Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
Aerodynamic forces arise from airflow-
body interactions
Aerodynamics 2 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
Lift and drag represent the
integrated effect of a
continuous distribution of
pressure and viscous
forces acting on all
exposed surfaces
Lift and drag are always
defined wrt the velocity of
the vehicle
Aerodynamics 3 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
Focus on
How are these forces
generated?
Where are they applied?
What is and where is the
center of pressure?
The system of forces is independent of the
choice of coordinate frame: we often apply a
Galilean transformation in steady flight
Aerodynamics 4 Chapter 1: Generalities
Wings and airfoils
Aerodynamics 5 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
Aerodynamics 6 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
Aerodynamics 7 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
Aerodynamics 8 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
z
Convention: q is positive when measured clockwise
from the vertical line to the direction of p
Aerodynamics 9 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
zz
Aerodynamics 10 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
Note: when “primes” are used we mean “per unit span”
Aerodynamics 11 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
The moment (taken about the LE)
is positive when a tends to increase
(pitch up), negative otherwise.
z
Lifting airfoils have typically negative M’
Aerodynamics 12 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
The moment (taken about the LE)
is positive when a tends to increase
(pitch up), negative otherwise.
z
Aerodynamics 13 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
Goal of aerodynamics: calculate p(s) and
t(s) for a given body shape and free-stream
conditions
Aerodynamics 14 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
Where are the resultant forces N’ and A’ (or L’
and D’) positioned on the airfoil? They must be
placed at a point where the distributed load
produces the same moment as the resultant
force. If A’ is on chord line:
Aerodynamics 15 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
When the angle of attack a is small:
and as the forces N’ (and L’) decrease the
CP moves to infinity CP is not
necessarily a convenient point where to
place aerodynamic forces, it moves with a ...
Aerodynamics 16 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
Equivalent points of view for aerodynamic
forces and pitching moment:
Aerodynamic moment is zero (by definition) when
measured about CP
Aerodynamics 17 Chapter 1: Generalities
The AC
The aerodynamic center (AC) is that point
wrt which the pitching moment becomes
independent of aerodynamic forces, i.e. of
the angle of attack.
For thin airfoils the aerodynamic center (AC)
is at quarter chord from LE.
Aerodynamics 18 Chapter 1: Generalities
The AC
L’’
CP L’’
CP CP
L’’
L’’
AC AC AC
Aerodynamics 19 Chapter 1: Generalities
The system of aerodynamic forces
Aerodynamics 20 Chapter 1: Generalities
The aerodynamic coefficients
Dimensional analysis easily yields
for a given body shape. The coefficients for
a wing are:
Aerodynamics 21 Chapter 1: Generalities
The aerodynamic coefficients
Aerodynamics 22 Chapter 1: Generalities
The aerodynamic coefficients
For an airfoil:
with reference area .
Furthermore:
Aerodynamics 23 Chapter 1: Generalities
Final considerations on the coefficients
Level flight at constant speed
L=W and T=D
Typically, for conventional cruising flights, the
aerodynamic efficiency is
Aerodynamics 24 Chapter 1: Generalities
Final considerations on the coefficients
Given aircraft shape,
Mach and Reynolds
numbers:
Aerodynamics 25 Chapter 1: Generalities
Final considerations on the coefficients
Level flight
: wing loading
Aerodynamics 26 Chapter 1: Generalities
Final considerations on the coefficients
The minimum speed at which the aircraft
can maintain level flight is the stall speed
High lift devices (flaps, slats, slots …) on
the wings are used by the pilot to increase
CL, max and decrease the stall speed (they
are usually deployed for take-off or landing)
Aerodynamics 27 Chapter 1: Generalities
Final considerations on the coefficients
The maximum speed of the aircraft, for
given maximum thrust, Tmax, corresponds to
flight at CD, min .
Thus, aerodynamic coefficients CL, max and
CD, min dictate the performance and design
of airplanes.
Aerodynamics 28 Chapter 1: Generalities
Lift coefficient
Sketch of CL needed to
maintain level flight over
a range of velocities.
The aircraft designer
must design the airplane
to achieve these values
for an airplane of given
weight and wing area.
Aerodynamics 29 Chapter 1: Generalities
Drag coefficient
Sketch of CD versus flight
velocity. Comparison
between high and low
drag aerodynamic bodies,
with the consequent effect
on maximum velocity.
Aerodynamics 30 Chapter 1: Generalities
The aerodynamic efficiency
Lift-to-drag ratio:
Aerodynamics 31 Chapter 1: Generalities
The aerodynamic efficiency
Lift-to-drag ratio:
Aerodynamics 32 Chapter 1: Generalities
Exercise 1
A Cessna 560 in level flight at 10 000 m altitude (r = 0.4135 kg/m3)
is travelling at a cruise speed of 200 m/s. The planform area of the
wing is S = 31.8 m2 and the mass of the aircraft is 6800 kg.
1. How much is the wing loading? W/S = 2098 N/m2
2. What is the value of CL? CL = 0.253
3. If CD in cruise flight is 0.015, how much is the aerodynamic
efficiency? L/D = 16.9
4. Let us now consider the same plane at take off at sea level
(r = 1.225 kg/m3). What is the value of CL, max if the stall velocity
is Vstall = 44.7 m/s (considering a fully loaded aircraft of mass
equal to 7212 kg). CL, max = 1.82
Aerodynamics 33 Chapter 1: Generalities
Exercise 2
Consider a Boeing 747 in level flight at V = 885 km/h at an
altitude of 11 500 m (where T = 220 K and p = 0.2 atm). We wish
to design a 1:50 scale model airplane in complete dynamic
similarity and test it in a wind tunnel where temperature is
maintained at 288 K. Evaluate the model’s velocity and the air
pressure in the wind tunnel assuming that both the dynamic
viscosity m and the speed of sound vary as T 1/2.
Note: assume that air is an ideal gas.
Vmodel = 1113 km/h
pmodel = 13 atm (a pressurized wind tunnel is needed to
simulate the proper free-flight Reynolds
number!)
Aerodynamics 34 Chapter 1: Generalities
Exercise 3
A airfoil shaped as a flat plate of unit chord is invested by a
uniform flow with an angle of attack a = 12o. It is found that
A’ = 0.03 N, N’ = 1.2 N and M’LE = - 0.14 N m. Compute the
aerodynamic efficiency of the flat plate and the coordinate of
the center of pressure.
L’/ D’ = 4.18
xcp = 0.117 m
Aerodynamics 35 Chapter 1: Generalities
Exercise 4
suction side
pressure side
Assuming that the angle of attack is very small and neglecting
friction, compute cl, cm LE and the position of the center of pressure.
cl = 1.398, cm LE = -0.5301, xCP/c = 0.379
Aerodynamics 36 Chapter 1: Generalities