MTK NOTES Plant cell absorb water and store it in vacuole by osmosis. Osmosis 26: Define turgidity and plasmolysis? Ans: 1, Turgiditv: Definition: ‘When a cell absorbs water and become swell is called turgid cell and this phenomenon is called turgicity. ‘Mechanism: When we place the plant cell in pure water or in dilute solution, The plant absorbs water by ‘osmosis and stores it in vacuole. Due to this storing of water the plant cell will swell. Turgor Pressure: The internal pressure exerted on the cell wall is called turgor pressure, 1. It keeps the herbaceous plants erect. Le. helps in opening and closing of stomata. ‘Some flower open during day time and close at night time this is due to shrmge iv. It gives proper shape to the cell, y. The upward movement of water and dissolved minerals is due to turgor. 2 Plasmolvsis: = De yn: — The condition in which plant cell loose water and become shrink is called plasmolysis. And the cell is ulso called plasmolysis cell. Me ism: - ‘When a plant cell is placed in a solution having lower water potential than the cell contents. The water leaves the cell by osmosis. In this way the cell become shrink. This phenomenon is called plasmolysis and the ceil is also called plasmolysis cell.MTK NOTES (Q9: What do you meant by acellular or sub-cellular particles’? ‘Ans: According to first principle of the cell theory all organisms are composed of one or more cells. Discovery of virus prions and viroid claims that the statement is not universal. They are not composed of cells rather they are sub-cellular or acellular particles. As they show some characteristics of living organisms ie., they can increase in number and can transmit their characteristics to the next generation. Q10: Describe the structure of Cell Wall? Ans: Structure of Eukaryotic Cell:- Coll Wall:- tis nonliving structure present in bacteria, plants, fungi and some protists. Locatior Cell Wall is located outside the cell membrane. ‘The cell wall of plant cell is made from cellulose while the cell wall of Fungi and prokaryotes are made from chitin and murein respectively. : f i Cell Wall is mainly composed of three main layers. i). Primary Wall: Tt is the outer layer of cell wall which is composed of cellulose. Cellulose molecules are arranged in crisscross manner. ii, Secondary wall: It is the second layer of cell wall which lies inner to the primary wall. It is comparatively thick and rigid than the primary wall. iii, Middle Lamelia: Itis the inner layer between primary walls of two adjacent cells. Eunction of Cell Wall: Protection: It protects the cellular contents from the outer environment. Support: It gives support to the plant cell Shape: It gives proper shape to the cell. Rigidity: It provides rigidity to the cel. vv Q 11: Explain the structure and function of cell membrane? Ans: Cell Membrane: All prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a thin and elastic cell membrane covering the cytoplasm. It is the outermost layer of the animal cell. In the cells of bacteria plants fungi and some protists, cell membrane lies beneath cell wall. Chemical Composition: Chemically cell walls are composed of 20-40% lipids and 60-80% proteins un. xIre eoxzin, 364 carbohydrates. Structure of Cell Membrane:- Many scientists presented different models for the structure of cell membrane. Among them the most acceptable model is Fluid mosaic model. Fluid Mosaie Model In 1972 singer and Nicolson presented a model about the structure of cell membrane which is known as fluid mosaic model. According to this model, lipids bilayer is a sea and the protein are floating over it while some stay embedded in the bilayer. Carbohydrates molecules are joined with proteins or with lipids.MTK NOTES Unicellular organisms: - In some unicellular organisms it helps in the formation of cilia and flagella which are the locomotory organs of some unicellular organisms. Vacuol It is a single membrane bounded organelle present in the cytoplasm of both plants and animal cells. Tonoplast: - Vacuole is bounded by single membrane called tonoplast. In plant cell there is a single large vacuole present in the center while in animal cell there are many small vacuoles. In unicellular organisms there are two vacuoles. > Food vacuole: Digestion of food occurs in food vacuole. » Contractile vacuole: Excretion (removal of metabolic waste and toxic materials). Function: > A plant vacuole store important material like water, amino acids, sugar and some minerals. > Many cells take in materials from outside in the form of food and then digest the ‘materials with the help of lysosomes. > Some unicellular organisms use contractile vacuole for the elimination of wastes from their body. Q19: Describe the formation and fun ‘Ans: Lysosomes: In the mid of twenty century, the Belgian scientists Christian Rene de Duve discovered lysosomes. De Duve in 1947 won the Nobel prize for physiology and medicine. structure: These are single membrane bound organelles. work for the breakdown of food and waste mater Funetion: A lysosomes fuses with the vacuole that contains the targeted materials and its enzymes break down the materials. It is also termed as suicide bags of cell because it helps during cell death (apoptosis). mn of lysosomes? ‘osomes contain strong digestive enzymes and ials within the cell. Q20: Explain the structure of nucleus? ‘Ans: Nucleus: It is the most important part of cell. It is also called brain of the cell because it controls all the cellular activities. ani Nucleus is spherical in shape. Location; - > In animals cell nucleus is present in the center. > Implant cells, it is pushed to the side due to the presence of large central vacuole. Structure of Nucleus: Following are the main parts of the nucleus. Nucleus is bounded by a double membrane called nuclear envelope. It is present eukaryotes but absent in prokaryotes. Porous: - ‘Small pores are present on the surface of the nucleus. The pores allow the exchange of materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm.MTK NOTES ii, Adipose tissue: > Swollen cells due to the presence of larger number of fat droplets. > Found around kidneys, under skin, in abdomen etc. » Provides energy when fat is oxidized insulator against heat loss protects and supports organ. iv. Cartilage: » Matrix contains bundles of collagen fibers embedded in a rubbery substance. > Provide support while allowing flexibility. > Found around the ends of bones in external ear, in nose, trachea in dises between vertebras, as skeleton in many fishes. v. Bone: > Matrix contains collagen fibers embedded in calcium salts. % Supports, protect, provide lever system for movement for movement, store calcium and forms blood cells. > Found in skeleton. vi. Blood: > Matrix is not solid but in the form of fluid, red and white blood cells are suspended in plasma, > ‘Transport substance from one part of the body to the other and responsible for immunity. > Found in blood vessel. 3. Muscular tissue: - Muscle tissue consists of bundles of long cells called muscle fibers. It is the most abundant tissue in a typical animal, The cells of this tissue have ability to contract and relax. Tepes: There are three types of muscle in vertebrates i. Skeleton muscle. ii, Smooth muscle. iii, Cardiac muscle. i. Skeleton muscle: ‘The characteristics of skeletal muscles are Skeletal muscles are attached to our bones and cause movement in them. ie, movement in them ie. Movement of arms and legs etc. ‘These are striated or stripped muscles because they have alternate light and dark bands. They are also called voluntary muscle because their movement is under our control. Their working is fast but they fatigue easily. The cells of skeletal muscles contain many nuclei, Example, muscle of arms and legs. ib Smooth Muscle: >” Smooth muscles are working smoothly and slowly. > They are involuntary muscle mean that they do not work under our will > ‘They cannot fatigue easily. > These are non-striated or strapped muscle because they have no alternate light and dark bands. > Fibers of smooth muscles are multinucleated, > Examples are muscles of digestive, respiratory, circulatory and urinary tract ete. iii, Cardiac muscle: > Cardiac muscles make our heart. » Composed of striated cells that are branched and each contain a single nucleus. > They are also involuntary in action. > They contract and relax rhythmically without getting any fatigue. > Examples are the muscle of our heart vvvvYMTK NOTES > Ribosome of prokaryotic cell is of 70s, Group of Ribosome; Group of ribosome is called polysomes. Function: Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis. Definition; Plastids are also membrane bounded organelles that only occur in plant and photosynthetic protest (algae) ‘There are three types of Plastids. i). Chloroplast:- It is the most important and abundant type of plastids. It is bounded by double membrane. The outer membrane is smooth while inner one give rise to membranous sac called thylakoids. The stack of thylakoids is known as granum (pl. grana), Position ‘These are present in green parts of plants particularly in eaves. Colour:- Chloroplast are green in colour due to green pigment called chlorophyll. Chloroplast is bounded by double membranes. A smooth outer membrane and an inner folded membrane which is modified into stack / pile of coins, Grapum:: Each coin of the granum is called thylakoid, They combine to form granum, Antergrana;- Granum is attached with each other by intergrana. Stroma;- The semi fluid and gelatinous matrix present inside the chloroplast is called stroma. Function: ‘The process of photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast. Photosynthesis complete in two steps, light reaction and dark reaction. a. Light Reaction: Light reaction of photosynthesis occurs in grana, b. Dark Reaeti Dark Reaction of photosynthesis occurs in stroma, present in the petal of flowers and in the skin of ripened fruits, Colour:- Tn plants colours other than green are due to Chromoplasts,MTK NOTES Eunetion:- Its bright colour attracts insects for pollination. iii. Leucoplast: Leucoplast is colorless plastids. They are present in underground parts of the plants particularly in roots. Positior They are present in underground part of the plant called roots. Colour: - Leucoplast is colourless, Funetion: ‘They store food materials such as starch, protein and lipid. QI7: Write short note on cytoskeleton? Ans: Cytoskeleton; Skeleton of cytoplasm. Cytoskeleton is an important complex and dynamic cell component. It is invisible under light microscope. Structure: ‘Two important types of filaments make up the cytoskeletons are, i, Microtubules ii, Microfilaments i, Microtubules: - Microtubules are made up of a protein called actin, These microfilaments are approximately one- third of the diameter of a microtubule. Eunction: - % Microtubules are also the major component of cilia and flagella. > Microfilaments are often used by cells to change their shapes and to hold the structure. > It maintains the cell’s shape, anchors organelles in place and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and motility. QI8: Write short note on centrioles and Vacuol i. Centriole: These are the cell organelles that are present in animals” cell and in unicellular organism, It is also present in young plants and animals. They are two in number and are collectively called centrosomes, They are small rounded bodies present near the nucleus, Structure: These are hollow cylindrical structures called microtubule. Each centriowe contains nine triplets of microtubules (27) microtubules). Each microtubule is composed of tubulin proteins. Diamet Each microtubule is 0.2 micrometre in diameter. Triplets ‘A group of three microtubules is called triplet. There are nine triplets in a centriole, Each microtubule is composed of tubulin proteins. Tubulin protein has three-dimensional shape. Function: ‘Animal Cel In animal cell they help in the formation of spindle fibers which help in the separation and movement of chromosomes during cell division,MTK NOTES Wave length 400 — 700" 0.005nm Q7: Write the brief history of cell theory? Ans: History of Cell Theory: - Robert Hook:- Robert Hook was an English scientist who discovered cell in 1665. He observed piece of cork under his self-made microscope. He observed small chambers like honey comb structures and he named it cell. Anton van Leeuwen Hool Leeuwen Hook was a Dutch scientist, He studied a drop or pond water under his own made microscope. The magnification power of his microscope was 300x. He noticed tiny creature swimming in the drop of pond water. Leeuwen Hook was the first man to observe single celled organisms called unicellular organisms. Jean Baptist de-Lamarck: In 1809, jean Baptist de-Lamarck proposed that “Nobody can have life if its constituent parts are not formed by cellular tissues.” Dolland: Dolland in 1827 improved the quality of lenses. After that all the scientist were interested in microscopy. Robert Brown: Tn 1831, a British botanist Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the plant cell. Tn 1839 a German Botanist Matthias schleiden studied plant tissues and made the first statement of the cell theory. He stated that “all plants are made up of cells” Tn 1839 a German Zoologist Schwann found that all the animals are made from cells, Thus, schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory in its Italian from i.e., “all living things are composed of living Cells” EvenglodaPurkyne: - Purkyne was an English scientist. In 1840 he proposed that all the cellular contents are living materials and gave them the name of “Protoplasm”. Rudolf Viveho In 1855, Rudolf Virchow, German physician gave his hypothesis that every cell comes from a pre-existing cell. (“Omnis Cellula a celula”). Louis Pastew In 1862, a French scientist Louis Pasteur experimentally proved the hypothesis of Rudolf Virchow. He experimented on bacteria and found that bacteria are produced from pre-existing bacteria, Q8: Write the main points of cell theory? Ans: Cell Theory: Cell theory was first proposed by two German scientists, Botanist Matthias Schleiden and “Theodor Schwan. > Alllliving organisms are made from one or more cells, > Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organism. > New cells arise from pre-existing cells by cells division,MTK NOTES Definition: Those microscopes which uses light to make the image of an object is called light microscope. Light pathway: Light passes through the simple and then through two glass lenses. Image formation: Lens produces an enlarge image of the sample and the second lens magnifies the image more. Afier passing through the object and lenses, the light is projected into the viewers eye when an enlarge and clear image is formed. Magnification: The magnification of a light mi The resolution of light microscope is 0.2m. Electron microscope: Definition: Tt is the most advance form of microscope which use beam of electron to make the image of an object. In electron microscope, the object and the lenses are placed in a vacuum chamber and a beam of electron is passed through object. Electrons pass through or are reflected from the object and make the image. Magnetic lenses: Magnetic lenses focus the electron beam on a screen and make much enlarge image. scope is 1500x. It can magnify objects only about 1500 times, Resolution of electron microscope is 0.2mm, ‘Types of Electron Microscope: - There are two types of electron microscope. ‘Scanning electron microscope (SEM): - » Ituses an electron beam to scan the surface that has been coated with metal. % ‘The SEM does not have great magnifying power. ‘Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM): > Itis used for the study of internal structure of cell or any other object. » Itcan magnify objects about 250,000 times. Q6: Differentiate between Light and Electron microscope? ‘Ans: Comparison between light and electron microscope: Light Microscope Electron Microscope Radiation source Light Beams Prvewon Lenses Optical Magnetic Magnification 10,000 times greater than the | 100 times greater than naked eye light microscope ‘Resolution 500 times of the naked eye 400 times of the light microscope Images TD images TEM show 2D While SEM Shows 3D ImagesMTK NOTES S| Thecell wall is made of murein, | The cell wall of plants is made of cellulose while in fungi is made of chitin. 6 | Example: Example: Bacteria and cyanobacteria Plants, Animal and Fungi. (Blue green algae) Q 22: Why cells are specific in their function? Ans: Cell specificity: - The basic structure and functional unit of all living organisms is called cell. Every living organism is composed of different types of cell. Each type of the cell performs a specific function. Examples: = Plants: - > Xylem cells are responsible for the transport of water and dissolved minerals from roots to leaves. > Phloem cells are responsible for the transport of food from leaves to all parts of plant body. > Root hair cells are responsible for the absorption of water and dissolved minerals. > Cells involve in photosynthesis have chloroplast. Animals: - > In animals nerve cells are responsible for the transmission of impulses. > Inmuscular cells are responsible for movement. > Red blood cells carry oxygen and white blood cells kill foreign agents. Cell of one type may differ from those of other types in following respects Size and Shape Je Nerve Cells are long for the wansmission of nerve impulse Je Xylem cells are tube like and have thick walls for conduction of water and support. Je Red blood cells are round to accommodate globular | haemoglobin. ‘Surface area to PRoot hair cells have large surface area for the maximum pbsorption of water and sls volume ration organelles 1! Golgi apparatus. Cells involved in photosynthesis have chloroplasts. Presence or absence of Be involved In making secretion have more complex ER’ Q 23: Cell as an open system? Justify the statement.MTK NOTES Permanent tissue originates from the meristematic tissue. These tissues are composed of cells which do not have the ability to divide. Tupesof cane There ure three types of permanent tissue. 1. Epidermal tissue. 2. Ground tissue. 3. Supporting tissue. L Epidermal Tissue: - Terminology: The word epidermal is derived from two Greek words. © Epimeans above © Dermis means skin. Location: - These tissties are preset Charaeter as outermost protective layer of roots, stems, branches and leaves. i. Cell of the epidermal tissue are flattened and irregular in shape. ii, They are thick walled and closely packed with no intercellular spaces. iii. In stem, the walls of these are covered with waxy materials which prevent loss of water. iy, In leaves, the epidermal tissue has small ground opening called stomata for gaseous exchange. Eunction: Leavi In eaves the epidermal tissues have small pores called stomata for gascous exchange and for Stem: In stem the epidermal tissues have root hairs which are responsible for absorption of water. Root: = Tn roots the epidermal tissues have root hairs which are responsible for absorption of water. 2, Ground tissues: - Location: ‘They are present in all parts of plant except epidermal and vascular tissues. Composition: Ground tissues are composed of thin walled cells called parenchyma cells, Properties of Parenchyma cell: - i, These are thin walled living cells. ii, They are oval or polygonal in shape. iii, They have a large vacuole. Nucleus is present in peripheral position due presence of large vacuole. [Link] leaves the ground tissue contains chlorophyll and is called mesopnyll tissues. It prepares food. Function: Parenchyma cells store food. 3, Supporting tissues: - They give support and flexibility to the plant body. They are of wo types. a. Collenchyma tissues b. Sclerenchyma tissues a. Collenchyma tissues (Kolla-glue ‘They are flexible, living cells, elongated and polygonal with tapering end. Location: They are found in young stem, midrib of leaves, petals of flower and in herbaceous plants stem.MTK NOTES pnt aeienrt nit) gees wu ) Cell membrane is a semi permeable membrane because it controls the inflow and outflow of material of cell. It is thin delicate and clastic. It controls the movement of the molecule passing through it. It allow only the passage of water and other small molecules such as gases while other substances such as glucose, amino acids etc can slowly diffuse through it. Eunction:- > Protecti It protects the inner parts of cell > Shape: It gives proper shape to the cell. > Regulation: It regulates the inflow and outflow of substances. > Binding site: It provides binding sites for ATTP and other biological molecule. Q 12: Define cytoplasm? Describe the structure of cytoplasm. Ans: Cytoplasm:- ‘The portion of the cell which lies between the nuclear membrane and cell membrane is called cytoplasm, It contains a variety of cell organelles and other substances. Charaeteristics: Tis translucent, living and viscous substances. Main Parts: It consists of two main parts. Soluble Parts contain about 70% Water and 30% organic and inorganic substances. Insoluble Pai Cell organelles are the insoluble part of cytoplasm. Portion: Cytoplasm is divided into two portions, i) Ectoplasm: The outer clear portion is called ectoplasm. Endoplasm: The inner granular portion is called endoplasm. Function: > The cytoplasm of the cell provides space for the proper functionin « of Sac orgure is } It also act as the site for various metabolic reactions for example Glycolysis (breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration) Cytoplasm store useful substance like protein, lipid, vitamin, carbohydrates. QU3: Describe the structure and function of Endoplasmic Reticulum? Ans: Endoplasmic Reticulum:- ‘Terminology:- » Endo means internal > Plasm means cytoplasm > Reticulum mean network. Structure: It is a network of interconnected channels present throughout cytoplasm. ‘These membranes enclosed flattened sacs called Cisternae.MTK NOTES Ans: A cell works as an open system. That is > Ittakes in substances needed for its metabolic activities through its cell membrane. Then it performs the metabolic processes assigned to it Products and by products are formed in metabolism. Cell either utilizes the products or transports them to other cells. The by products are either stored or are excreted out of the cell. Q24: Explain how surface area to volume ratio limits cell size. Ans: Cell size and surface are to volume ratio: Cells are varying greatly in size. The smallest cells are bacteria, with diameter between 0.1 m to 1.0 m. The bulkiest cells are bird eggs, and the longest cells are muscle and nerve cells. Most cells are small in size. > Large cells have Jess surface area in relation to their volume while small cells of the same shape have more surface area, In the figure below show 1 large cell and 27 small cells. In both cases the total volume is the same: ‘Volume: 301m x 30m x 30am = 27,000pm* > In contrast to total volume, the total surface areas are very different. Because the cubical shape has 6 side, its surface area is 6 times the area of 1 side. The total surface areas of the cubes are as follows. Surface area of L large cube = 6 x (30m x 30m) = 5400pm* Surface area of 1 small cube = 6 x (10m x 101m) = 600m? Surface area of 27 small cubes = 27 x 600m? = 16,200m? v vvvy This relationship between cell size and surface area to volume ratio works to limits cell size. As the size of a cell increases cell volume increases more rapidly than its surface area. The need of nutrients and rate of waste production are directly proportional to cell volume. The cell takes up nutrients and excretes wastes through its surface cells membrane, So, a large volume demands large surface area. Hence it concluded that the membranes of small cells can serve their small volumes more easily than the membrane of large cell, Q25: Explain the phenomenon involved in the passage of materials across the cell membrane? ‘Ans: Cell membrane is called differentially or semi permeable membrane as it controls the inflow and outflow of materials to cells. Cell membrane maintains equilibrium inside as well as outside the cell. The control of the passage of molecules into and out of cells is made possible through following phenomena. ‘Types: - There are two types of movement. The movement of molecules across cell membrane from lower concentration region to higher concentration with the expenditure of metabolic energy is called active transport. For the active transport of substances carrier proteins present in cell membrane use energy and move them against concentration gradients, Na” /K° are actively transported across the requirement of the cell/body. Example: - Nerve impulse is carried when Na’ is actively transported across the membrane from nerve cell to outside, Passive Transport: - DefinitionMTK NOTES Mitochondria Structural Features Figure 1 QU5: Explain the structure and function of Golgi Bodies? Ans: Golgi Bodies:~ Golgi Bodies were first discovered by an Italian Scientist Camillo Golgi in 1898. Shape: Golgi bodies are in the form of granules, rods, threads or canals. Golgi bodies consist of stacks of flattened sacs made of membrane which are arranged parallel to each other called cisternae. Other Name:- They are also known as Golgi apparatus. In plants it is generally known by the name of Dictyosomes. Eunction: © Golgi bodies store the secretory product. * Golgi bodies modify and pack the secretory products at their margins into small rounded sacs called Golgi vesicles or lysosomes. > They also synthesize complex. carbohydrates from simple sugar. QUG6: Describe the structure and function of Ribosome and Plastid? Ans: i) Ribosomes: Ribosomes are the only organelles found in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Pe They are either freely dispersed in cytoplasm or attached with ER(endoplasmic reticulum). Discovery:- Ribosomes were discovered by Palade in 1955. jtructure:- Ribosomes have two subunits. > Large subunit > Small subunit. ‘Small and large subunit combines to form ribosome. Formatii They are produced in nucleolus. c a ‘Arribosomes is made of almost equal amount of protein and ribosomal RNA (RNA). some present in eukaryotes is of 80S. Prokaryotic Ribosome:MTK NOTES (CHAPTER NO 4. Cell and Tissue Qk: Define cell, unicellular and multicellular organisms? Ans: Cell ‘The basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms is called cell ‘Those organisms which are made from single cell are called unicellular organisms. Amocha, Paramecium ete ‘Multicellular organisms: - anisms which are made from more than one cells are called multicellular organisms. Al plants and animals (Q2: Define tissue? Also discuss the types of tissue. (additional Question) Group of cells which perform particular function is called tissue, ‘Types of Tissue: - There are two types of tissue, > Simple tissues > Compound Tissues. Simple Tissues: - Those tissues which are made from the same kind of cell are called simple tissues. They are found both in plants and animals, Compound Tissues: « ‘Those tissues which are made from different kind of cells are called compound tissues. They are present in plant but absent in animals. Q3: Define microscopy? Explain Microscope and their types? ‘Ans: Microscopy: ‘The use of microscope to observe very minute living organisms is known as microscopy. Mi ie Tis an instrument which is used for the observation of those things which cannot be seen with naked eyes. Discovery: - Zacharias Janssen and his son Hans Janssen were two eye glass makers in Holland, They discovered first microscope in 1595. It was simply a tube with lenses at cach end and its magnification from 3x to 9x. Anton van leeuwenhoek (1632-1723): ‘Anton van lecuwenhock was Dutch scientist made much better microscope and observed small organism under it. The magnification power of leeuwenhoek’s microscope was more than 250x. He is considered to be the first microscopist Q4: Define magnification and resolution of microscope? Ans: Magnification: - ‘The capacity of microscope to enlarge the apparent size of a small object is called magnification. The magnification power of electron a light microscope is 1500x. Resoluti The capacity of microscope to differentiate between two close objects is called Resolution. The human eye can differentiate between two points. which are at least 0,1 mm apart. This is known as resolution of human cye. The resolution power of light microscope is 0.2m. Q5: Write the characteristic features of light and electron microscope? Ans: Light microscope: