Uganda Technical College-Kyema-NDME1 & NDEE1

Sub-module 8: Shaping, Planing and Slotting

 Working principle of shaper, planer and slotter.
 Quick return mechanism applied to them
 Types of tools used and their geometry
 Specifications of shaper, planer and slotting machine
Speeds and feeds

Reading List
Chapman, W. A. J. (1989) Workshop Technology part 1, Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd, 5th
Edition, ISBN 0-7131-3269-6
Chapman W. A. J. (1990) Workshop Technology part 2, Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd, 5th
Edition, ISBN 0-7131-3272-8
Chapman (W. A. J. 1983) Senior Workshop Calculations 3rd Edition, Richard Clay, The Chaucer
Press Ltd, Bungay, Suffolk. Publishers Ltd, 5th Edition, ISBN 0-7131-3295 7
ShotboltC R, (1982), Technician Workshop Processes and Materials 1, TheCamllot Press Ltd,
Southampton, ISBN 0-304-30957-5
[Link](2001). Production Technology. 6th Edition. Khanna Publishers, Delhi.
S. K. Hajra, Choudhary and A K Chaoudhary (1999). Workshop Technology I,II,III. Media
Promoters and Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Bombay
SK Chaudhary and Hajralements (2003). Workshop Technology. Asia Publishing House, Delhi

SUB-MODULE 1: FITTING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS.

1.0 Introduction
Bench working involves the use of hand tools like hacksaw, chisel, file, scraper, taps, dies
and a variety of making and measuring instruments for performing various bench working
processes like cutting, chipping, scraping, threading, etc. on metal pieces. A fitter is supposed
to have a sound knowledge of these tools and instruments and a good practice on their use.
The bench working processes are mostly carried out on a job held in a vice fitted on the
fitter‘s working table. But sometimes the use of these processes and hand tools for site works
proves quite effective and useful because of the flexibility and ease they provide in tackling
difficult situations, particularly where power-operated machines may not be used. Further, it
is possible to obtain an excellent finish and accuracy in the dimensions of the job by resorting
to bench working operations, for example, workpieces machined on a shaper or milling
machine are often sent for further finishing by hand filing and scraping to remove tool marks
from the machined surfaces and to get a better finish. ‗Bench working‘ and ‗fitting‘ are the
two terms often used synonymously. While bench working, as has been explained above, is
related to the ability and practice on the use of various hand tools and instruments in
conducting operations of filing, chiseling, threading, scraping, etc., ‗fitting‘ in its strict terms
is concerned with the process of joining two or more components to form an assembly
wherein a required ‗fit‘ (or relationship) between the mating components of the assembly is
ensured as the functional requirement of the assembly. The trade of bench working and fitting
has attained an indispensable status in the whole gamut of engineering works whether related
to manufacturing, repair and maintenance and rebuilding of machines. The shop where fitting
and bench working operations are conducted is called a fitting shop.

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1.2 BENCH WORKING PROCESSES.

Bench working processes comprise all those processes or operations which relate to cutting,
filing, drilling, reaming and threading of metal pieces and are accomplished with the help of
hand-operated bench working tools or the fitter‘s tools such as hacksaw, chisel, file, scraper and
tap and die. These are conducted on the metal piece to bring it to the desired shape and size of a
product, which may form part of an assembly of a device or machine or may find some other
direct use. Various bench working processes have been discussed under the following broad
classification.
Laying out and marking processes
(ii) Cutting and chipping processes (iii)
Filing and finishing processes (iv)
Drilling and reaming processes
Threading processes (vi)
Measuring processes (vii)
Fitting and assembling
1.2.1 Laying Out and Marking Processes
The raw material in a fitting shop is received in standard market sizes of different sections like
angles, channels, rods, flats and plates. A ‗blank‘ which is a rough form (of the product to be
made) in shape and size is first cut from the available stock. For this, marking and laying out of
the blank profile is first done on the stock to provide guidance for cutting the blank from the
stock as per the markings. Cutting may be done using a hand shear, reciprocating power saw,
chisel and hammer and sometimes even oxy-acetylene flame. The edges of the cut blank (or
blanks) are finished by grinding or filing. The cut blank is straightened if it is bent. It is then
prepared for marking and laying further details to help subsequent bench working operations.
Laying out relates to developing a guiding profile of the product to be made on the blank
and it is achieved by marking or scribing centre points, circles, angles, straight lines, centre
distances between holes. Operations of cutting, filing or drilling are later carried out on the blank
along these markings. Accuracy is the most important factor in marking a layout, because once a
workpiece or blank has been marked out, all the subsequent operations of cutting, filing or
drilling, etc. will be done only on the markings. Tools used for marking generally include surface
plate, scriber, surface gauge, divider, centre punch and hammer, angle plate, V-block, parallels,
clamps, trammels and combination set. The help of a number of measuring instruments like steel
scale, callipers, micrometer, bevel protractor and sine bar is taken for measuring dimensions and
angles during the process of laying out and marking.

1.2.2 Cutting and Chipping Processes

Cutting and chipping are the two main bench working operations used for removing excess metal
from a blank. Cutting is performed with a hacksaw and is done either to cut the blank into pieces
or to reduce it in size by removing a part of metal (Fig. 19.1). Similarly, chipping is done to
shape the blank by removing extra metal from its edge for reducing it in size. Chipping is also
done to cut a chase or slot on the sides (faces) or edges of the blank. The operation of chipping is
performed with the help of a chisel driven into the metal with

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hammer blows (Fig. 19.2). Chipping is also used to cut rivets or nuts which get jammed due to
rusting. The chisel and the hammer are sometimes used to cut flats, angles, plates, bars and rods.
The process is often used for cutting blanks in the steel yard or store.

1.2.3 Filing and Finishing Processes

Filing is done for bringing to correct size the blanks cut by hacksaw, chisel or any other method.
Besides bringing the job to correct dimensions, filing is also done for imparting a good finish on
the faces and edges of the job (Fig. 19.3) which may be flat, slant, curved or circular. This is
achieved with files of different shapes and sizes. The files used in the finishing operation have
hardened cutting teeth on their faces and edges to cut the metal when the file is pressed and
pushed against the job surface.

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Finishing is the operation of giving a smooth surface finish on the job free of surface marks,
scratches and undulations. Finishing may be done on grinding machines of different types but in
a fitting shop, the operation of finishing is accomplished usually with the help of a smooth file
and ‗draw filing‘ technique [Fig. 19.19(c)]. Hand scrapers of different types are used for truing
flat and curved surfaces by removing high spots on the job surface left during filing or machining
operations like shaping, planning or milling. Hand scrapers of different types are shown in Fig.
19.20.

1.2.4 Drilling and Reaming Processes

‗Drilling‘ is the operation of making a hole and ‗boring‘ is the operation of enlarging (in cross-
section) the drilled hole. Drilling is done by employing a rotating tool called ‗drill‘, which is
pressed into the workpiece to make a hole. Drilling is performed by employing different types
of drills such as twist drill, straight fluted drill or flat drill, but a twist drill (Fig. 19.21) is most
common. Drilling is done with the help of a portable drilling machine (Fig. 19.4) or a bench
drilling machine. Drilling with ratchet brace (Fig. 19.5)

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is sometimes done in a large size job which cannot be brought to the drilling machine and the
portable drilling machine is either not available or may not be used for some reasons. Boring
can be done by using either a bigger size drill or a reamer. The reamer is a precision tool and
removes only small amount of metal (Fig. 19.6). Reamers are available in different types and
sizes. Reaming is primarily done for sizing and finishing the drilled holes. It is also sometimes
used for increasing the size of a drilled hole slightly to help fitting a male mating part in the
hole.

1.2.5 Threading Processes

Threading is the operation of cutting threads (or screws) on a workpiece. Threading involves
cutting of internal t h r e a d s with t h e help of ‗taps‘ and external threading using a ‗threading
die‘. The tap (Fig. 19.7) has hardened cutting teeth. A hole is first drilled, little smaller in size
than the size of tapped hole (to be made). The tap is inserted into the drilled hole and rotated with
the help of a tap wrench or a handle fitting on the squared shank of the tap. A threading die is
shown in Fig. 19.8. It has a split nut (with cutting teeth) fitted in the die stock. The job (usually a
rod or pipe) is held in a bench vice and the threading die stock is mounted at the end of the rod
where threads are to be cut. The die stock when rotated with its handle moves along the rod
leaving behind the cut threads.

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1.2.6 Measuring Processes

Measuring, or measurement of, dimensions, surface finish, level or plainness or trueness of
surfaces are important operations carried out by a fitter using various marking and measuring
instruments. These instruments not only help in laying out job profiles or working guidelines on
workpieces to the required specifications, they also make possible comparing the finished work
with the given dimensions, inspection and checking of alignment, trueness or flatness of
surfaces and the surface finish on the job. The marking and measuring instruments are of
various types according to the function they perform, for example, for the linear measurement,
instruments used include steel scale or rule, dividers, callipers, surface gauge, and micrometers;
for the angular measurement, instruments used are bevel protector, sine bar, combination set,
etc.; for measuring plainness of a surface, instruments used are level, straight edge, surface
plate, dial indicator and gauge blocks.

1.2.7 Fitting and Assembling Processes

The processes of ‗fitting‘ and ‗assembling‘ are in a way complimentary to each other. While
‗assembling‘ is related to the process of joining together two or more parts to form an assembly,
the process of ‗fitting‘ essentially aims at making the assembling process possible by trimming,
filing or scraping the mating parts, so that they could be assembled and fitted together easily.
Another essential feature of the operation of fitting is ensuring a required ‗fit‘ (or the
relationship) between the mating parts of the assembly as the functional requirement of the
assembly. Fitting is a regular process being carried out at various stages of mass production
through forming subassemblies of mechanical components. In the final stage when these
subassemblies are fitted and joined together, they result into the final machine in the marketable
form. Later, during the use of machines, fitting is carried out for the maintenance, repair and
replacement of worn-out parts.
1.3 BENCH WORKING TOOLS

Bench working tools, also called ‗fitting tools‘ or ‗fitter‘s hand tool‘, have been discussed
under the following broad headings:
Job supporting and holding tools
Striking tools
Cutting and finishing tools
Drilling and reaming tools

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Threading tools
Laying out and marking tools and measuring tools
Miscellaneous tools

1.3.1 Job Supporting and Holding Tools

Job supporting and holding tools are the devices which help in supporting or holding the
workpiece in a position for carrying out on it various operations like cutting with hacksaw, filing,
chipping, drilling, reaming, etc. These include fitter‘s working table, vices, V-block and clamps.

Fitter‟s working table

The working table for fitting jobs should be quite durable and sturdy. Table legs are made of cast
iron and the top is made in hard wood. Full wood construction is also used. The table length is
kept according to the space available, usually about 1.5 to 3 metres and width about one metre.
The height of the table is also about one metre up to the top of the bench vice fitted on the table.
Generally, the top of the vice should level with the elbow of the man or should be kept a bit
lower. Shelves or rakes are also provided with the table to keep the tools of frequent use.

Vices
A vice is used for gripping and holding a workpiece in position for carrying out on it various
bench working operations. Bench vice (also called engineer‟s parallel-jaw vice) is the most
commonly used vice shown in Fig. 19.32. The parallel jaws of the vice enable the job to be held
in a position which is most suitable for conducting operations like sawing, chipping, filing,
scrapping on the job. The vice consists of a cast steel body which carries a fixed jaw at its top, a
movable steel jaw with its body capable of sl i di ng inside the hollow of the fixed jaw body
through a screw and box nut arrangement. This way, a job can be easily gripped tightly between
the two jaws and also taken out of the vice by rotating the screw handle in proper direction. The
vice is mounted on the working table and rigidly connected there by bolting the fixed jaw base
with the table. The fixed jaw can have a rigid type base or a swivel type base. The swivel base
provides flexibility of rotating and setting the vice at any desired angle to provide ease in
handling jobs. Two hardened steel jaw plates with serrations (teeth) are screwed on the inner
faces of the two jaws, one on each jaw, to improve the gripping power of the jaws when the job is
clamped between them. Sometime when a finished job is held in the vice, jaw covers made of
copper, brass or aluminium are used to protect the finished surfaces of the job from being
damaged due to the tight grip of hardened and serrated jaw plates.

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Machine vice
Fig 19.33 and Fig. 19.34 shows machine vice with swivel base and parallel jaw machine
vice. These types of vices are commonly used in fitting shop for holding a variety of jobs. They
are used for precision work on the machine table like shaping, milling, drilling and grinding.
They are generally made of grey cast iron.

Universal swivel base machine vice

Fig. 19.35 shows a special type of universal swivel base machine vice made with swiveling
head. It is commonly used in fitting shop for holding a variety of jobs. The jobs after holding in
jaws can be adjusted at any angle either horizontally or vertically with the help of swelling head.

Toolmaker‟s vice
Fig 19.36 shows a small tiny vice known as tool maker vice. It is commonly used by tool
maker, watch maker, die maker and goldsmith for holding a variety of small parts for carrying
some operation.

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Hand vice
Hand vice is shown in Fig.( d ) which is utilized for holding keys, small drills, screws, rivets,
and other similar objects which are very small to be easily held in the bench vice. This is made in
various shapes and sizes. It consists of two legs made of mild steel which hold the jaws at the top
and are hinged together at the bottom. A flat spring held between the legs which tend to keep the
jaws open. Its jaws can be opened and closed by a wing nut which moves through a screw that is
fastened to one leg and passes through the other.

Pin vice
Pin vice is used for holding round jobs of small diameter such as wire and pins, during
working. It also forms a very useful handle for small files. It consists of a handle and a tapered
nose covering a small collet chuck at its end. The chuck carries the jaws which are operated by
turning the handle. It is commonly used by a watch maker.

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The pipe vice [Fig. 19.l0(a)] is used for holding pipes and round bars and is generally employed
for plumbing work like cutting of external threads on the pipes using a pipe threading die.

Clamping Devices
There are two types of clamps namely C clamp and tool maker clamp. A C-clamp is shown
in Fig. 19.38 which is used for gripping the work during construction or assembly work. Whereas
tool maker clamp (Fig. 19.39) is used for gripping or holding smaller jobs.

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1.3.2 Striking Tools—Hammers

A hammer comprises a striking head of steel and a wooden handle [Fig. 19.51]. It is used for striking either a
chisel during chipping and cutting operations or a centre punch during marking. Hammers are also used for
several other purposes like driving nails in the wood, punching holes in sheet metal, setting and fitting
(tightening) of assembles (or joints), driving of wedge and flattening and straightening of uneven surfaces and
also sometimes bending of sheet metal and plates, flats and other steel sections. The hammers used in a fitting
shop normally weigh between 0.45 and 0.7 kg. A hammer has four parts, peen, eye, cheeks and face. The
‗peen‘ is the rounded top part of the hammer slightly tapered from the cheeks. When the top part is of ball
shape, it is called ‗ball peen‘. The ‗face‘ is hardened and polished and the edge rounded off to avoid the
possibility of giving impression on the job due to the presence of sharp edge. ‗Eye hole‘ is usually oval or
elliptical in cross-section [Fig. 19.12(b)] to accommodate handle made of hard wood like shisham or bamboo.
After the handle is fitted in the eye, a steel wedge is forced into the handle to prevent slipping out of the
hammer head from the handle during striking.

The hammers can be broadly classified as hand hammers or smith hammers. A hand
hammer is a small and light tool used by fitters and weighs between 0.45 and 0.7 kg. The hand
hammers used by a smith are called ‗smith‘s hand hammer‘ and these weigh between
1 and 1.8 kg. Sledge hammers are larger in size and heavier, weighing between 3 and 8 kg and
are mostly used in smithy shop, or when heavy blows are needed in a fitting shop for
straightening steel plates or flats. For using a sledge hammer, the help of a separate man (called
hammer man) is required.
Types of hand hammer include (i) ball peen, (ii) cross peen and (iii) straight peen [Fig.
19.12(b)].

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The ball peen hammer is the most widely used hammer for general purpose like laying
out, riveting, chipping and forming. Its peen is ball shaped and its face is hardened keeping the
middle portion (eye hole) un-hardened to absorb shocks of hammering. Cross peen hammers are
used in fitting shop for heavy works and in smithy shop for hammering and spreading metal. The
cross peen hammer has its peen like a wedge which is perpendicular to the handle of the hammer.
The straight peen hammer is also preferred for smithy work for swaging and riveting. Its peen
is parallel to the handle.
The hammers commonly used by smiths are either slightly heavier ball peen hammers or
light weight straight peen sledge hammers weighing between 1 and 1.8 kg. The ball peen hammer
is used for general purpose smith‘s jobs of light nature such as fullering. The sledge hammer is
used for jobs which require heavier blows.
Sledge hammers are of straight peen, cross peen and double faced type [Fig. 19.12(c)],
weighing between 3 and 8 kg.

Soft hammers are classified as (i) raw hide, (ii) mallet, (iii) brass, (iv) plastic and
hard rubber hammers. Metal workers use these light weight soft hammers for forming soft
metals. In machine shop and fitting shop, these hammers are used when it is required to strike
machined and finished parts during repair or assembling.

1.3.3 Cutting and Finishing Tools

The cutting tools are those which are used for shaping the blank to a suitable size and shape of the article
to be made by cutting or separating extra metal from it through shearing, sawing, chisel cutting
and chipping.
The tools used for cutting include hand shearing machine, circular saws with inserted
carbide teeth or abrasive circular saws, power hacksaw, hand hacksaw, chisel and hammer. The
primary use of the shearing machine and reciprocating power saw is in cutting blanks for the job
from the main stock of the raw material which may be in the form of standard lengths of steel
structural like angle, channel, flat, etc. Hand-operated shearing machine is usually employed for
cutting flats, angles and rods of smaller size, for example, flats up to 12 mm thickness. Power
hacksaw is yet another machine used for cutting blanks from various steel structural of different
size; a machine capable of cutting round bars or square sections up to

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150 mm size is quite common. Circular saws are used for mass cutting of metal. The main hand-
operated cutting tools used by a fitter include hacksaws, chisels and hammers. Only the hacksaws
and chisels will be covered in the following description of cutting tools. The hammers have
already been discussed.
The finishing tools are also in a way the cutting tools, but these remove only very small
amount of metal and are therefore used for finishing purposes only. Filing is done to correct the
dimensions through filing the job surfaces which might have been rough cut by sawing, chipping
or shearing and for imparting a good surface finish to the workpiece by removing scratches and
tool marks. Besides the files, hand scrappers are also used as finishing tools for truing flat and
curved surfaces by removing high spots on the workpiece surfaces prepared through various
machining operations like milling, planing and boring.

Hacksaws
„Sawing‟ is a multi-point cutting operation accomplished with the help of a ‗hacksaw‘, which
carries a blade with cutting teeth along its one longer edge (Fig. 19.1). Since sawing is a parting
operation, the body of the cutting blade should be kept as thin as is practical to avoid wasting of
material in the cutoff operation, yet the blade should be rigid enough to support the teeth during
cutting as heavy pressures are required to obtain a cutting action from each tooth throughout the
length of the cut. Sawing gives a fairly smooth and flat surface with a slight burr. Hacksawing is
used for cutting rod, strips, flats, bars, angles, channels, metal sheet and pipes into desired length.
It is used for cutting through castings and other members of structures and machines.

The hacksaw consists of a steel frame, a wooden handle at one end and a wing nut with
threaded metal clip at the other end and a cutting blade [Fig. 19.13(a)]. The cutting blade has
holes, one at both ends, to fit with the frame of the hacksaw through two pins, one fitted at the
handle side and the other fitted with the threaded metal clip such that by rotating the wing

nut, the blade can be tightened or loosened in the frame. The hacksaw frame may be ‗fixed type‘
or ‗adjustable type‘. The fixed type accommodates the same length of the blade always whereas
the adjustable type can accommodate blades with different lengths.
The hacksaw blades are made of hard and tempered alloy steel with ‗set teeth‘. ‗All hard‘
grade blades are hardened all over. These are used for cutting hard metals such as cast

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iron. The ‗flexible‘ grade blades have only hardened teeth whereas the remaining portion of the
blade is made tougher and flexible by tempering. The flexible types are more commonly used.
The blade thickness is about 0.7 mm, width 12.7 mm and length (between the two holes) may be
20, 25 or 30 cm.
Pitch of blade, i.e. the distance between the two teeth, may be (a) coarse group having 5 to
7 blades per centimetre and (b) fine group having 8 to 12 teeth per centimetre length of the blade.
Blades with different pitches are used for cutting different materials. The following is
recommended for general guidance.
About 13 teeth/cm—Thin sheet metals, thin tubings, conduits
About 10 teeth/cm—Sheet metals with medium thickness, pipes, brass, copper, iron
pipes
About 7 teeth/cm—General cutting of steel, cast iron, aluminium, gun metal
About 6 teeth/cm—Soft steel, wrought iron, brass, copper, wider or thicker steel
sections
Teeth of blade may be push or pull type. Push type blades are those in which during
cutting, the teeth always point away from the worker and which cut only in the forward stroke.
These are generally used in practice. Details of hacksaw teeth are shown in Fig. 19.13(b). The
teeth of the blade are ‗set‘ by bending outward to opposite sides such that the resulting width of
cut is wider than the thickness of blade. Because of the setting of teeth, the complete width of the
blade does not remain in contact with the metal faces during the cutting operation and hence
working becomes easier as less force is needed to operate the hacksaw. Besides this, blade life is
also increased as friction in working is reduced and so blade wear reduced.

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Some hints on using hacksaw are given in the following:

While fixing the blade with the frame, ensure that the teeth are facing away from the
handle.
Tighten the blade properly. The job should not be held very high from the vice jaws.
For easy start of cut, make a V-neck with a file edge at the starting point on the job and
start the cut with easy, light and steady forward strokes.
No pressure should be exerted in the back stroke. (v) Use
long strokes, 40 to 50 strokes per minute.
When cut is nearing the end, slow down to avoid hitting your hand when the blade is
through.
A new blade is always thicker than a used one. Try to avoid using a new blade in old
cut.
If the depth of cut is more than the gap between the blade and the frame, change the
position of the blade as shown in Fig. 19.13(c).

Chisels
Chisels of different types [Fig. 19.14(a)] are used for cutting or chipping metals. These are forged
out of good grade tool steel bar stock having octagonal or hexagonal cross-section. The cutting
edge of the chisel is rough formed by forging and later ground to correct angles [Fig. 19.14(b)].
The chisels are employed for cutting metals which may be either cold or hot. A chisel used for
cutting hot metal (as in smithy work) is called hot chisel and the one used for cutting metal in
cold state (as in bench working and fitting) called cold chisel
.

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The cold chisels are made from high carbon steel (carbon 0.9%) and the cutting edge is
hardened and tempered. The head is beveled to avoid its getting flattened like mushroom due to
hammering. A mushroom headed chisel may hurt the hand if the chisel is held during the
chipping or cutting operation. A hot chisel can be made from medium carbon steel as it does not
need much hardening of its cutting edge as it has to cut metal in plastic state. It also does not
require tempering as it would be undone and would be of no use because of cutting a hot metal.
The other major difference between cold and hot chisel is that the cold chisel has larger cutting
o
angle (about 60 ) whereas a hot chisel has smaller cutting angle
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o
(about 30 ). Approximate cutting angles for cold chisels for different metals are given in Fig.
19.14(b). As a general rule, the harder the metal to be cut, larger should be the cutting angle of
the chisel.
Types of chisels according to the shape of their cutting point or cutting edge are shown in
Fig. 19.14(a). The width of the cutting edge denotes the size of a chisel. The following are the
main types.
Flat chisel
Side chisel
Cape or cross-cut chisel
Diamond point chisel
Round nose or grooving chisel
Gouge or cow mouth chisel
Flat chisel is the most widely used general purpose chisel employed for cutting, chipping
flat large surfaces, cutting of rivets or rusted nuts jammed on a bolt, cutting bars, rods, flat and
sheets and many other such similar articles. The cutting edge is slightly ground convex or
rounded off for heavy cutting and to avoid the corners from digging.
Side chisel is ground and beveled on one side only. It is used for cleaning the rough sides of
slots (as made by drilling) where flat chisel cannot approach.
Cape or cross-cut chisel has a narrower cutting point than a flat chisel and is used for
cutting grooves and keyways. When a wide groove is made in a large flat surface, first use cross-
cut chisel to cut two parallel grooves and then use the flat chisel to remove the metal between the
grooves (Fig. 19.2). Note that its cutting edge is slightly broader than the blade to keep the blade
free to move within the cut made during deep cutting into the metal.
Diamond point chisel is made square at the point and then beveled to make a cutting edge.
It is used for cutting V-grooves, squaring up the corners of slots, chipping sharp corners and
cutting cast iron pipes.
Round nose or grooving chisel is used for cutting round or semi-circular oil grooves and
channels in the bearing brasses, bushes and for clearing small round corners.
Gouge or cow mouth chisel is used for cutting curves or curved surfaces, grooves, etc.
Some hints on using a chisel are given in the following.
When holding a job in the vice for chipping put a packing of wooden block under the job
to prevent its slipping.
Always watch the cutting edge of the chisel as the chip being removed determines
whether the chisel should be raised or lowered to increase or decrease the depth of cut.
Never look at the head of the chisel during cutting.
Never grip the chisel too tightly. Select proper shape and size of the chisel.
Never use a mushroom head chisel or a dull (blunt) chisel.
Always chip towards (across) the jaws to avoid loosening of the job within the vice under
the blows of the hammer.
To cut a heavy rivet head cut a slot through the middle of the rivet with a cross-cut chisel
and then remove the rest of the rivet with a flat chisel.

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Files
A file is the oldest cutting tool the development of which dates back to prehistoric times. It is still
the principal hand tool used by the fitters either for cutting small amount of metal from the edge
or sides of the job for trimming it to correct size or to get a required finish and smoothness on the
job surfaces. The files are mostly used in assembling, die making and model work. These are
forged out of high carbon steel or tungsten steel with teeth cut upon its body. Having been
forged, annealed ground (or milled to shape) and teeth formed on the body, the files are
subsequently hardened and tempered. Files cut in the forward stroke only, i.e. while moving
away from the worker.
A file with its various parts is shown in Fig. 19.19. Teeth are cut on the ‗face‘. ‗Tang‘ is the
tapered end of the file which fits into a wooden handle and ‗heel‘ is the section of the file
wherefrom the tang begins. The ‗length‘ of the file is the distance between the ‗tip‘ or ‗point‘
and the heel and does not include the tang.

Fig. 19.15 Parts of a file.

Classification of files: The classification of the file into different varieties is based on its
effective length, (b) geometry of teeth (depth, pitch, etc.) and (c) shape or cross-section of the
file.
The length of files varies between 10 and 45 cm. In common practice, 15, 20, 25 and 30 cm
long files are used. The length of the file is selected according to the need of work, for example,
files 10 cm and 15 cm long are used for fine work, 15 to 25 cm long for medium work and files
above 25 cm length are used for general filing.
Geometry of teeth includes (a) the cut of file or type of teeth and (b) grade of teeth or pitch
(spacing between two teeth).
The cut of a file refers to the character of teeth, for example, single cut, double cut, rasp cut
or curved tooth (Fig. 19.16). Single cut files have teeth cut in parallel rows running across
o
the face and usually inclined at 60 . Single cut files produce smooth surface finish and are
capable of making a keen edge on knives, shears or other cutting implements. ‗Draw filing‘ for
getting very smooth finish is done with single cut files only. Double cut files have two sets of
teeth, over cut and up cut. The ‗over cut‘ is the first of its cuts and is similar to the ‗single cut‘
whereas the other, ‗up cut‘, runs diagonally across the ‗over cut‘. Double cut files are used for
fast metal removal and where rough finish is permissible. Rasp cut files have a series of
individual teeth produced by a sharp, narrow, punch-like cutting chisel during the manufacturing
of these files. Rasp cut files give extremely rough cut and are used on wood, aluminium, lead and
other soft metals for fast removal of material. Curved tooth files are seldom used except for
filing flat surfaces of aluminium and steel sheets.

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Grades of teeth are categorized according to the pitch or tooth spacing. Various grades are (i) rough cut,
(ii) bastard cut, (iii) second cut and (iv) smooth cut. A rough cut file has very coarse spaced teeth, about 8
teeth per centimetre. The coarse cut file, which is of rough cut category, has 10 teeth per centimetre. The
coarser the teeth, the more metal will be removed in each stroke of the file. A bastard cut file has 12 teeth per
centimetre and thus has less coarser teeth than the rough cut file. A second cut file has 16 teeth per centimetre
and is a medium pitch file. It gives better finish than the bastard cut file. A smooth cut file has 20 to 24 teeth
per centimetre and thus has fine pitch teeth giving more smooth finish. Another version of it, the dead smooth
cut file has 40 or more teeth per centimetre and gives exceedingly smooth finish on the job.

The pitch of teeth usually varies as per the length of the file, for example, the smaller the file, the finer the
pitch, and the longer the file, the coarser the pitch. The files with various grades may have either single cut or
double cut teeth.
Cross-section or shape of file is an important consideration in selecting a file for working on jobs having
different shapes like flat, triangular, curved or round. Files are also classified according to their shape such as
flat, hand (safe edge), square, round, triangular or three square, half round and knife edge. Figure 19.17 gives
different shapes and selection of files which are commonly used in practice. There are special purpose files also
such as a needle file used in die sinking work, watch making and other delicate work.

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Use and care of files: The life of a file is shortened by its improper use and inadequate care.
Files should not be thrown in a drawer or tool box and kept mixed with other tools.
These should be arranged or hanged in s o m e suitable stand and kept in a dry place to
avoid rusting of files.
The file should not be used without a handle. A handle on the files should be of right size
with a hole large enough to accommodate the tang. Insert the tang in the

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hole and tap the back end of the handle on the bench or flat surface of a vice (Fig. 19.18)
for fitting the handle on the file.

Fig. 19.18 Fitting the tang of a file in its handle.

Keep the file teeth clean of metal chips that usually get collected between the teeth.
Remember that a file cuts only in its forward stroke and hence all pressure on the file
against the job should be released in back stroke.
Never use a file in a bending mode. The tang is soft and bends easily. The body of the
file is hard and brittle. A light bending will snap the file in two parts.
Do not use a new file on hard metals. First use it on a soft metal and later use it on the
hard metal. Do not use file on oily or greasy surfaces.
Methods of filing: Three main methods of filing are (a) heavy or rough filing, (b) draw filing
and (c) lathe filing.
In heavy or rough filing the workpiece should be held as close to the vice jaws as possible,
i.e. should not project too much out of the top of vice jaws. The method of holding the file is
shown in Fig. 19.19(a), so that the whole weight of upper portion of the body may be thrown on
the workpiece. The right elbow is kept close to the body and the body and the left knee are
moved with the file. The weight of the body is thrown into the forward stroke of the file and
during return stroke, the file is retired of the weight. Maximum metal is removed in cross filing
[Fig. 19.19(b)].

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Fig. 19.19(a) Showing the correct method of holding a file during working.

Fig. 19.19(b) C r o s s filing for higher rates of metal removal.

Draw filing is used to remove rough file marks and to obtain smooth finish. The method of
holding the file is shown in Fig. 19.19(c). A single cut smooth grade file is used. Locate the file
flat on the workpiece as shown and apply moderate pressure even on the back stroke also. Clean
the file with brush frequently to achieve good results. Sometimes scratches occur on the surface
being filed. To avoid this, clean the file first and rub chalk on it. It should then give good finish
avoiding clogging of teeth.

Fig. 19.19(c) Draw filing for fine finishing.

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Although lathe filing as a production technique is not a recommended practice, still it is

sometimes done for giving better finish on special jobs. The lathe is run fast and filing on job is
started gently from the tail stock end to the head stock end. A single cut or long-angle lathe file is
used for filing.

Scrapers
Scraping is the operation of truing flat and curved surfaces with a very sharp tool, a scraper,
having no rake. The scraper is used to remove tool marks from the surfaces machined on shaper,
planer, or milling machine. Besides fine finishing, scraping is also done to obtain an ornamental
effect (frosting) on the surfaces. Scraping is a usual feature of finishing the sliding

surfaces of machine tools to develop shallow depressions (at micro level) as pockets for the
lubricant. Scrapers are made usually from the rejected old files by heating the file and later
bending it to the required shape. It is then ground to have a sharp edge and hardened and
tempered. Depending on the use, shape and size, scrapers may be of various types; more common
types have been mentioned in the following with reference to Fig. 19.20.
Flat scrapers are used for finishing flat surfaces. The cutting edge is very hard and rounded
o
off slightly. It is used at an angle of 30 to the surface being scraped. Hook scrapers are used for
scraping small flat surfaces or other surfaces not easily accessible by other scrapers. Half round
scrapers are used for scraping the bearing halves of babbitt metal or white metal when fitting on
the shaft. Triangular scrapers are used on various curved and bevel surfaces. Two-handled
scrapers are used for scraping bearing boxes and large curved surfaces.

Operation of scraping: As mentioned above, only the high spots on the job surface are removed
by scraping. To mark these high spots on the flat surfaces of the job, a thin coating of red lead
mixed with machine oil is applied on a surface plate. The job is cleaned and laid on the surface
plate and rubbed. The high spots on the job surface will have that mark due to rubbing on the
surface plate and these marks are scraped. Again the same process is

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repeated until all high spots are scraped. Scraping needs great patience because a little hurry may
spoil the surface of the job.

Punch.

A punch is used in bench work for marking out, locating centres, etc in a more
permanent manner. Two types of punches are used:

Prick punch
Centre punch

The Prick punch is a sharply pointed pointed tool. The tapered point of a punch has ana angle
of usually 40‖. It is used to make small punch marks on lay out lines inorder to make them last
longer.

The centre punch looks like a prick punch. It has an angle more obtuse than that of of the
prick punch point, this angle usually being 60‖. The centre punch is used only to make the prick
punch marks larger at the centres of holes that are to be drilled, hence the name centre punch. A
strong blow of the hammer is needed to mark the point.

1.3.4 Drilling and Reaming Tools

The process and methods of drilling holes have already been discussed. The common tool used
for drilling is the twist drill (Fig. 19.21). This tool has progressed through a long history of
development in its geometry.

Fig. 19.21 Parts of a twist drill.

Nomenclature of twist drill parts (Fig. 19.21, Fig. 19.22 and Fig. 19.26)
Body is that part which is fluted and relieved.
Shank is that part which fits into the spindle of drill press.
Point is the entire cone-shaped surface at the cutting end of the drill.

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Cutting edge is that part of the point which is sharp like a knife, and cuts the metal during
drilling. Lips are the main cutting edges of the drill and are formed by the intersection
of the flank and flute surfaces.
Lip clearance angle is the surface of the point that is ground or relieved just back
o
of the cutting edge of the drill. For drilling soft metals, this angle is kept 12 and for
very hard materials, 6 to 9°.
o
(vi) Point angle or included lip angle is usually kept 118 in standard twist drills. Usually very
o
soft metals are drilled with smaller point angle, 90 and harder material with larger point
o
angle, 135 .
Margin or land is the narrow surface along the groove that determines the drill size
and keeps the drill aligned. Land is the part of a cylinder interrupted by the flutes and
diameter of the margin at shank end of the drill is 0.01 to 0.05 mm smaller than the
diameter at point.
Web is the metal column in the drill which separates flutes. The web runs through the
entire length of the drill between the flutes and is the supporting section of the drill. It
gradually increases in thickness towards the shank.
Helix angle determines the rake angle of the cutting edge of the drill. Smaller helix
o o
angles 10 to 13 are used for drilling harder and 35 to 45 for softer materials.
Chisel edge angle is the angle between the chisel edge and the cutting lip. It varies
o
from 130 to 145 , larger values for smaller drills.
The drill point geometry for various materials is given in Fig. 19.22(c). The web, which is
the central section of the drill, does not produce cutting action; rather it gives an extruding action
than the cutting action. Heat is generated and power is wasted. For minimizing this action, either
the web of the drill is thinned by grinding or a lead hole is used. A lead hole is a small diameter
pilot hole which is drilled first before drilling the hole of required size. The web is
accommodated in the lead hole. Modifications have been done in the drill by developing split-
point drill giving secondary cutting edge which eliminates the web effect at the cutting edge.
Figure 19.22(a) shows the action of a conventional twist drill as it breaks through the bottom side
of the workpiece as compared to the radial-lip grind, the latter gives a smooth breakthrough and
burr-free hole [Fig. 19.22(b)] along with increased drill life.

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Types of drills
Drills have great variety and sizes. The most commonly used drill is the twist drill. Some drills
are made from high speed steel or carbon steel while others have inserts of cemented carbides.

Fig. 19.26 More details of the twist drill geometry.

The important types of drills are as follows:

Taper shank drills are general purpose twist drills having a Morse taper on shank. (ii)
Straight shank drills have straight shank of the same diameter as the drill body and
are general purpose drills.
Heavy duty drills are used for drilling tough materials and deep holes and have heavier webs.
Straight fluted drills [Fig. 19.27(a)] are used for drilling soft metals such as brass and copper
because the twist drills tend to dig into these metals.
Flat drills [Fig. 19.27(b)] are also used for drilling soft metals. Flat drills make fine chips
instead of long coils as in case of twist drills. When a twist drill of proper size is not
available, a flat drill (forged from carbon steel) may be prepared and used.

Fig. 19.27 (a) Straight fluted drill and (b) Flut drill.
Three fluted drills work as reamers and are used for enlarging already made holes by
punching or drilling.
Multi-cut drills perform multi functions, for example, drilling, counter boring and
counter sinking.
Core drills are used for enlarging and correcting the location of already drilled holes
because the cutting edge of the core drills does not extend up to the centre of the drill.
Oil-tube drills are used for drilling deep holes. The drill has a central hole through
which cutting fluid is forced to cool the cutting edge of the drill.

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Reamers
The holes made by drilling are not often true to their exact size. Reaming is the operation of
sizing, enlarging and finishing the drilled holes to accurate dimensions with the help of a reamer,
which is a rotary cutting tool of cylindrical shape. A reamer is a precision cutting tool and
removes only very small amount of metal. It has two or more peripheral grooves (or flutes).
Straight flute reamers have flutes parallel to axis. The spiral or fluted reamers have right or left
hand helix and produce better finish in reamed holes due to the smooth shearing action with
spiral cutting edges. Spiral flutes prevent chattering and binding in a hole having a long keyway
or slot. The flutes of the reamer perform two acts, (i) cutting action and (ii) work as grooves for
accommodating the chip removed during reaming (or cutting) the metal.
Reamers are made from high carbon steel, high speed steel or cemented carbide tipped tool
materials. The size of a reamer is measured by the diameter across two margins at the cutting
edge. A reamer has a body, a neck and a shank [Fig. 19.28(a)]. The body has (a) a
o
cutting section (starting taper portion) with a 90 bevel and (b) a sizing section which is
cylindrical and a back-tapered section. The starting taper portion (main cutting section) is much
longer in hand reamers than the machine reamers. The sizing section guides the tool and also
sizes the hole by slight cutting. The back-tapered section reduces friction against the reamed hole
and prevents cutting of over-sized holes. Reamers are either hand type or machine type [Fig.
19.28(a)]. These may have cylindrical or tapered section depending on the hole to be made and
may have 6 to 16 flutes irregularly spaced along periphery to have better quality of reamed hole.

Types of reamers: Reamers can be classified into the following categories.

Hand reamers [Fig. 19.28(a)] are ground straight on the whole length but tapered at the
end to facilitate entry of the reamer into a hole. The shank end is machined square to
receive the wrench with which the reamer is rotated (or operated). During working, the
reamer should be started true and kept straight in the hole. The hand reamers may be
solid type, adjustable type or expandable type (having limited expansion).
o
Machine reamers have a 45 chamfer at the cutting edge [Fig. 19.28(a)] and are
employed on screw cutting machines or turret lathes. Machine reamers are either straight
shank or tapered shank and have narrower lands and backed off (longitudinal relief) in
whole length. Shell reamers, solid type or having inserted carbide blades [Fig. 19.28(c)],
are examples of machine reamers. Different types of machine reamers, also known as
chucking reamers, are shown in Fig. 19.28(b).
Adjustable reamers have separate blades mounted on the grooves in the reamer body
and these can be moved up and down to increase or decrease the effective cutting
diameter of the reamer. These are both hand reamers and machine reamers.
Expansion reamers have their body with a tapered bore and slotted to permit slight
expansion. A taper plug, which runs through the hole, works like an expander.
Shell reamers are used with the machine arbor or a mandrill with driving pins or lugs
for use on the machine. These may be solid shell type or with inserted carbide blades
[Fig. 19.28(c)].
Taper reamers are available both as hand reamers and machine reamers and are used
for tapered holes and production of taper sleeves and sockets. Taper roughing reamer
and taper finishing reamer are shown in Fig. 19.28(d).

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1.3.5 Threading Tools—Taps and Dies

Threads are cut either on machines like lathe or special screw cutting machines or with the use of
hand taps and threading dies. Hand taps are used for cutting internal threads in a drilled hole
whereas external thread on rods or pipes is cut with the help of a die set.

Tap
A tap [Fig. 19.29(a)] is made from tool steels (of which the drills are made) and has a toothed
body with flutes on the surface. Usually four flutes are there on a tap to provide cutting edges and
also for removal of chips. The square end of the shank is for receiving the tap wrench or handle
to rotate the tap.

A set of hand taps have three taps with different starting ends, (i) taper tap, (ii) plug tap and
(iii) bottoming tap [Fig. 19.29(b)]. The taper tap is tapered at its starting end for about 6 threads.
This is done for easy entry of the tap in the hole to be threaded.

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Fig. 19.29 Geometry of a tap is shown at (a) and the three different taps (forming part of
a set of taps) are shown at (b).
As the taper tap advances into the hole, each successive tooth of the tap increases the depth
of threads. The plug tap is also chamfered a little for few threads at its front end. It is used only
after the first tap has been withdrawn out of the partially threaded (not to full depth) hole. The
use of plug tap or second tap further increases the depth of threads to the finished required size.
But if the hole is blind, then a bottoming tap is used (after the second tap) to cut threads right up
to the bottom of the hole.
Types of taps: Taps are of the following types.
Hand tap is the most commonly used tool and has been explained above.
Machine screw taps are the hand taps under 19.5 mm diameter. These are used in the
form of plug tap (or second tap).
Tapered taps have a uniform taper and are used for tapping in a tapered hole. Pipe
tap is an example.
Pulley taps are longer type of hand taps for threading holes for set screws in the
pulley hub or for oil cup, etc.
Machine taps are used on machines for threading components in mass production.
Drill for tapping holes: The size of drill for making holes for tapping should preferably be not
less than the minor diameter of threads to be cut where minor diameter is equal to major diameter
of threads – 2 × depth of threads.

Threading dies
Threading dies are used for cutting external threads on studs, rods and pipes or on other
cylindrical sections. A threading die is essentially a nut with its teeth hardened after the flutes are
cut inside it to give sharp cutting edges. Threads in a die are tapered slightly to help the tool to
take an easy start. The die mounted in a die-holder is called a stock. Figure 19.30 shows two
types of dies. The sectional or split die is the one which is used for common threading operations
on heavy jobs. The two split portions can be set to have different gaps between them by means of
the set screw. The round split or button die is generally used on capstan or turret lathes for
cutting threads. This is also used for hand threading on light jobs.

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Method of using die stock: Given below are the methods of using die stock.
The end of the rod which is to be threaded is chamfered to help the die to start
easily.
Fasten the die in stock with its stamped size on the top side (or facing side) as the
threads on the opposite side are tapered for easy start of the die.
Place the die on the rod. Keep your hand over the die and apply pressure so that it
starts cutting thread when the die handle is rotated. Ensure that die stock is
perpendicular to the job.
Keep the surface of the work well- oiled and turn the stock clockwise and anti-
clockwise after each few turns for easy escape of chips and better finish on the threads.
Check how the threads are coming up. When the required length of the rod is threaded,
withdraw the stock by turning it in reverse direction.
If the threads need more depth, the die may be adjusted accordingly to cut more deep
and the same thread cutting operation is again repeated.

1.4 SCREW THREADS

A screw thread is helical ridge formed on uniform section round the curved surface. The
shape of the normal section of the thread depends upon the shape of the tool which produces its
groove. A screw is a male threaded piece generally cylindrical in form, but sometimes, conical
(or tapered), used in most cases as a temporary fastening ; less frequently used as a means of
trans-mitting motion or power.
The screw threads are applied to many devices for various purposes as follows :
To hold parts together as in the case of fastening.
To transmit power.
To control movement as in micrometer.
To increase the effect of applied effort as in auto-jack.
To convey materials.

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1.4.1. Classification of Threads

The threads may be classified as follows:
According to the surface on which the threads are cut: (i)
External threads.
(ii) Internal threads.
The external threads are cut into the surface of a cylindrical bar.
The internal threads are cut into the surface of the cylindrical hole of a bar or cone.
According to the direction of rotation of the threaded cylinder with respect to
engagement or disengagement with the other part:
(i) Right handed thread.
(ii) Left handed thread.
A right handed thread is one in which the nut must be turned in a right handed direction to
screw it on (Fig. 10.1 (a)). A left handed thread is one in which the nut would be screwed on by
turning it to the left (Fig. 10.1(b)).

According to number of starts:

(i) Single start threads.
(ii) Multi-start threads.
In a piece of work it is possible to have separate and independent threads running along it.
Accordingly, there are single threaded screw and multiple or multi-start threaded screw. The
independent threads are called starts and we may have single start, two start, three start etc. (Fig.
10.2).
A single start threaded screw is one in which there is a movement of one thread for one
complete turn round the screw or bolt. In the multi-start threaded screw there is a movement of
more than one thread. In the case of double start thread, for one complete turn, the thread
advances two times as if it were a single thread.

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Use of multi-start threads. Multi-start threads are used on those cases where rapid
movement or motion is required.
Examples: Fountain-pen cap, screw press, bottles, tooth paste etc.
[Link]. Elements of Screw Threads
To designate different parts of the screw threads the following terms are
commonly employed:
Refer to Fig. 10.3.

Major diameter. It is the largest diameter of a screw thread. It is also termed as outside
or crest diameter.
Minor diameter. It is the smallest diameter of a screw thread. It is also known as root or
core diameter.
Effective or pitch diameter. It is an imaginary diameter in between the major and
minor diameters, and is equal to the major diameter less than an amount equal to the single
depth of a thread.
Axis of screw . It is the longitudinal central line through the screw.
Angle of thread . It is the angle between the two sides of a thread measured in an
axial plane.
Depth of the thread. It is the distance between the crest and the root of a thread
measured normal to axis.
Thickness of the thread. It is the distance between the adjacent sides of the thread
measured along or parallel to the pitch line.
Side. It is the slant surface of the thread which connects the crest with the root.

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Helix angle. It is the angle made by helix of the thread at the pitch or effective
diameter with the plane perpendicular to the axis.
Crest. It is top surface joining the two sides of a thread.
Root. It is the bottom surface joining the two sides of a thread.
Pitch. It is the distance from a point on one thread to the corresponding point on the
next thread measured parallel to the axis of the thread. It is denoted by ‗p‘.
Lead. It is the distance a screw thread advances axially in one turn on a single thread
screw, the lead is equal to pitch and for a double threaded screw, the lead
becomes two times the pitch and so on.
Note: A screw is specified by a nominal diameter, it is the diameter of the cylindrical
piece on which the threads are cut.
[Link]. Specifications of a Screw Thread
To specify a screw thread the following points are given due considerations:
1. Shape or form of thread 2. Pitch
3. Size (diameter) 4. Length
5. Number of starts 6. Material
7. Direction of threads 8. Internal or external threads.
[Link]. Forms of Threads
Many different shapes of threads are employed but they can be satisfactorily grouped into
following three main classes:
V-threads
Square threads
Modification of both.
Comparison of „V‟ and Square threads

[Link]. Particulars V- Square threads

1. Strength More strong Less strong
2. Frictional resistance to More Less
3. Cutting of threads Easy and hence cheaper Difficult and hence costly
4. Suitability Suitable for fastening Suitable for power
The various screw thread forms are discussed in details below:
(i) British standard whitworth (B.S.W.) thread. Refer to Fig. 10.4. It is most widely
used thread section in the V-thread class in British practice.
Proportions : H = 0.9605 H = Theoretical depth
h = 0.6403 h = Actual depth
Thread angle = 55°
r = 0.1373 p r = Radius (at the root or crest)

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The angle measured in an axial plane is 55°. One sixth of height of the fundamental
triangle is truncated at top and bottom ; crests and roots are round, yielding thread depth of 0.64
pitch. The thread (B.S.W.) is employed in general machine construction, where conditions
favour the use of bolts, screws and other threaded pieces where quick and easy assembly of parts
is required. The pitches are relatively coarse.
(ii) British standard fine (B.S.F.) thread. This thread is the same as the Whitworth
standard thread, but the pitch for any given nominal diameter is smaller than for corresponding
size of Whitworth standard thread. Hence for a having nominal size, a bolt having a fine thread is
stronger than one having a Whitworth standard thread. In the design consideration where weight
is an important factor, such as design of aircraft and automobile work, fine threads are most
essential. Thus these types of threads are largely used in automobiles, and plant machine tool
works etc.
(iii) British standard pipe thread. These threads are of Whitworth form and have fine
pitches. The nominal diameter is equal to the diameter of the bore of the pipe for which thread is
intended.
Proportions: H = 0.9602 p, h = 0.64 p, Thread angle = 55° radius (at the root or crest), r =
0.1372 p.
The thread is mainly used for gas, water and steam work.
(iv) British association (B.A.) thread. Refer to Fig. 10.5. The thread has rounded V-form.
These threads are exclusively used for small screws used in optical instruments, clocks etc.
Proportions: H = 1.136 p, h = 0.6 p, r = 2/11 p
Thread angle = 47½°.

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(v) Metric thread (M). Refer to Fig. 10.6. These threads are in metric units. They employ
60° angle. The diameter of the threads varies from 6 to 80 mm. They are used in motor car
practice.

(vi) Sellers thread. Refer to Fig. 10.7. These are known as United States standard threads.
These threads were introduced by Mr. Sellers.

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They are employed for general use in engineering work such as for bolts, screws etc.
Proportions. H = 0.866 p
h = 0.6495 p
f = 0.1252 p
Thread angle = 60°
(vii) Square threads. Refer to Fig. 10.8. This thread has its faces normal to the axis of the
screw. There is less friction and less wear and most commonly used for transmission of power as
in vices, clamps etc. They are also used for converting a rapid rotary motion into a slow linear
motion viz., screw presses, lead screw of lathe, jacks etc. They are less stronger than V-threads
and are more expensive to cut on a lathe.

(viii) Acme thread. Refer to Fig. 10.9. It is modification of a square thread having a profile
of 29°. It is stronger than the square thread and is more easily cut, milled or ground, on accounts
of its sloping flanks. An inherent advantage is that, if the tapered sides of the screw wear, the
mating nut automatically comes into closer engagement, instead of allowing backlash to develop.
Another point in its favour is that its shape permits the use of a disengaging or split nut. Thus
acme-threaded lead screws are very commonly used on lathes, for it is essential to be able to
engage or disengage the split nut quickly during screw cutting operation.

0.3707p p

29°

Fig. 10.9. Acme thread.

(ix) Knuckle thread. This thread is usually considered as a modification of a square thread.
The cross-section of the thread is a semi-circle. The radius is one quarter of pitch, and the depth
is therefore, half the pitch. In rough service the sharp outside corners of a square thread would
soon be damaged, hence rounding above and below the pitch line as shown in Fig. 10.10.

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Uganda Technical College-Kyema-NDME1 & NDEE1

This rounding yields a strong thread but increases the friction, hence liberal clearance must be
left between the screw and the nut. A typical application is in railway carriage couplers.
p

Fig. 10.10. Knuckle thread.

(x) Buttress thread. This thread resists heavy axial loads. i.e., loads acting in the
direction of the axis. In section this thread has various forms. Thus in common design the
thread angle is 45°, the load-resisting face being normal to the axis. This is shown in Fig. 10.11.
How- ever, some buttress threads have their load resisting faces inclined, a design which
facilitates thread milling and thread grinding.

f
p/8

H
45°

p/8
Fig. 10.11. Buttress thread.
Examples of uses of buttress thread occur in quick-acting vices and in breech mechanism
of guns, for which reason the name breech lock thread is sometimes used. For power
transmission the buttress thread combines some of the easy-working advantages of the square
thread with the strength of Vee thread. The approximately triangular section gives a shearing
strength twice that of a square thread for a given length of nut. While buttress threads are often
used for transmitting motion, in some cases they are used in the reverse way, in order to prevent
motion by the friction which arises on account of the sloping side of the thread. All Vee-shaped
threads absorb a large amount of power.
Selection of a thread form. Many factors enter into selection of a thread form. Among
them are
Easy production of the form implying a capacity to make the tools without undue
trouble and expense.
The measurement of the thread should be straightforward.
The form selected should enable a good bearing between the bolt and its nut, without
unduly expensive precision cutting and gauging.
The thread angle should be as sharp as is consistent with the required strength.
Large thread angles cause large bursting forces on the nut. Again friction increases as
thread angle increases. There is relatively little friction with square threads, hence their general
use for transmitting motion and power.

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