Changing Culture and

Human Values UNIT 2 VALUES ENSHRINED IN INDIAN

PHILOSOPHY
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Philosophy
2.4 Indian Philosophy
2.4.1 Important Concepts of Indian Philosophy
2.4.2 The Aim of Indian Philosophy
2.5 History of Indian Philosophy
2.6 Different Schools of Indian Philosophy
2.6.1 Nyaya and Vaisesika - philosophy and values
2.6.2 Samkhya and Yoga - philosophy and values
2.6.3 Mimamsa and Vedanta- philosophy and values
2.6.4 Visistadvaita and the Upanishads- their philosophy and values
2.6.5 The Heterodox schools: philosophy and values
2.7 Bhakti, Sikhism, Islam and Sufism and Christianity
2.8 Modern Indian philosophy
2.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.11 References

2.1 INTRODUCTION
We often search for answers to open-ended questions such as does God exist?
Why do human beings suffer pain? Why is there so much sickness and disease?
What is knowledge? What is a value? Are values eternal? And so on. These questions
that seek truth are philosophical questions. Philosophy is needed for properly
understanding one’s relationship with the external world; to free one from fear and
from the primitive instinct of self-preservation; as well as to explore and develop
one’s innate potential and live in peace and happiness. Great spiritual leaders of
the world have tried to give us answers to these questions. In this unit, we will try
to introduce you to Indian philosophy: its aims and key concepts. Then, with the
help of some examples, we will try to identify some of the values that are enshrined
in Indian philosophy.

2.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you are expected to:
 define the term philosophy ;
 identify the philosophy of your life;
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  define Indian philosophy; Values Enshrined in
Indian Philosophy
 identify and relate to the key concepts of Indian philosophy;
 identify the aims of Indian philosophy;
 organize and analyze the main concepts of different schools of Indian
philosophy and the underlying values;
 extrapolate values from the major Indian philosophical texts and encourage
students to identify, explore, discuss ideas/views through debates, panel
discussions, and apply the values of Indian philosophy in day to day life

2.3 PHILOSOPHY
The word Philosophy can be traced to the ancient Greek word “philosophia”
which means “love of wisdom.” Philosophy is the systematic study of basic ideas
such as truth, existence, reality, freedom, thought and action, the universe and the
role of the individual, the fundamental reason or cause of everything, and the meaning
of life. Philosophers search for answers to these fundamental questions while adopting
a rational and systematic approach. Philosophy is constituted by studies in many
areas like –Metaphysics: pertaining to the nature of reality, existence, universe, etc.
Epistemology: involving the study of nature of knowledge, truth and the like. Ethics,
i.e. moral philosophy, is concerned with morality and values and is of immediate
concern to us for this unit. There are also other branches of philosophy such as aesthetics,
logic and so on. In this unit we shall discuss philosophy only in the context of values.
In a layman’s language, philosophy could be interpreted as the outlook towards
life and its complexities. It may be that you believe in honesty, hard work, not hurting
others, being kind to all, having respect for elders, in putting up a fight against social
injustice. These values and beliefs form the philosophy of your life. Your philosophy
of life is therefore closely related to your values, the traditions that you follow and
are related to your religious beliefs. However, in a secular country like India it is
preferable to draw values from secular sources and those that are universally accepted
rather than any one particular [Link] philosophy has many schools of thought
which have evolved over period of time and so has the Indian philosophy. In this
unit we shall restrict our discussion to Indian philosophy.

2.4 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Indian philosophy refers to different philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent
from about B.C.1500 and continuing into the 20th century by individuals like Sri.
Aurobindo, Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi, [Link], Sri
Ramakrishna Paramahansa, Swami Vivekananda, Mother Teresa, J. Krishnamurti
among others. These include Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, and Jain
philosophy. At a broader level, it also includes Bhakti tradition, Sikhism, Sufism
and reactions to the influence of Islam, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism.

2.4.1 Important Concepts of Indian Philosophy

Dharma, moksha, karma, and atman are important concepts of Indian philosophy.
Dharma refers to the cosmic order as a whole, for which individuals have to perform
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Changing Culture and their Karma i.e. action/duties correctly. Otherwise there is a breakdown of dharma
Human Values
or adharma. (In Buddhism, Dharma refers to the teachings of Buddha). Atman
refers to soul or self.
Karma refers to action or [Link] is salvation. These concepts are to be analyzed
scientifically, rationally and not accepted blindly. All these four concepts are interrelated.
e.g. the indiscriminate destruction of nature by man has led to an imbalance in nature
which has created problems of global warming and unusual natural disasters. Since
man has not performed his/her duties (karma) in preserving nature, there is imbalance
of nature and the cosmic whole (dharma) is affected. A person is reborn to make
amends for the wrong done in the earlier life. This brings us to the idea of sustainable
development which also takes on a spiritual dimension.
The performance of duties correctly is an important value that is integral to the
Indian philosophy. How can you perform your duties correctly? The Bhagavad-
Gita suggests that one should do the task, however small it is, with concentration,
determination, fairness, honesty, with respect for each other and always conscious
of the reason for doing something in a particular way. It is believed that each action
has a positive or negative aspect and the correctness or lack of correctness of the
action would influence the future lives one is born into. Therefore “as you sow, so
you reap”. The Gita also advises detachment from the results of the action taken
and thus advises carrying out duties without worrying about the results.
Teachers can encourage students to apply this value of detachment in their lives.
Students can be asked to identify their most important duty to themselves, their
family, their teacher, school, friend, country. As students their primary duty is to
study and perform well. If they concentrate in class, do their work regularly and
learn, then automatically good results will follow. There is a greater need to reflect
on their effort, concentration, and performance and compete with themselves and
not with others. (Cyril, 2005)

2.4.2 The Aim of Indian Philosophy

Indian philosophy is often referred to as a ‘darshana’ which comes from the word
‘drish’or ‘to see’ (Radhakrishnan, 2009). It is assumed that one, who follows it,
should be able to “see” the truth. (Hamilton 2001) and lead life in accordance with
the truth perceived. Some of the Indian Philosophical schools (Astik) believe in
God while the Nastik schools of thought do not. Some schools of Indian philosophy
are pro-Vedic like Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vaishesika, etc. The anti-Vedic
schools of thought include Charvaka, Buddha and Jain philosophies. However, Indian
philosophy has certain common features. For instance, its quest for spiritual progress
is a predominant characteristic. Thus many Indian Philosophical schools believe in
soul and the need for its enlightenment. It transcends thoughts, based on religion
and those upholding merely ethics. Apart from seeking higher attainments like ‘moksha’,
i.e. spiritual progress, Indian philosophy also seeks truth and knowledge, explains
and upholds ethics. Thereby it is a source of morals and values to guide human
life. Happiness is a key value and Indian philosophy offers strategies to ensure
happiness.
Buddha suggested the eight fold path (Astanga Marga) as solution for all worldly
troubles, pains and sorrows. It thus seeks liberation from vices, ignorance and worldly
miseries. Though Indian philosophy emphasizes the need for individual (meditation)
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Sadhana for liberating the mind, at the same time it seeks universal wellbeing. Values Enshrined in
Indian Philosophy
Philosophers like Shankara, Mahavira and Buddha, Gandhi, Tagore, Sri Aurobindo,
and many others were essentially social reformers.
Most of the Indian philosophies believe in the theory of karma. According to this
theory, the results of actions (Karma) of this life and the past life direct the course
of our life. Liberation is emancipation from the bondage of Karma. However, there
are exceptions. The Charvaka School does not believe in karma and rebirth. Hence,
the word ‘Dharma’ in India has a wide connotation. Emancipation from miseries
and ignorance is the common pursuit of both Darshan and Dharma. There is synergy
between philosophy and religion.

2.5 HISTORY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

3300 years of Indian Philosophy: B.C. 1500 – 1800 A.D.

a) B.C.1500-B.C.500- the Vedas and Upanishads- Vedic period

b) B.C.600-200A.D.- the Jaina, the Buddha, the Bhagavad Gita, the Manu
Smriti, the rise of the orthodox Darshanas- Epic period.
c) 200 A.D. - Nagarjuna and the rise of Mahayana Buddhism -Sutra period.
d) 600 A.D. - Shankaracharya Scholastic period and the rise of Vedanta.
e) post-900 A.D. - rise of other Vedantic schools: Visishtadvaita, Dvaita, etc.

2.5.1 The Vedic Period

The Vedic literature B.C.1500 – B.C.500 consists of (i) the Samhitas (ii) the
Brahmanas and (iii) the Aryanakas and Upanishads (Mazumdar, 1994). There are
four main Samhitas or collection of hymns in praise of God–Rig Veda Samhitas,
Atharva Veda Samhita, Sama Veda Samhita and Yajur Veda Samhita. The Rig
Veda is a collection of 1028 hymns; the Atharva Veda is a collection of spells and
charms; the Sama Veda is a collection of songs mostly from the Rig Veda and the
Yajur Veda consisting of many sacrificial formulas, rituals. The word Veda means
“knowledge”. The Vedas developed over many centuries and was orally passed
from generation to generation. Therefore the Vedas are also known as “Sruti” or
‘that which is heard’. (Mazumdar, 1994)
The Vedas are a rich source of values for all and especially for the teaching community.
‘Om. May [He] protect us both. May [Brahman] bestow upon us both the
fruit of knowledge. May we both obtain energy to acquire knowledge? May
what we both study reveal the truth. May we cherish no evil feeling towards
each other? Om Peace! Peace! Peace!’4. Taittriya Aranyaka, 8.1.1.
This special prayer recognizes the special bond shared by teachers and students
and the values of knowledge, truth, peace and harmony. While the Vedas encourage
you to respect elders, it also encourages critical thinking and analysis. Honesty is
immensely valued. ‘Tread on the path of truth.’ (11. Yajur Veda, 7.45). Students
are to be consistently made aware of the need for the protection and
preservation of nature.’ Earth is my mother; I am a son of the soil.’ (21. Atharva
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Changing Culture and Veda, 12.1.12) Citizenship and patriotism are key values which teachers can
Human Values
encourage in the students. ‘Serve thy motherland.’ (22. Rig Veda, 10.18.10)

2.6 DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF INDIAN

PHILOSOPHY
Classical Indian philosophy can be divided into “orthodox” or astika and “heterodox”
or nastika schools.
A) Orthodox Schools
There are six Orthodox schools of philosophy
i) Nyaya, the school of logic started by Aksapada Gautama in the Nyaya Sutra
in B.C. 2ndcentury.
ii) Vaisesika, the atomist school started in the B.C. 2nd - 4th century by Uluka
Kanada in the Vaisesika Sutra.
iii) Samkhya, the enumeration school founded by Kapila before B.C. 2nd century.
iv) Yoga, the school of Patanjali in theYoga Sutra of the 2nd century B.C.
v) Purva Mimamsa , the interpretation of the Vedic text with emphasis on Vedic
ritual. This began with the Sutras of Jaimini in B.C.2nd century.
vi) Vedanta, based on the Upanishads with emphasis on Vedic philosophy. The
Vedantas form the end of the Vedas. The basic Vedanta text is Badarayana’s
Brahma Sutras or Vedanta Sutra written in the beginning of the Christian era.
B) Heterodox schools
These do not accept the authority of the Vedas and are therefore described as
Nastikas. These are Buddhism, Jainism and Carvakas.

2.6.1 Nyaya and Vaisesika: Philosophy and Values

a) The Nyaya school of Logic introduced a method based on scientific rules of
reasoning, by which certain knowledge could be arrived at regarding the object of
enquiry. Therefore the skill of logic and reasoning is developed and the values of
verification, fairness, caution are encouraged.
There are 5 steps of Inference by which we can arrive at this knowledge. (a)
Proposition of a Statement that has to be proved (b) Reason (c) Example (d)
Application (e) Conclusion.
The following example will help you understand this better. (a) Proposition: - There
is a fire on the mountain. (b) Reason:-Because there is smoke above it. (c) Example:-
Where there is smoke, there is fire as in the kitchen. (d)Application: - This is the
case with the mountain. (e) Conclusion:-There is a fire on it. More importantly,
this enquiry could only be made under certain conditions (a) An enquiry was to be
undertaken only when a doubt existed, (b) there was the possibility of a certain
outcome, (c) there was a proper purpose for the enquiry and (d) it must contribute
to the highest good.
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When there is a conflict we can use these parameters to deal with it. We can use Values Enshrined in
Indian Philosophy
the five steps of inference to prove a statement, both in academics and in practical
life. This also shows the values of organization, purpose and clarification. Teachers
are to encourage students to think critically, be non-judgemental and develop a
scientific temper through different methods e.g. project work, debates, brainstorming
activities.
b) Vaisesika School of individual characteristics deals with physics and the basic
idea that nature is atomic. Nature is made up of atoms which are separate from
the soul. Therefore there is “dualism” or the existence of two separate parts- matter
and soul. Substances and qualities co-exist. For instance a rose cannot exist without
the quality of color; therefore ‘a red rose”. Vaisesika gives us a six-fold view of
perception. (i) substance–e.g. Jumbo, the dog (ii) quality–color, shape (iii) action–
barking (iv) part of a larger family: dogs (v) uniqueness–maybe it has a white patch
in the centre of its forehead (vi) unification or synthesis of all these 5 features leads
to recognizing Jumbo the dog. This is especially useful in the teaching of science,
mathematics, geography. Values of uniqueness and individualism are recognized and
a strong sense of identity develops. Through both synthesis and analysis we can
understand both ourselves and the world around us.

2.6.2 Samkhya and Yoga - Philosophy and Values

a) Samkhya
The Samkhya school of Enumeration of Kapila is one of the oldest of the six darshanas
and the first rational system in the world. The Samkhya Karika begins by stating,
“it is because of the anguish of suffering that the desire arises to know how to
overcome it”. To overcome suffering, a special kind of knowledge is required which
helps us to discriminate. Through analysis and discernment one overcomes suffering.
Values of learning and discernment are stressed. There are 25 basic tattvas or
principles of the universe and it describes the methods by which we can know
and analyze these principles and their nature. Samkhya philosophy claims that the
effect lies in the cause, e.g. drop a glass and it breaks into pieces. If you had not
dropped it, then the glass would not have broken. From this example, it can be
inferred that an individual has to take responsibility for his/her own action. The
teacher has to nurture the best potential of the student. This can be achieved if
the teacher uses different learning strategies to develop the multiple intelligences
of the child.
According to Samkhya philosophy, our perception is limited to our five senses and
learning has to take place experientially using these five senses. Learning should
be open-ended, experiential, based on reason. Accordingly, teachers should
incorporate hands-on learning, projects, debates, discussion, drama, exhibitions
as much as possible.
In a world of change, happiness is the result of a temporary relation to certain
things which produces a favorable condition in our mind at that point of time. Once,
we accept that absolute happiness is not possible; we can discipline ourselves to
have fewer expectations and consequently be less disappointed. According to
Samkhya philosophy, only a healthy and focused individual can attain salvation.
Therefore science, arts and yoga are integral to the curriculum.
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Changing Culture and b) Yoga
Human Values
The word “yoga” comes from the Sanskrit word “yuj” or ‘to yoke’ or ‘to attach
yourself to the task at hand with great discipline’ (Hamilton, 2001); unite the mind
and body; individual and God. The school of Yoga lays more stress on spiritual
discipline or application. We are led astray by our senses; yoga helps us to attain
control, calm and gain inner perception. The aim of yoga is to control the activities
of the mind “citta-vritti-nirodha”’.(Yoga Sutra 1.1-2) The training of the yogi
was divided into 8 stages in the Raja Yoga which included self-control, observance,
posture, pranayama or control of breath, restraint of the mind by concentration on
a single object, meditation and deep meditation. Yoga is a life-long discipline and
the earlier the child is introduced to it, all the better. Yoga increases self-discipline,
self-control, concentration, reduces stress and enables one to control emotions.

Check Your Progress 1

(i) What are the different schools of Indian Philosophy?
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
(ii) Describe in brief the aims of Indian Philosophy?
....................................................................................................
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2.6.3 Mimamsa and Vedanta: Philosophy and Values

a) Mimamsa
By the 8th century A.D., the Mimamsa School had merged with the Vedanta.
Mimamsa philosophy (darshana) was different from all the other schools for it was
a school of enquiry and not a school of salvation. Its original purpose was to explain
the Vedas.
b) The Vedantas
The Vedantas form the end of the Vedas and are the most important of the six
darshanas. Many features of modern Hinduism and philosophy are taken from the
Vedantas and its sub-schools. In the 8th century A.D, Sankara’s commentaries on
Badarayana’s Brahma Sutras introduced the concept of ‘Advaita’ non-duality or
monism (i.e. allowing no second).There is only one being and that is Brahman, who
is the essence of one Universe. Everything is Brahman and therefore one’s self or
atman is also Brahman, “atman is Brahman”. There are two kinds of truths-conventional
and absolute. At the everyday level of truth, the world was created by Brahman
and gradually evolved. But at the highest level, truth was that, the world including
the gods was unreal; an illusion, the only reality was Brahman. Ankara gives a
simple example to explain this. A traveler saw a coiled rope, and thought it was a
snake. The false snake seemed real to him and had a real effect on him. He probably
began to sweat, his throat became dry, and his heart beat faster. He was frightened
and only when he actually touched the rope, that his false idea was removed and
78 he stopped being fearful. Therefore our ignorance causes the false idea. It is only
when our ignorance is removed, that we realize the absolute truth. This desire for Values Enshrined in
Indian Philosophy
knowledge, the need to ask questions, seek answers is to be inculcated in the students
by appropriate tools of pedagogy. Students are to be motivated to read and develop
a love for books, fiction and non-fiction; analyze the information, do research in
their lesson planning. Teachers are to schedule debates, discussions, critical questions,
interactive sessions; enabling the students to arrive at their own conclusions and
make informed decisions. In this way many prejudices and superstitions can be
removed and the students will emerge as more responsible citizens.

2.6.4 Visistadvaita and the Upanishads

a) Visistadvaita
In the Pancaratra system, the soul is one with God but also exists separately. This
was further developed by Ramanuja, in the 11th – 12th century A.D. He developed
the concept of bhakti yoga, through intense devotion, the devotee realizes that he
is a part of God and surrenders himself or herself completely to God. The soul is
one with God but separate as well. Therefore his system is known as the
“Visistadvaita”system or “qualified monism”. The relationship is between the Brahman,
the God and the individual devotee. Just as a rose cannot exist without color so
Brahman cannot exist without the ‘selves’ or the devotee who is His creation. Through
the practice of Yoga – Karmayoga (yoga of work), Jnanyoga (yoga of knowledge)
and Bhaktiyoga (yoga of devotion) a person can attain salvation. Vedanta is still
a “living school”. Among its many followers are Sri Aurobindo, SwamiVivekananda,
and [Link]. In 1893, Vivekananda introduced the concept of Advaita
Vedanta as Hinduism to the West, at the World Council of Religions in Chicago.
(Hamilton 2001) and in setting up the Ramakrishna Mission.
b) The Upanishads
The Upanishads are believed to have been revealed by the Gods. Upanishad is a
Sanskrit word derived from ‘Upa’ which means ‘near’, ‘ni’ meaning ‘down’, and
‘sad’ meaning ‘to sit’. One “sits down near” a spiritual teacher or ‘guru’ as in the
‘Guru-shishya tradition’. Students are to become familiar with the concept of a
loving and a forgiving God. Students can be encouraged to relate to God in their
own ways; maybe as a friend whom they can talk to daily and share their joys
and sorrows.
Teachers may plan activities which instill all the four values while teaching. Visits
to or exhibitions on historical places of worship can be organized. Students can
initiate and become involved in small service activities [Link] a mela for 30
poor children of the locality.

2.6.5 The Heterodox Schools : Philosophy and Values

These schools do not accept the authority of the Vedas and God and are therefore
described as Nastikas. These are Buddhism, Jainism and Carvakas. Buddhism and
Jainism challenged the predominance of the Brahmins in Indian society; economics
and politics. These were two of the many protest movements of B.C. 6th century.
a) Buddhism
Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha
Gautama, later known as the Buddha. Buddhism is a religion that stresses on religious 79
Changing Culture and tolerance. In Buddhist philosophy, the three features of the universe are known
Human Values
as ‘the three marks of existence’. Yet, there is no immortal soul (dhammapada
277-9)
b) Jainism
Jainism is one of the world‘s oldest religions. The 24th Tirthankara, Mahavira in
B.C. 550 in Bihar in northern India, was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha.
The Jain philosophy is based on the idea that one has to conquer the negative aspects
of human nature in order to realize the truth. The interaction between Jiva (living)
and the Ajiva (non-living such as chair, tables) is responsible for the evolution of
the universe. When the soul is stripped of all its Ajiva bondage, it becomes pure
and attains liberation (Mukti). Jainism stresses on self-discipline, self-control; positive
thinking in its disciples. It values non-violence and gives dignity and respect even
to non-living objects.

2.7 BHAKTI, SIKHISM, ISLAM AND SUFISM,

CHRISTIANITY AND MODERN PHILOSOPHY
a) Bhakti
The Bhakti movement in India, from 7th -13th century A.D, gave more importance
to devotion and practice of values than rituals. It is very important to realize that
devotion to one God did not mean that you could not worship another. In this way
it encouraged tolerance and love for all religions. Famous Bhakti saints are
Shankaracharya, Ramanuja, Ramananda, Kabir, Srichaitanya, and Mirabai. The
bhakti movement focused on the values of love, devotion and tolerance.
b) Sikhism
Sikhism was started by Guru Nanak. It was based on bhakti and rejected the
supremacy of the Brahmins. Guru Nanak’s teaching is practiced in three ways:
Chanting (Naam Japna) the Holy Name and thus remembering God at all times,
ceaseless devotion to God,: Earning (Kirat Karo) or making a living honestly without
exploitation or fraud and Sharing with others (Vand Chakko), helping those in need.
Nanak believed in the oneness of God, the Muslim God, Allah and the Hindu God.
c) Islam
When Islam was introduced in India by the Muslims in the 8th century A.D. both
Hinduism and Islam had co-existed for centuries. The Mughal Emperor Akbar’s
‘Din-i-Ilahi’ was an attempt to form a new religious policy taking the best practices
of all religions. In Islam from the 8th -12th centuries A.D., two main philosophical
thoughts were (a) Kalam, which dealt with Islamic theological questions, and (b)
Falsafa, that was influenced by the Greek philosophy of Aristotle and Plato. In
Islam washing oneself before prayers, regularity of prayers, fasting in the month of
Ramzan and zakat or an obligatory payment for charitable purposes are very
important. Therefore the values of cleanliness, fasting and charity are highlighted.
d) Sufism
The highest example of Islamic philosophy is Sufism. Sufism developed in India
in the 13th – 15th centuries A.D. It is the mystical aspect of Islam and was influenced
80
by the Greek philosophy of Aristotle and Plato. Sufis believed that all religions are Values Enshrined in
Indian Philosophy
‘the manifestation of the desire to know the truth’. In Sufism, devotees seek divine
love and knowledge through the direct personal experience of God with the help
of a Pir or guru. It says that through self-control and loving devotion to God it is
possible to unite with God. Some famous Sufi saints are Nizamuddin Auliya, Nasiruddin
Chirag, and Khwaja Moinuddin Chisthi.
e) Christianity
Christianity in India is believed to have started as early as 52 A.D. In Christian
philosophy God is the beginning and the end. There is nothing greater than God.
Christians believe in the idea of the Holy Trinity of the Father, the Son and the
Holy Spirit. While God has given human beings the gifts of intelligence and free
will, man is living in a state of wrong doing from which s/he has to be saved or
redeemed. This salvation or redemption is possible only through Jesus Christ who
died on the cross to save mankind. The concept of resurrection and eternal life
after death is essential to Christianity. ‘Love thy neighbor as thyself’, ‘forgive us
our sins as we forgive those who sin against us’ is an essential part of the Lord’s
Prayer. Therefore, honesty, forgiveness, and freedom to make choices–these are
some of the important values of Christianity.

2.8 MODERN INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

In the 19th century A.D. there were major socio-religious reform movements in
India. For the first time, Indians were exposed to the liberal Western philosophy
of Bentham, Mill, and Locke. A pioneer of the Bengal Renaissance, Raja Rammohan
Roy set up the Brahmo Samaj. Those who contributed to Indian philosophy in
the 20th century were Rabindranath Tagore, Mohammad Iqbal, Sri Aurobindo Ghosh,
Mahatma Gandhi, and [Link]. Rabindranath Tagore placed love above
knowledge and society above the state. Mahatma Gandhi firmly believed in “Truth
is God” and not “God is Truth”. He lived out his principle of Ahimsa or non-violence
in thought, word and deed. He used it effectively in politics and in his fight against
social, economical and political injustice. The values of rationalism, equality,
individualism underlying western philosophy influenced modern Indian thinkers. The
oneness of god, love, service, perfection, truth, non-violence are essential values
of modern Indian philosophy.

Check Your Progress 2

(i) Describe Sufism?
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(ii) Name some major modern Indian philosophers?

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Changing Culture and
Human Values 2.9 LET US SUM UP
Indian philosophy is very old and includes Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy,
and philosophy. At a broader level, it includes the Bhakti tradition, Sikhism, Sufism
and the reaction to the influence of Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism. Indian
philosophy aims at helping one to see the truth. The four main concepts of Indian
philosophy are dharma, moksha, karma, and atman. The performance of duties
correctly is an important value that is integral to Indian philosophy. The Vedic period
is rich in Indian philosophy and literature. The Vedas were created by Brahma while
the Vedangas were composed by human beings. Astika and Nastika are the two
schools of Classical Indian philosophy. There are six Astika schools of philosophy.
Buddhism,Jainism and Charvakas are the Nastika Schools of philosophy. The
Samkhya school of Enumeration and the Yoga school unite the mind and body;
individual and God. The school of Yoga lays more stress on spiritual discipline or
application. The Vedantas form the end of the Vedas. Many features of modern
Hinduism and philosophy are taken from the Vedantas and its sub-schools.
Vedanta is still a “living school”. The Upanishads are believed to have been revealed
by the Gods secret scriptures taught by a guru to his disciples. In the Bhakti movement
in India, from the 7th-13th century A.D., devotion and practice was more important
than ritual.
Sikhism was started by Guru Nanak. It was based on bhakti and rejected the
supremacy of the Brahmins. Islam was introduced in India by the Muslims in the
8th century A.D., both Hinduism and Islam co-existed for centuries. The highest
example of Islamic philosophy is Sufism. In Sufism, devotees seek divine love and
knowledge through the direct personal experience of God with the help of a Pir
or guru. Christianity in India is believed to have started as early as 52 A.D. In
the 19th century A.D., there were major socio-religious reform movements in India
which created many modern thinkers in India. Swami Vivekananda revived the
dynamism inherent in Hinduism. He set up the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 A.D.
Indian values are a rich source of values–tolerance, forgiveness, devotion, scientific
temper, non-violence, truth, humility, detachment and many others. We have to be
aware of our rich tradition and preserve it.

2.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
(i) The different Schools of Indian Philosophy are Orthodox and Heterodox Schools.
(ii) Apart from seeking higher attainments of the Moksha, i.e. spiritual progress,
Indian philosophy seeks truth and knowledge.
Check Your Progress 2
(i) Sufism was developed in India in the 13 th-15th centuries. It is the mystical
aspect of Islam. In Sufism devotees divine love and knowledge through the
direct personal experience of God with the help of a Pir or Guru.
(ii) Modern Indian philosophers are Raja Rammohan Roy, Rabindranath Tagore,
Mohammad Iqbal, Aurobindo Ghosh, M.K.s Gandhi and [Link].
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 Values Enshrined in
2.11 REFERENCES Indian Philosophy

Basham A.L. (2004). The wonder that was India; 3rd revised edition Picador;
London
Carman J. (1974). Theology of Ramanuja: Yale University Press: USA
Dasgupta S.(1975). A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume III. Motilal Banasidass
Delhi
Hamilton S. (2001). Indian philosophy: a very short Introduction; OUP New
York
Hiriyanna M. (1985). Essentials of Indian philosophy: George Allen and Unwin;
London
Knott K. (1998). Hinduism: A very short Introduction: OUP New York
Mazumdar R.C. (1994). Ancient India Motilal Benarassidas Publishers pvt. ltd:
Delhi
Radhakrishnan, S. (2009) Indian Philosophy (Vol. 1 &2), 2nd Edition, OUP, Delhi
Srinivasa C., S. M. (2000). Vaisnavism, Its Philosophy, Theology and Religious
Discipline; Motilal Banarsidass; Delhi
Online Sources:
[Link]
“Christianity.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
Retrieved 08 Nov. [Link]://[Link]/EBchecked/topic/115240/
Christianity retrieved 08 Nov.2009
[Link]/.../chirag-e-dehlawi-hazrat-khawaja-nasiruddin-
mahmood-ra/ - Retrieved Jan 30th 2011
[Link]/k4%[Link] Retrieved Jan 30th 2011
[Link]/silsilas/chishtia_aliya.html Retrieved Jan 30th 2011
[Link]/[Link] retrieved February 4th 2011

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