on the body, friction opposes the motion
of the body to stop it from moving. The forces acting on the body
are balanced if it does not move (friction is equal to the applied Determination of coefficient of static friction
force and the normal reaction is equal to the weight). If the Apparatus: Slider or block of wood, a cord or string, scale pan and
applied force is increased, friction also increases, however, friction pulley.
does not increase indefinitely and it will soon reach its limit or
maximum value. The maximum static friction is called limiting
friction. If the applied force is increased a little beyond the limiting
friction the body begins to move or slide over the tables surface.
 8. Friction is independent of the area of the surface in contact but
on the nature of the surface.
Disadvantages of friction
Friction is sometimes a nuisance because it results in waste of
Procedure
energy and low efficiency in machines. Energy is lost as result of
(a) The set up above is used to determine approximately the
heat produced when two surfaces rub against each other. Some of
horizontal force required to overcome static friction.
the disadvantages of friction are:
(b) Weigh the slider or the wooden block and record it as W. The
 friction always resists relative motion of two surfaces in
normal reaction is equal to the weight if the two surfaces are
contact.
horizontal.
 friction causes wear and tear of machines and engine
(c) Weigh the scale pan and add weights in steps until the slider is
parts as they rub each other.
just about to move relative to the other surface. The table or the
 friction reduces the efficiency of a machine, because it
horizontal platform should be tapped gently each time a new
wastes useful energy by converting them to heat.
weight is added to the scale pan.
Methods (ways) of reducing friction
(d) Determine and record the total weight of the scale pan as P.
Friction can be troublesome since it reduces the efficiency of
(e) Increase the weight of the slider gradually and repeating the
machines. There is need to reduce or eliminate friction in some
experiment in step (i) – (iv).
practical machines. The following are different ways friction can
(f) Plot a graph of ρ against W and determine the slope (s) of the
be reduced:
graph. The slope represents the coefficient of static friction.
1. Lubrication
Lubricants like oil and grease are used to prevent two surfaces
from coming in direct contact with each other. This is called
lubrication. Lubricating moving parts of machine with oil reduces
wearing and tearing of the parts and minimizes loss of energy in
the form of heat.

Friction on inclined plane

When W is resolved vertically in the opposite direction to normal
reaction R, we have W cos θ.
When W is resolved horizontally in the opposite direction to force
F, we have W sin θ. Figure 3 Lubrication minimizes friction
The limiting or starting friction of an inclined plane depends on 2. Using rollers
the angle θ of the inclined plane. The angle θ is called the angle of Rolling friction is much less than the sliding friction. When an
friction. Friction is reduced if the angle of friction is increased. object rolls instead of sliding, friction is reduced. Rollers in form
When the body is about to slide, the forces acting on the slider or cylinders are used to reduce friction between two surfaces sliding
the wooden block are balanced. F = Wsin θ and R = Wcos θ against each other. Ball bearings use iron balls as rollers to reduce
friction between two surfaces moving over one another. The
action of rollers in the reduction of friction is illustrated in Figure
4.

The coefficient of friction μ for an inclined plane with angle of

friction θ is given by:
μ = tan θ
The laws of solid friction
1. Friction resists relative motion between two surfaces in contact.
Its direction is opposite to the direction of the force causing the
motion. Figure 4 Friction is reduced when object rolls than sliding
2. Friction depends on the degree of roughness or smoothness of 3. Streamlining: Cars, aeroplanes, rockets etc. are streamlined to
the surfaces in contact. Rough surfaces in contact have high reduce friction in fluids. A streamlined object has pointed head
friction and smooth surfaces have low friction. and slightly curved bodies to reduce surface area in contact with
3. Kinetic friction is independent of the relative speed between fluid during its motion.
the two surfaces in contact. 4. Polishing or smoothening the surfaces reduces friction.
4. Friction depends on the normal reaction between the two Smoothening surfaces reduces the interlock between them,
surfaces in contact. therefore friction between the surfaces is reduced.
5. Friction increases as the weight of the body increases. Advantages of friction
6. Kinetic friction is always less than static friction.
Friction is very useful despite its disadvantages. Some of the uses  a man stretching a catapult or rubber band.
of friction are:
(a) Friction helps us to walk. Friction between our feet and the
ground assists us to walk without slipping.
(b) Friction makes griping of objects possible. Friction helps in
Figure 1. A car climbing a hill is doing work
joining nut and bolt or nail and wood together.
When force is applied on a body, the body moves in the direction
(c) The friction between the brake drum and the lining of the
of the force as shown in all the examples stated above. The boy
brake helps to stop a moving car when the brake is applied.
does work against the gravity in lifting the box to the tabletop. The
(d) Tyres with specially designed grooves and channels grip firmly
girl pushing the wheelbarrow along the level ground is doing work
on a road surface because the grooves increase friction between
against friction. Elastic work is done when a force stretches a
the tyre and the ground.
rubber band.
(e) The ladder stays on the wall without slipping or skidding
No work is done if the applied force does not move the body or
because friction between the ladder and the wall prevents
the distance moved has no part along the direction of the force.
skidding.
The following examples illustrate situations where no work is
done:
 a boy carrying books on his head. The force exerted by
the boy on the books has not changed the position of the
books, therefore the work done is zero.
 a woman walking along a level ground with a heavy load
on her head is not doing any work because no part of the
force she exerts on the load is in the direction of her
displacement.
 a man pushing a caterpillar does no work if the caterpillar
Figure 5 Uses of friction does not move.
Summary Work done by inclined forces
 Friction is the force which resists (opposes) relative An inclined force is a force whose direction acts at an angle (θ) to
motion of two surfaces in contact. the displacement moved. Only the part of the force in the
 The limiting friction is that which exists between two direction of the displacement moves the body. Figure 2(a) shows a
surfaces when one is about to move relative to the other. box pulled along a level ground with a constant force (F) inclined
 The friction between two surfaces moving with a at an angle (θ) to the horizontal.
constant speed relative to another is called kinetic The force (F) has a vertical component F sin θ and a horizontal
friction. component Fcos θ.
 The ratio of the limiting friction to the normal reaction is
called the coefficient of friction.

TOPIC 5: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

THE CONCEPT OF WORK
Work is done when a force causes a body to move in its direction.
Work is energy transferred anytime a force moves a body. Work
is a scalar quantity.
Work done is the product of force and the distance moved in the
direction of the force.
Work done = Force × distance moved in the direction of force Figure 2 Work done by an inclined force
W=F×S The horizontal part of the force moving the box in the direction
The unit of work is Newton metre (Nm) or joule (J). shown in Figure 2 is Fx = Fcos θ. The other part is not doing any
1 Joule = 1 Newton metre work because it is perpendicular to the displacement.
Large amount of work is measured in Kilojoules (KJ) or Mega The work done in moving the box through the horizontal distance
joules (MJ). (s) is given by:
Joule is the amount of work done or energy transferred by a force Work done = Part of force along the displacement × Displacement.
of 1N when it moves a body through a distance of 1m. W = Fcos θ × s
Examples of activities where work is done are: W= Fs cos θ
 a boy lifting a heavy box from the floor to the top of a Work done against friction
table. Work is done when a box is pushed along a rough floor with a
 a girl pushing a wheelbarrow along a level road. constant force (F). The work done on the box is divided into two
 a car climbing a hill. parts:
  work done to overcome friction displacement of the body if the applied force is constant. When an
 work done in moving the box through the required application of a force moves a body between two points A and B,
distance the force – displacement graphs are as shown in Figure 5.7
Work done against friction is transformed or changed to heat The work done is the area under the line or curve of a force–
energy. This is the reason why moving objects become hot. displacement graph. The workdone is the area of a rectangle if the
force is constant. For a force whose magnitude is changing,
workdone is the area of a triangle. These are illustrated in Figure
5.
ENERGY
Figure 3 Concept of Energy
Work done against gravitational force field Energy is the ability or capacity to do work.
Work is done in gravitational force field when a body is lifted up Energy is measured by the amount of work done on the body. The
against force of gravity. Work done against gravity is stored in the unit of energy is Joule (J) in honour of James Joule.
body as gain in potential energy. If the body is allowed to fall, it Forms of energy
uses the gain in gravitational energy to do work. The work done by Energy exists in many different forms. Table 1 shows different
the body is equal to the work done on it when it is lifted up forms of energy, their sources and definitions.
against gravity. This is illustrated in Figure 4. Forms of Source Definition
energy
Mechanical Bodies in motion and Energy of a body in
position of a body in a motion or energy of a
field (e.g. moving car) body due to its
Figure 4 Work done on the body is equal to work the body does as position in a field.
it falls Chemical People get chemical Energy stored in the
Worked examples energy from food. molecules of fuels
1. A boy drags a bag of rice a distance of 42 m on a smooth floor Breaking up of atomic and chemicals or
with a constant horizontal force of 75 N, what is the work done by bonding of fuels and energy released
the boy in dragging the bag? chemicals e.g. petrol or when atomic
Solution kerosene. bonding is broken.
W=F×S
Force = 75 N, displacement = 42 m Electrical Motion and position of Energy of charged
W = 75 × 42 = 3150 J or 3.15 KJ charged particles in an particles due to their
2. A weight lifter lifts a load of total mass 356g through a vertical electric field leads to position or motion in
height of 2.15 m. What is the work done by the weight lifter? (g = release of electrical an electric field.
10 m s-2) energy.
Solution
Heat or Agitation or thermal Energy transfer due
Weight lifted =mass x gravity =0.356 x 10 =3.56 N
thermal motion of molecules of to temperature
Displacement = 2.15 m, force = 3560 N
substances. difference between
W =F x S =3.56 x 2.15 = 7.654J
two points.
3. Amina pulls a box with a force 500 N inclined at 60° to the
horizontal. Find the work done by Amina if her displacement is Light Accelerating charges Light energy which is
200 m. a visible form of
Solution energy.
W = Fscos θ = 500 × 200 × cos 60° = 5 0000 J
Nuclear Rearrangement of Energy released due
nuclear particles leads to to changes in the
release of nuclear nuclear content of an
energy. atom.
Sound Vibrating objects e.g. Energy released by
when a drum is played vibrating objects.

Figure 5 Area under the graph is the work done by the applied Solar The sun releases solar Group of energy
force energy radiated from the
Force – displacement graph sun.
Work is done any time an applied force causes a body to move in
Biomass The sun Biomass energy from
the direction of the force. The work done is proportional to the
 the sun is released Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body in motion or
when plants are energy stored in a moving body.
eaten or when we The kinetic energy of a body is proportional to the square of its
burn wood. speed and to its mass.

Table 1 Forms of energy, sources and definitions

Mechanical energy Different types of kinetic energy are:
Mechanical energy exists in two different forms: potential energy (i) Translational kinetic energy: The energy of a body due its
and kinetic energy. motion in straight line.
a. The potential energy (ii) Rotational kinetic energy: The energy of a body due its
Potential energy is the energy stored in a body due to its position rotational motion or motion along a curved path.
in a field. (iii) Vibratory kinetic energy: The energy possessed by a vibrating
The potential energy stored in a body when it is raised to a height body.
above the ground is due to its position in a gravitational field. The Formula for kinetic energy
energy stored in compressed springs, explosives or fireworks, The kinetic energy gained by the body is measured by the amount
chemicals, etc., is convertible to other forms due to their of work done on it.
mechanical state or position. A moving object has kinetic energy because of its speed. When a
Types of potential energy force acts on the body, its speed or kinetic energy changes and
1) Elastic potential energy is energy stored in the molecules of work is done.
stretched or compressed materials such as in elastic part of a Gain in kinetic energy = Work done
catapult or in a stretched bow. Kinetic Energy = Force × distance, but F = ma,
2) Chemical potential energy is energy stored in the molecules of EK = F × SK = ma × s = m (as)
fuels and chemicals. If the body begins its motion from rest, the initial velocity u is
3) Electric potential energy is the energy stored in cells and zero; the final ν is given by
capacitors when positive and negative charges are separated it is
stored in the battery.
4) Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in a body
when it is lifted up against gravity.
Gravitational potential energy
Work is energy transferred when a force moves. Work is done
when a force moves a body to a certain height (h) against the Worked examples
gravitational attraction. Work done on a body in a gravitational 1. A bullet of mass 100 g leaves the barrel of a gun with a speed of
field is stored in it as gain in potential energy (Ep). As the body (m) 300 m s-1, calculate the kinetic energy of the bullet.
is moved from the level A to height B, it gains potential energy Solution
due to the height h. If potential energy is represented by Ep,
Ep = Weight of the body × vertical height moved
Ep = Mass × gravity × height. Ep = mgh

2. A ball of mass of 1.8 kg is dropped from 28m above the ground.

Calculate the:
(i) potential energy before it was dropped.
(ii) speed with which the ball hit the ground. (g = 10 m s-2)
Figure 6 Gain in potential energy = Workdone against friction in Solution
lifting the body from A to B (i) Ep = mgh
Worked example Ep= 1.8x 10x 28 = 504 J
4. A spacecraft of total mass 250 000 kg orbits the earth at a (ii) At the point of landing, all the potential energy is transformed
height of 300 km above the sea level, calculate the gain in to kinetic energy.
potential energy of the spacecraft, (g = 10 m s-2)
Solution
If Ep = Potential energy
Ep = mgh
Mass of spacecraft = 250 000 kg, height = 300 000 m Energy transformation in a mechanical system
Ep = 250 000 x 10 × 300 000 A system which changes potential energy to kinetic energy only
= 7.5 × 1011 J and vice versa, is a mechanical system. Figure 5.9 shows a
b. Kinetic energy transformation from potential to kinetic energy if a fruit is allowed
to fall from the top of a tree. A fruit at the top of the tree has only
potential energy. As it drops, gravity pulls it towards the centre of
the earth, the potential energy is changed or transformed
gradually to kinetic energy. At any stage of the fall of the fruit,
the sum of its potential and kinetic energies (total energy)
remains constant. At the top of the tree, the energy of the fruit is
only potential, midway during the fall, the kinetic energy is equal
to the potential energy. Just before the fruit hits the ground, all
the potential energy at the top has been transformed into kinetic
energy. At any stage of the fall, the total energy of the fruit
remains the same. This is called the principle of conservation of
mechanical energy.
Figure 8 Energy transformations in a simple pendulum
Conservative force and field
Work is done anytime a force moves a body from its initial
position to a new position. If the work done by the force depends
on the initial and final position of the body and not on the path
taken by the body to move to the new position, the force is
conservative. The work done by a conservative force in a closed
path is zero. If a stone is thrown upwards in a gravitational field
and returns to the same level, the total displacement is zero;
therefore, the total work done by the stone is zero. Gravitational
field is an example of conservative field. When a body is placed at
Figure 7 Energy transformations in a mechanical system
a height, e.g. a book on a wardrobe, it possesses gravitational
The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that in
potential energy. Gravitational potential energy is the work done
an enclosed system, the total mechanical energy is constant.
in moving a body up against gravity, its value depends on the
An enclosed system is one in which no energy is gained from or
initial and final positions of the body in the gravitational field.
lost to the surrounding. The conservation principle of energy is
stated mathematically as:

The potential energy of the fruit at the top of the tree is Ep = mgh.
The fruit loses potential energy and gains kinetic energy as it falls
from the tree top towards the ground. When the fruit has fallen
through a vertical height, s metres, the potential energy Ep = mg (h
– s) while the kinetic energy Ek = mgs or mv2 if velocity of the
fruit is known.
The total energy at ρ is given by: Figure 9 Work done in a closed path in a conservative field is
E = Ep + Ek zero
E = mg (h – s) + mgs Worked examples
E = mgh = constant 1. A stone of mass 60 g was released from the top of a tower 50
Total energy (E) = mgh = a constant m tall. Find the:
Energy transformation in a simple pendulum (i) potential energy of the stone just before it was released;
Figure 8 illustrates energy transformation in a simple pendulum. (ii) potential and kinetic energies of the stone after it has fallen
At the ends A and E, the energy of the bob is only potential through a vertical height of 20 m;
because it is at rest momentarily. Bodies in position of rest (iii) velocity of the stone just before it hit the ground.
possess energy. The potential energy is slowly changed to kinetic Solution
energy as the bob moves towards the centre C. It has only kinetic
energy at C. Its potential and kinetic energies are equal at B and D.
As it continues its motion towards E, the kinetic energy at C is
gradually transformed or changed to potential energy. At any
stage of the motion of the bob, the total energy is constant.
 Examples are
 Solar energy
 Wind energy
 Water energy or hydroelectric power
 Biomass
 Tidal power
 Biofuels
Non-Renewable Energy Resources are those that cannot be
replenished as they are used up.
Examples are
2. A simple pendulum consists of a thin string of negligible mass  Nuclear Energy from radioactive materials
with a steel ball of mass 400 g attached at one end. The length of  Petroleum and Natural gas
the pendulum is 100 cm, if the pendulum is displaced slightly  Coal and wood
through an angle of 30° with the vertical and released, calculate Such other fuel that are classified as fossil fuel.
(i) the potential energy of the bob at this position. POWER
(ii) the speed of the bob when the kinetic energy is greatest, (g = Concept of power
10 m s-2) Power is the time rate of doing work. Alternatively, power is the
Solution time rate at which energy is expended.
Work done per unit time is power.

The unit of power is watt (W) or joule per second (J s-1). 1 watt = 1
J s-1.
Other units of power are kilowatt (KW), megawatt (MW) and
(b) The kinetic energy is greatest when all the potential energy horsepower (hp). A horsepower is approximately 750 watts and is
have been changed to kinetic energy, i.e. Ek = Ep = 0.536 J equivalent to the work done per second by a horse.
3. An archer pulls a bow by 0.7 m with an arrow f mass 60 g. If the Power and speed
stiffness of the bow is 200 Nm-1, calculate the speed of the arrow The motion or speed of a body depends on its power. The greater
immediately after its release. [WASSCE, Oct/Nov. 2018, No 2] the power of a machine, the faster it moves. Power is related to
speed of a moving object.
Power = Force x Speed
P=FxV
Proof

Worked examples
1. A water pump raises 400 kg of water to a height 15 m in 20
seconds. What is the power of the pump in kilowatt?
Solution
World Energy Resources
Sources of Energy
There are many energy resources now available to the society.
These are:
 Petroleum and Natural Gas (Fossil Fuel)
 Nuclear energy
 Solar energy
 Wind energy 2. A racing car pushes against air resistance with a speed of 75 m
 Hydroelectric energy s-1. If the thrust of the engine is 2000 N, find the power of the car.
 Geothermal energy Solution
 Energy from coal and wood Power = Force × Speed
 Tidal and Ocean energy = 2000×75 = 150 000 W = 150KW
 Biomass energy Summary
Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Power is the time rate at which work is done or the time rate at
Renewable Energy Resources are those that can be replaced as which energy is expended.
they are used up. They can be continually replenished as they are The motion or speed of a body depends on its power. The greater
exploited and utilized. the power of a machine the faster it moves.
Power = Force × speed