170 | P a g e

CHAPTER 8

WELD AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES

Discussion of Discontinuities

Having provided this background on discontinuities in a general sense, let’s now

discuss some of the more common weld and base metal discontinuities found during
normal inspection activities. Those with which we will concern ourselves are listed, and
the definitions for each can be found in the AWS standard A3.0, Standard Welding Terms
and Definitions, or in the Key Terms and Definitions section at the end of this module.

 Crack
 Incomplete fusion
 Incomplete joint penetration
 Inclusion
 Slag inclusion
 Tungsten inclusion
 Porosity
 Undercut
 Underfill
 Overlap
 Convexity
 Weld reinforcement
 Arc strike
 Spatter
 Lamination
 Lamellar tear
 Seam/lap
 Dimensional

Transverse Cracks

170
171 | P a g e

171
172 | P a g e

172
173 | P a g e

173
174 | P a g e

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Arc strike – a discontinuity resulting from an arc, consisting of any localized remelted
metal, heat-affected metal, or change in the surface profile of any metal object.

Atomic hydrogen – the ionic form of hydrogen, denoted as H+ as opposed to molecular

hydrogen which contains two atoms of hydrogen and is denoted as H2. A synonym for
atomic hydrogen is nascent hydrogen.

Collet – in welding terms, a part of a welding torch forming a shroud.

Convexity – the maximum distance from the face of a convex fillet weld perpendicular to
a line joining the weld toes.

Crack – a fracture type discontinuity characterized by a sharp tip and high ratio of length
and width to opening displacement.

Crater crack – a crack forming at the termination of a weld.

Defect – a discontinuity which exceeds the permissible limit of a code; a rejectable

discontinuity requiring repair of replacement.

Delamination – the separation of a lamination under stress.

Density – the ratio of the mass of an object to its volume, usually in terms of grams per
cubic centimeter or pounds per cubic foot; also refers to the darkness of radiographs film:
the darker areas are noted as having a higher density.

Discontinuity – any irregularity in the normal pattern of a material: any interruption of

the uniform nature of an item.

Inclusion – entrapped foreign solid material, such as slag, flux, tungsten, or oxide.

Incomplete fusion – a weld discontinuity in which fusion did not occur between weld
metal and fusion faces or adjoining welds beads.

Incomplete joint penetration – a joint root condition in a groove weld in which weld
metal does not extend through the joint thickness.

Intergranular – referring to conditions which occur at or follow the grain boundaries of a

metal. An intergranular crack would initiate and propagate along a metal’s grain
boundaries.

174
175 | P a g e

Lamellar tear – a subsurface terrace and step-like crack in the base metal with a basic
orientation parallel to the wrought surface caused by tensile stresses in the through-
thickness direction of the base metals weakened by the presence of small dispersed,
planar shaped, nonmetallic inclusions parallel to the metal surfaces.

Lamination – a type of discontinuity with separation or weakness generally aligned

parallel to the worked surface of a metal.

Nascent hydrogen – see Atomic Hydrogen.

Overlap – in fusion welding, the protrusion of weld metal beyond the weld toe or weld
root.

Pipe – in metal ingot casting, the severe shrinkage occurring at the top center portion of
the ingot, usually containing oxides.

Planar – of or pertaining to a plane; lying in a plane

Porosity – cavity-type discontinuities formed by gas entrapment during solidification or

in a thermal spray deposit.

Propagate – growth, or continuation of growth; to get larger.

Protrusion – a projection outward; a jutting out.

Radiograph – a film made by passing X- or gamma radiation through an object to

determine the quality of its internal structure.

Safe-ending – the practice of drilling a small hole at each end of a crack to increase the
crack end radius and stop further crack propagation.

Seam/lap – longitudinal base metal surface discontinuities on wrought product.

Shielding gas – protective gas used to prevent or reduce atmospheric contamination, as

of a molten weld metal.

Slag inclusion – an inclusion of slag.

Spatter – the metal particles expelled during fusion welding that do not form a part of the
weld.

Stress risers – conditions such as notches, cracks, or geometry which increase the applied
stress by factors of 2 to 10.

Stringer – in metallurgy, an elongated oxide or nonmetallic inclusion within the metal.

175
176 | P a g e

Titania – a titanium oxide; a coating type for covered electrodes in welding.

Transgranular – referring to conditions which cross or pass through the metal’s grains.
A transgranular crack has a path across the grains as opposed to intergranular cracking
which follows a path along the grain boundaries.

Transverse – lying, situated placed across; having a path from side to side.

Tungsten inclusion – an inclusion of tungsten.

Undercut – a groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the weld toe or weld root and
left unfilled by weld metal.

Weld reinforcement – weld metal in excess of the quantity required to fill a joint; at the
face or root.

Wrought – the term applied to the working or forming of metal while it is solid to form
shapes, as opposed to a cast product which forms directly from the molten state.

176
177 | P a g e

PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES

1. CASTING

Discontinuity Caused by Location Suitable NDT

technique
Cold Shut Lack of fusion Surface PT for another than
between two ferromagnetic
intercepting surfaces materials, and MT
of metal as it flows for ferromagnetic
into the cast. materials.
Some procedure
recommends both
PT and MT for
ferromagnetic
materials,
considering the
defect location.
Hot Tear Difference in Surface and MT/PT for surface
cooling rates subsurface and RT for internal
between thin
sections and thick
sections
Shrinkage Cavity Lack of enough Subsurface RT
molten metal to fill
the space created by
shrinkage
Microshrinkage Improperly designed Subsurface RT
mold causing
premature blockage
at mold gate.
Blow holes and Inability of external Surface or PT/MT
porosity gases to escape from subsurface RT
the mold.
Entrapped internal
gases

177
178 | P a g e

2. FORGING

Discontinuity Caused by Location Suitable NDT

LAP Folding of metal in Surface MT/PT, OR BOTH
a thin plate on the
surface of the
forging.
BURST Forging at improper Surface or MT/PT
temperature. Subsurface RT & UT

3. ROLLING

Discontinuity Caused by Location Suitable NDT

LAMINATIONS Flattening and Subsurface UT
lengthening of
discontinuities in
parent metal.
STRINGERS (Bar Flattening and Subsurface UT
stocks) lengthening of
discontinuities
found in parent
metal.
SEAMS (Bar Lengthening of Surface MT/PT
Stocks) surface cracks found
in parent metal.

4. SEAMLESS TUBES AND PIPES

Discontinuity Caused by Location Suitable NDT

SEAMS Present in the parent Outer Surface MT/PT
metal.
SLUGS Metal buildup of Inner Surface Bore scope-optical
piercing Mandrel. fibre
GOUGES Sizing mandrel Inner Surface Bore scope
dragging

178
179 | P a g e

5. EXTRUSIONS

Discontinuity Caused by Location Suitable NDT

SEAMS Present in the parent Surface MT/PT
metal.
POROSITY Present in the parent Surface or MT/PT
metal. subsurface RT/UT
GALLINGE Improper metal flow Surface MT/PT
(Cracks) through the die.

6. GRINDING

CRACKS Excess localized Surface MT/PT

heat created
between the
grinding wheel and
material

7. HEAT TREATING

STRESS CRACKS Stressing built-up Surface PT/MT

by improper
processing-unequal
heating or cooling

8. EXPLOSIVE FORMING

CRACKS AND Extreme Surface PT/MT

TREARS deformation
overstresses the
material

179
180 | P a g e

9. WELDING

Discontinuity Caused by Location Suitable NDT

Cracks Improper use of heat Surface or MT/PT
source subsurface RT, PREFERRED
METHOD UT
Stress cracks Stress built up by Surface MT/PT
weld contraction (if
material is
restrained)
Porosity Entrapped gases Surface or PT
subsurface RT
Slag inclusions Incomplete cleaning Surface or PT/MT
of slag form the subsurface UT/RT
weld between
passes
Tungston inclusions Excessive current Subsurface RT
used during
tungsten are
welding
Lack of penetration Improper welding Surface or Preferred method
technique subsurface UT,RT possible if
the beam is directed
along the fusion
surface between
weld and parent
metal
Lack of fusion Improper welding Subsurface MT/PT
technique
Undercut Improper welding Surface Visual inspection
technique
Overlapping Weld overlaps Surface
parent metal-Not
fused

10. BENDING

CRACKS OVERSTRESS OF SURFACE MT/PT

MATERIAL

180
181 | P a g e

11. MACHINING

TREARS Working with dull Surface MT/PT

tools or cutting too
deep

12. PICKLING, ETCHING, AND ELECTROPLATING

CRACKS Relief of internal Surface MT/PT

stresses

CONDITIONS LEADING TO FAILURE:

1. Imposed loads may be static or dynamic

2. Environment may contribute corrosion, vibration, or temperature & pressures

higher or lower than the normal.

3. Structures may also be subjected to abuse

4. Mechanical failure is always a result of stresses, above some critical value for
each material that causes deformation or fracture.

5. Such excessive stresses are setup by some combination of material defects excess
loads, improper type of operation or design error.

6. All material’s defects (surface, near surface, or (internal) can be detected, by

NDT.

7. Defects size, shape, location, or orientation (detrimental for failure) can be

8. accurately characterized by NDT.

181
182 | P a g e

TABLE 6-1 PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES

Process Discontinuity Caused by Location

Casting Cold Shut Lack of fusion between two Surface
intercepting surfaces of
metal as it flows into the cast
Hot Tear Difference Cooling Rates Surface
between thin sections and
thick sections
Shrinkage Cavity Lack of enough molten metal Subsurface
to fill the space created by
shrinkage
Microshrinkage Improperly designed mold Subsurface
causing premature blockage
at mold gate
Blow Hotels Inability of external gasses to Surface
escape from the mold
Porosity Entrapped internal gasses Surface or
Subsurface
Forging Lap Folding of metal in a tain Surface
plate on the surface of the
forging
Burst Forging at improper Surface or
temperature Subsurface
Rolling Laminations (Flat Flattering and Lengthening Subsurface
Plate) of discontinuities found in
parent metal
Stringers (Flat Flattening and lengthening of Subsurface
Plate) discontinuities in parent
metal
Seams (Bar Stock) Lengthening of surface Surface
cracks found in parent metal

Welded pipe Lack of Fusion Incomplete weld Surface

(Inner or
Outer)
Laminations Present in the parent metal Subsurface
(sheet or plate material)

Seamless Pipes and Seams Present in the parent metal Outer

Tubes (Round bar stock) Surface

182
183 | P a g e

Slugs Metal buildup on piercing Inner Surface

mandrel
Gouges Sizing mandrel dragging Inner Surface
Grinding Cracks Excess localized heat created Surface
between grinding wheel and
material
Heat Treating Stress Cracks Stress buildup by improper Surface
processing – unequal heating
or cooling
Explosive Forming Cracks and Tears Extreme deformation Surface
overstresses the material
Welding Crater Cracks Improper use of heat source Surface or
(Star, Transverse, Subsurface
Longitudinal)
Stress Cracks Stress built up by weld Surface
contraction (If material is
restrained)
Porosity Entrapped Gasses Surface or
Subsurface
Slag Inclusions Incomplete cleaning of slag Surface or
from the weld between Subsurface
passes
Tungsten Excessive current used Subsurface
Inclusions during tungsten – arc
welding
Lack of Improper welding technique Surface or
Penetration Subsurface
Lack of Fusion Improper welding technique Subsurface
Undercut Improper welding technique Surface
Overlapping Weld overlaps parent metal – Surface
not fused
Bending Cracks Overstress of Material Surface
Machining Tears Working with dull tools or Surface
cutting too deep
Pickling and Cracks Relief of internal stresses Surface
Erching
Electric plating Cracks Relief of internal stresses Surface

183
184 | P a g e

ARTICLE – 9
VISUAL EXAMINATION

T-910 SCOPE

a. This Article contains methods and requirements for visual examination

applicable when specified by a referencing Code Section. Specific visual
examination procedures required for every type of examination are not
included in this Article, because there are many applications where visual
examinations are required. Some examples of these applications include
nondestructive examinations, leak testing, in-service examinations and
fabrication procedures.
b. The requirements of Article 1, General Requirements, apply when visual
examination, in accordance with Article 9, is required by a referencing Code
Section.
c. Definitions of terms for visual examination appear in Article 1, Appendix I –
Glossary of Terms in Nondestructive Examination, and Article 9, Appendix I.

T-920 GENERAL

T-921 Performance

Visual examination to this Article, when required by the referencing Code Sections, shall
be performed to a written procedure prepared by the user.

T-922 Personnel Requirements

The user of this Article shall be responsible for assigning qualified personnel to perform
visual examinations to the requirement of this Article. At the option of the manufacture,
he may maintain one certification for each product, or several separate signed records
based on the area or type of work, or both combined. Where impractical to use
specialized visual examination personnel, knowledgeable and trained personnel, having
limited qualifications, may be used to perform specific examinations, and to sign the
report forms. Personnel performing examinations shall be qualified in accordance with
requirements of the referencing Code Section.

184
185 | P a g e

TABLE T-923
REQUIREMENTS OF A VISUAL EXAMINATION PROCEDURE

Essential Non Essential

Requirement (As Applicable Variable Variable
Technique used X
Surface Condition X
Surface preparation/cleaning X
Method or Tool(s) required for surface preparation X
Direct or Indirect Viewing method X
Special Illumination X
Equipment to be used X
Sequence of performing examination X
Data to be documented X
Report Forms to be Completed X
Personnel Qualifications X
Procedure Qualification Reference X

T-923 Procedure

T-923.1 Requirements. Visual examinations shall be performed in accordance with

a written procedure, which shall, as a minimum, contain the requirements listed in Table
T-923. The written procedure shall establish a single value of range of values, for each
requirement.

T-923.2 Procedure Qualification. When procedure qualification is specified, a

change of a requirement in Table T-923 identified as an essential variable form the
specified value, or range of values, shall require requalification of the written procedure.
Where a range is specified for an essential variable, the bounding values of the range
shall be qualified by demonstration. A change of a requirement identified as a
nonessential variable from the specified value, or range of values does not require
requalification of the written procedure. All changes of essential or nonessential
variables from the value, or range of values specified by the written procedure. All
changes of essential or nonessential variables from the value, or range of values specified
by the written procedure shall require revision of, or an addendum to, the written
procedure.

T-930 EQUIPMENT

185
186 | P a g e

Equipment used for visual examination techniques, for example, direct, remote, or
transluscent, shall have the capabilities as specified in the procedure. Capabilities
include, but are not limited to viewing, magnifying, identifying, measuring, and/or
recording observations in accordance with requirements of the referencing Code Section.

T-940MISCELLANEOUS REQUIREMENTS

T-941Procedure Requirements

The procedure shall contain or reference a report of what was used to demonstrate the
examination procedure was adequate. In general, a fine line 1/32 in. (0.8 mm) or less in
width, an artificial imperfection or a simulated condition, located on the surface or a
similar surface to that to be examined, may be considered as a method for procedure
demonstration. The condition or artificial imperfection should be in the least discernable
location on the area surface to be examined to validate the procedure.

Note: T-941.3 is a non-essential variable (See Table T-923)

T-941.1 Visual examination shall be performed in accordance with a written procedure.

T-941.2 A written procedure, when required in accordance with T-150, shall include at
least the following:

a. how visual examination is to be performed

b. type of surface condition and criteria for surface cleaning;
c. cleaning instructions or reference to cleaning procedures:
d. method or tool for surface preparation, if any;
e. whether direct or remote viewing is used;
f. special illumination, instruments, or equipment to be used, if any;
g. sequence of performing examination, when applicable;
h. data to be tabulated, if any;
i. report forms or general statement to be completed.

T-941.3 In some instances it is preferable to relate the procedure to a specific component

or surface such as the internal examination of a weld many feet from the open end of a
tube or tubes of several sizes, but procedures may be in a general form applicable without
adaptation to a variety of unlisted products or situations, thereby reducing the number of
written procedures required.

T-941.4 The procedure shall contain or reference a report of what was used to
demonstrate that the examination procedure was adequate. In general, a fine line 1/32 in.
(0.8 mm) or less in width, or some other artificial flaw located on the surface or a similar
surface to that to be examined, may be considered a test method for this demonstration.
The line or artificial flaw should be in the least discernible location on the area examined,
to prove the procedure.

186
187 | P a g e

T-941.5 Substituting one equipment manufacturer’s equipment for another, or changes

in the details of test arrangement, will not require requalification.

T-942 Physical Requirements

Personnel shall have an annual vision test to assure natural or corrected near distance
acuity such that they are capable of reading standard J-1 letters on standard Jaeger test
type charts for near vision. Equivalent near vision tests are acceptable.

T-950 TECHNIQUE

T-951 Applications

Visual examination is generally used to determine such things as the surface condition of
the part, alignment of mating surfaces, shape, or evidence of leaking. In addition, visual
examination is used to determine a composite material’s (translucent laminate)
subsurface conditions.

T-952Direct Visual Examination

Direct visual examination may usually be made when access is sufficient to place the eye
within 24 in. (610 mm) of the surface to be examined and at an angle not less than 30
deg. To the surface to be examine. Mirrors may be used to improve the angle of vision,
and ids such as a magnifying lens may be used to assist examinations. Illumination
(natural or supplemental white light) for the specific part, component, vessel or section
therof being examined is required. The minimum light intensity at the examination
surface/site shall be 100 footcandles (1000 lux). The light source, technique used, and
light level verification is required to be demonstrated one time, documented, and
maintained on file. Personnel shall have an annual vision test to assure natural or
corrected near distance acuity such that they are capable of reading standard J-1 letters on
standard Jaeger test type charts for near vision. Equivalent near vision tests are
acceptable.
T-953Remote Visual Examination

In some cases, remote visual examination may have to be substituted for direct
examination. Remote visual examination may use visual aids such as mirrors, telescopes,
borescopes, fiber optics, cameras, or other suitable instruments. Such systems shall have
a resolution cpabilt8ya t least equivalent to that obtained by direct visual observation.

T954 Translucent Visual examination

187
188 | P a g e

Translucent visual examination is a supplement of direct visual examination. The

method of translucent visual examination uses the aid of artificial lighting, which can be
contained in an illuminator that produces directional lighting. The illuminator that
produces directional lighting. The illuminator shall provide light of an intensity that will
illuminate and diffuse the light evenly through the area or region under examination. The
ambient lighting; must be so arranged that there are no surface glares or reflections from
the surface under examination and shall be less than the light applied through the area or
region under examination. The artificial light source shall have sufficient intensity to
permit “candling” any translucent laminate thickness variations.

T-980EVALUATION

T-980.1 All examination shall be evaluated in terms of the acceptance standards of the
referencing Code Section.

T-980.2 An examination checklist shall be used to plan visual examination and to verify
that the required visual observations were performed. This checklist establishes
minimum examination requirements and dose not indicate the maximum examination
which the Manufacturer may perform in process.

T-990DOCUMENTATION

T-991Report of Examination

T-991.1 A written report of the examination shall contain the following information:

a. the date of the examination;

b. procedure identification and revision used;
c. technique used;
d. results of the examination;
e. examination personnel identity, and, when required by the referencing Code
Section, qualification level;
f. identification of the part or component examined.

T-991.2 Even though dimensions, etc., were recorded in the process of visual
examination to aid in the evaluation, there need not be documentation of each viewing or
each dimensional check. Documentation shall include all the observation and
dimensional checks specified by the referencing Code Section.
T-992 Performance Documentation

Documentation of performance demonstration shall be completed when required by the

referencing Code Section.

T-993Record Maintenance

188
189 | P a g e

Records shall be maintained as required by the referencing Code Section.

ARTICLE 9
MANDATORY APPENDIX

APPENDIX I – GLOSSARY OF TERMS FOR VISUAL

EXAMIANTION

I-910 SCOPE

This Mandatory Appendix is used for the purpose of establishing standard terms and
definitions of terms related to Visual Examination which appear in Article 9.

I-920 GENERAL

a. Article 30, SE-1316, Section 9, provides the definition of footcandle (fc).

b. Definitions of terms for visual examination and other methods appear in
Article 1, Mandatory Appendix I, Glossary to Terms for Nondestructive
Examination.
c. The following Code terms are used in conjunction with Article 9:
Artificial flaw – an intentional imperfection placed on the surface of a material
to depict a representative flaw condition.
Auxiliary lighting – an artificial light source used as a visual aid to improve
viewing conditions and visual perception.
Candling – see translucent visual examination
Direct visual examination – a visual examination technique performed by eye
and without any visual aids (excluding light source, mirrors, and/or corrective
lenses).
Enhanced visual examination – a visual examination technique using visual
aids to improve the viewing capability, e.g., magnifying aids, borescopes,
video probes, fiber optics, etc
Lux (Lx) – a unit of illumination equal to the direct illumination on a surface
that is everywhere one meter from a uniform point source of one candle
intensity or equal to one lumen per square meter.
Remote visual examination – a visual examination technique used with visual
aids for conditions where the area to be examined is inaccessible for direct
visual examination.
Surface glare – reflections of artificial light that interfere with visual
examination.

189
 190 | P a g e

Translucent laminate – a series of glass reinforced layers, bonded together,

and having capabilities of transmitting light.
Translucent visual examination- a technique using artificial lighting intensity
to permit viewing of translucent thickness variations (also called candling)
Visual examination- a nondestructive examination method used to evaluate an
item by observation, such as: the correct assembly, surface conditions, or
cleanliness of materials, parts and components used in the fabrication and
construction of ASME Code vessels and hardware

TABLE K341.3.2A
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR WELDS

Criteria (A-E) for Types of Welds, and for Required

Examinations Methods [Note (1)]
Methods Type of Weld
Type of Imperfection Visual 100% Girth Longitudin Fillet Branch
Radiograp Groove al [Note Connectio
hy Groove (3)] n
[Note (2)] [Note (4)]
Crack X X A A A A
Lack of fusion X X A A A A
Incomplete penetration X X A A A A
Internal porosity X B B NA B
Slag inclusion or X C C NA C
elongated indication
Undercutting X X A A A A
Surface porosity or X A A A A
exposed slag inclusion
Concave root surface X X D D NA D
(suck-up)
Surface Finish X E E E E
Reinforcement or X F F F F
internal proturusion

GENERAL NOTE: X = required examination; NA = not applicable; … = not required

190
191 | P a g e

Criterion Value Notes for Table K3413.3.2A

Criterion Acceptable Value Limits [Note(5)]

Symbol Measure
A Extent of imperfection Zero (no evident imperfection)
B Size and distribution of internal porosity See BPV Code, Section VII,
Division 1, Appendix 4
C Slag inclusion or elongated indication
Individual length ≤ Tw/4 and < 5/32 in. (4.0 mm)
Individual width ≤ Tw/4 and < 5/32 in. (4.0 mm)
Cumulative length ≤ Tw/4 any 12 Tw weld length
D Depth of surface concavity Total joint thickness including weld
reinforcement, > Tw
E Surface roughness < 500 in. Ra per ASME B46.1
F Height of reinforcement or internal protrusion Wall Thickness External Weld
[Note (6)] in any plane through the weld shall Tw in. (mm) Reinforecement
be within the limits of the applicable height or Internal Weld
value in the tabulation at the right. Weld metal Protrusion
shall be fused with and merge smoothly into the < 2/2 (12.7) 2/26 (1.6)
component surfaces. > 2/2 < 2 (50.8) 2/8 (3.2)
>2 5/32 (4.0)

NOTES:
1) Criteria given are for required examination. More stringent criteria may be specified
in the engineering design.
2) Longitudinal welds include only those permitted in paras. K302.3.4 and K305. The
radiographic criteria shall be met by all welds, including those made in accordance
with a standard listed in Table K326.1 or in Appendix K.
3) Fillet welds include only those permitted in para 311.2.5(b)
4) Branch connection welds include only those permitted in para. K328.5.4.
5) Where two limiting values are given, the lesser measured value governs acceptance.
6) For groove welds, height is the lesser of the measurements made form the surfaces of
the adjacent components. For fillet welds, height is measurement from the theoretical
throat; internal protrusion does not apply. Required thickness tm shall not include
reinforcement or internal protrusion.

191
192 | P a g e

CHAPTER 8
WELD AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES

1. In ‘service’ inspection of hot forging dies are likely to reveal

a. Herringbone cracks
b. Forging burst
c. Thermal checks
d. Laps

2. Cracks occurring at a change of cross section, due to restrained shrinkage

during solidification of a casting are called
a. Hot cracks
b. Restraint cracks
c. Hot tear
d. Hot checks

3. A discontinuity associated with metal overflow during forging is called a :

a. Seam.
b. Flake.
c. Lap.
d. Lamination.

4. A jagged, nonintegrally bonded piece of metal that leaves a depression in

another metal after it is removed, is called a :
a. Seam.
b. Blister.
c. Scab.
d. Gouge.

5. A discontinuity that is not associated with welds is :

a. Undercut.
b. Overlap.
c. Laminations.
d. Under fill.

192
193 | P a g e

6. A discontinuity with a small star-shaped pattern where a weld a starts or stops is

usually an indication of :
a. Surface porosity.
b. Undercut.
c. A crater crack.
d. Slag.

193
194 | P a g e

7. The initiation of a fatigue crack could occur at :

a. Weld toes.
b. Notches.
c. Section changes.
d. Thread roots.
e. All of the above.

8. A welding discontinuity typically referred to as distortion is caused by :

a. The use of a tungsten electrode in the gtaw welding process.
b. The uncontrolled heating and cooling of the weld metal.
c. Exposure to radiation and other nde techniques.
d. The excess amount of porosity in the weld metal.

9. Cracks, suckback, undercut and overlap are discontinuities found in :

a. Castings.
b. Forgings.
c. Extrusions.
d. Weldments.

10. In welding , weld metal protrusion beyond the fusion line at the weld toe is
called:
a. Overlap.
b. Undercut.
c. Reinforcement.
d. Incomplete fusion.

11. Cracking under the combined action of corrosion and tensile stress is referred to
as:
a. Fatigue cracking.
b. Creep cracking.
c. Stress corrosion cracking.
d. Tensile stress cracking.

12. A groove formed at the toe or root of a weld when the base metal is melted away
and left unfilled by weld metal is referred to as :
a. Underfill.
b. Cold lap.
c. Crack.
d. Undercut.

13. Hot tears, inclusions, porosity and cold shuts are :

a. Forging discontinuities.
b. Casting discontinuities.
c. Welding discontinuities.
d. Processing discontinuities

194
195 | P a g e

14. A discontinuities that appears as a series of remelted dots beside a weld,

resembling a trial left in striking a match is called :
a. Linear porosity.
b. Are strikes.
c. Undercut.
d. Slag.

15. A protrusion or rollover of weld metal beyond the toe or root is called :
a. Overlap.
b. Undercut.
c. Reinforcement.
d. Overfilled.

16. Cheverons may occur in :

a. Plates.
b. Weldments.
c. Bar stock.
d. Valve castings

17. A discontinuities that is found in bars and forgings, which is caused by the
rupture of metal forged at either too low or too high temperatures, is called
a. Pipe.
b. Seam.
c. Cupping.
d. Internal burst.

18. A cause for undercut that occurs during the welding process is called :
a. Excessive voltage or current.
b. Slow travel speed.
c. Excessive travel speed.
d. Both a and c above.

19. A rounded discontinuity that occurs in the weld and is then distributed in line,
parallel with the weld is called :
a. Melt-through.
b. Linear porosity.
c. Cluster porosity.
d. A crack.

20. An inherent discontinuity associated with the original solidification of metal in

the ingot is called :
a. A seam.
b. Thermal fatigue.
c. A hot tear.
d. Porosity

195
196 | P a g e

21. Discontinuities associated with the casting process are :

a. Inclusions.
b. Hot tears.
c. Porosity.
d. All of the above

22. A reduction in ductility due to in-service or pre-service environments is called :

a. Embrittlement.
b. Hydrogen fatigue cracking.
c. Thermal fatigue.
d. Intergranular stress corrosion cracking.

23. Metals that become weaker due to continuing deformation under steady stress at
elevated temperatures demonstrate :
a. Thermal fatigue.
b. Stress corrosion cracking.
c. Corrosion reduction.
d. Creep.

24. A nonfusion discontinuity that is located at the root area of a welded joint is
called :
a. Porosity.
b. A hot tear.
c. Incomplete joint penetration.
d. All of the above.

25. In casting process, a chaplet is :

a. A device that supports the core material.
b. A device that is used as a heat shink.
c. A ragged, irregularly shaped discontinuity.
d. All of the above.

26. The three stages of fatigue are :

a. Initiation, propagation, and failure.
b. Initiation, branching, and expansion.
c. Stress, temperature and propagation.
d. None of the above.

27. Discontinuities that originate during the melting and original solidification of
the metal in the ingot are categorized as :
a. Forming discontinuities
b. Inherent discontinuities.
c. Process discontinuities.
d. Service-induced discontinuities.

196
197 | P a g e

28. All casting discontinuities are considered to be :

a. Inherent.
b. Primary processing.
c. Secondary processing.
d. Service induced.

29. Failure to adequately penetrate the weld root of a groove weld is called :
a. Lack of fusion.
b. Excessive penetration.
c. Incomplete joint penetration.
d. Undercut.

30. Repeated fluctuating stress having a maximum value less than the tensile
strength of the material is called :
a. A crack.
b. Mechanical fatigue.
c. Thermal fatigue.
d. Stress corrosion cracking.

31. Cracks can occur in :

a. Forgings.
b. Castings.
c. Welds.
d. All of the above.

32. The structure and shape of mechanical fatigue type cracking is best described
as:
a. Multiple indications or brazing.
b. Relatively straight and non branched.
c. Multiple inter granular indications.
d. All of the above.

33. A crater crack is formed :

a. At the junction between weld beads.
b. At the start and stop of a weld bead.
c. In the base material during the rolling process.
d. In the base material during the forging process.

34. A common processing discontinuity for a bolt is :

a. A burst.
b. Porosity.
c. Necking down.
d. All of the above.

197
198 | P a g e

35. Primarily, piping leaks occur at components such as :

a. Integral attachments.
b. Bolted connections.
c. Valves.
d. All of the above.
e. Both b and c above.

36. A hanger assembly that is attached to a pipe with a pipe clamp is considered to
be:
a. A class 1 component support.
b. An integral attachments.
c. A restraint assembly.
d. A non integral attachment.

37. A condition that is caused by unintentional rapid heating of the base metal or
weld metal and subsequent rapid cooling of the molten material, which results in
extremely high heat input and causes localized hardness and cracking, is called :
a. Undercut.
b. Arc strike.
c. Weld spatter.
d. Overlap.

38. During the visual examination of a forging, a folded thin flap of metal was
observed. This is typically called :
a. Forging porosity.
b. A cold shut.
c. A crack.
d. A surface lap.

39. Arc strikes are typically caused by :

a. Molten particles splashed that are splashed out of the molten puddle.
b. Excessive heat during the welding process.
c. The use of improper or wet electrodes.
d. Welding operator error.

40. The heat-affected zone is the portion of the :

a. Metal that is added to produce the weld joint.
b. Base metal that has been melted and solidified.
c. Base metal that has not been melted but where properties have been
altered by the welding heat.
d. Original metal that is welded.

41. During the visual inspection of castings, chills and chaplets appear as :
a. Rounded indication s.
b. U – shaped indications.
c. Chills appear as rounded indications but chaplets will appear as u- shaped.
d. No definite description of these discontinuities is possible.

198
199 | P a g e

42. Visual testing of low stress applications, such as the sheets of composite
material bonded to a honeycomb core, may reveal :
a. Cracks and voids.
b. Cracks and delamination.
c. Large voids and delamination.
d. Cracks, large voids, and delamination.

43. Cracks occurring at a change of cross section, due to restrained shrinkage

during solidification of a casting are called
a. Hot cracks
b. Restraint cracks
c. Hot tear
d. Hot checks

44. Cracks parallel to plate surfaces developed in 2 plates subjected to transverse

load are called
a. Transverse tears
b. Plate tears
c. lamellar tears
d. Tensile tears

45. Slivers are likely to be seen in a:

a. Casting(sand)
b. Rolled bar
c. Casting (investment)
d. Forged bolt

46. Misrun is a discontinuity likely to be seen in

a. An ingot
b. A casting
c. A welding
d. In service part

47. Typical composite discontinuities would be

a. Hot tear, lamination , bonds
b. Matrix cracks, lamination, voids
c. Delamination , matrix cracks, voids.
d. All of the above

48. Typical cracks in case hardened rolling surfaces would be

a. Surface micro cracks
b. Radial flakes
c. Subsurface cracks at case boundary parallel to rolling surface
d. Subsurface cracks at case boundary perpendicular to rolling surface

199
200 | P a g e

49. Cavitation fatigue damage is most likely to occur in

a. Aircraft wing
b. Marine propeller
c. Pump impeller
d. All of the above
e. B or c only

50. Unfused chaplets are likely to be visually in

a. Composite materials
b. Powder metallurgy parts
c. Castings(sand)
d. Extruded pipes

51. Complete penetration is not likely in

a. Butt joint
b. Lap joint
c. Edge joint
d. All of the above

52. The difference between discontinuities and defects is that

a. A defect is a rejectable discontinuity
b. Discontinuities affect the base metal, whereas defects affect the weld metal
c. There should be no distinction between discontinuities and defects
d. A discontinuity is a rejectable

53. Tungsten inclusions are found during

a. Gmaw
b. Gtaw
c. Smaw
d. None of the above

54. Discontinuities that are produced during the hot or cold working of the ingot
into rod or bar to make studs are called
a. Inherent discontinuities
b. Primary processing discontinuities
c. Secondary processing discontinuities
d. Service – induced discontinuities

55. Discontinuities associated with welds may be classified as

a. Dimensional, process, and mechanical
b. Process,mechanical and basemetal
c. Mechanical, dimensional and process
d. Dimensional, processes, mechanical and base metal

200
201 | P a g e

56. What type of discontinuity is not expected in gtaw?

a. Tungsten inclusion
b. Slag inclusion
c. Lack of penetration
d. Lack of fusion

57. Lamellar tear is the discontinuity occurring in

a. Along the fusion zone
b. Center of the weld
c. Parent metal
d. None of the above

201
202 | P a g e

CHAPTER ANSWERS
CHAPTER – 1
[Link]. ANS [Link]. ANS
1 C 41 A
2 A 42 C
3 B 43 B
4 C 44 B
5 B 45 D
6 D 46 C
7 A 47 B
8 B 48 D
9 B 49 C
10 DIFFERENT 50 A
11 SAME 51 B
12 A 52 D
13 A 53 D
14 B 54 D
15 C 55 D
16 A 56 A
17 C 57 D
18 C 58 D
19 B 59 E
20 A 60 D
21 C 61 A
22 B 62 E
23 D 63 D
24 C 64 C
25 C 65 D
26 C 66 D
27 C 67 A
28 B 68 E
29 C 69 A
30 D 70 D
31 C 71 B
32 A 72 E
33 D 73 A
34 B 74 C
35 C 75 C
36 B 76 E
37 B 77 A
38 D 78 A
39 A 79 B
40 C

202
203 | P a g e

CHAPTER – 2

[Link] ANS [Link] ANS [Link] ANS [Link] ANS [Link] ANS
1 A 21 D 41 C 61 C 81 C
2 A 22 B 42 B 62 B 82 C
3 B 23 A 43 D 63 C 83 D
4 B 24 C 44 C 64 D 84 B
5 C 25 B 45 E 65 C 85 A
6 C 26 B 46 B 66 B 86 E
7 A 27 C 47 D 67 C 87 A
8 B 28 C 48 A 68 D 88 D
9 C 29 A 49 C 69 E 89 D
10 A 30 C 50 D 70 B
11 B 31 C 51 B 71 B
12 C 32 A 52 D 72 B
13 A 33 C 53 C 73 A
14 C 34 A 54 E 74 B
15 D 35 D 55 A 75 A
16 D 36 B 56 D 76 D
17 C 37 D 57 D 77 C
18 B 38 A 58 E 78 B
19 C 39 D 59 C 79 B
20 E 40 B 60 D 80 C

CHAPTER - 3 CHAPTER - 4
[Link] ANS [Link] ANS [Link] ANS
1 B 1 D 15 D
2 A 2 B 16 D
3 C 3 A 17 A
4 A 4 B 18 C
5 C 5 D 19 A
6 A 6 A
7 B 7 C
8 A 8 B
9 C 9 D
10 D
11 C
12 B
13 C
14 C

203
204 | P a g e

CHAPTER – 5
[Link] ANS [Link] ANS [Link] ANS [Link] ANS [Link] ANS
1 B 21 D 41 A 61 B 81 A
2 A 22 C 42 A 62 B 82 D
3 A 23 B 43 B 63 C 83 A
4 B 24 A 44 C 64 D 84 B
5 B 25 D 45 B 65 E 85 C
6 D 26 A 46 D 66 C 86 B
7 D 27 D 47 D 67 D
8 B 28 B 48 A 68 B
9 C 29 A 49 C 69 E
10 D 30 A 50 A 70 D
11 B 31 D 51 A 71 A
12 D 32 C 52 D 72 D
13 B 33 C 53 B 73 D
14 B 34 D 54 C 74 B
15 C 35 D 55 D 75 C
16 D 36 D 56 A 76 A
17 B 37 D 57 B 77 C
18 C 38 B 58 C 78 D
19 D 39 D 59 D 79 A
20 D 40 D 60 D 80 C

CHAPTER – 6 CHAPTER – 7
[Link] ANS [Link] ANS [Link] ANS [Link] ANS
1 A 21 D 41 A 1 C
2 C 22 A 2 A
3 C 23 B 3 B
4 C 24 E 4 B
5 C 25 B 5 A
6 A 26 C 6 C
7 A 27 C 7 D
8 D 28 B 8 B
9 C 29 C 9 C
10 B 30 C 10 B
11 C 31 B 11 B
12 B 32 C 12 D
13 A 33 C 13 C
14 B 34 D 14 A
15 C 35 B 15 C
16 D 36 C 16 C
17 C 37 A 17 B
18 B 38 A 18 C
19 D 39 A 19 D
20 D 40 D 20 C
21 A

204
205 | P a g e

CHAPTER 8

[Link] ANS [Link] ANS [Link] ANS

1 C 21 D 41 D
2 C 22 A 42 C
3 C 23 A 43 C
4 C 24 C 44 C
5 C 25 A 45 B
6 C 26 A 46 B
7 E 27 B 47 C
8 B 28 A 48 A
9 D 29 C 49 D
10 A 30 B 50 C
11 C 31 D 51 B
12 D 32 B 52 A
13 B 33 B 53 B
14 B 34 A 54 B
15 A 35 E 55 D
16 C 36 D 56 B
17 D 37 B 57 C
18 D 38 D
19 B 39 D
20 C 40 C

205