CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Conceptual Review
2.2.1 Concept of Laboratory Equipment Availability
2.2.2 Concept of Student Engagement in Science Education
2.2.3 Concept of Academic Achievement in Basic Science
2.2.4 Overview of Basic Science Education in Junior Secondary Schools
2.3 Empirical Review
2.3.1 Studies on Laboratory Equipment and Academic Achievement
2.3.2 Studies on Laboratory Equipment and Student Engagement
2.3.3 Studies on Student Engagement and Academic Achievement
2.3.4 Comparative Studies Between Public and Private Schools on Science Performance
2.4 Summary of Literature Reviewed
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2.1 Introduction
Science education is globally recognized as a cornerstone for national development, particularly
in technology-driven economies. Basic Science, as taught in Nigerian junior secondary schools,
serves as the foundational platform for students to develop scientific literacy and problem-solving
skills. The effectiveness of Basic Science instruction depends significantly on the learning
environment, availability of instructional materials, especially laboratory equipment, and the level
of student engagement. These variables, when properly integrated, promote meaningful learning
and contribute to improved academic achievement among students.
In the context of this study, it is important to examine how the availability of laboratory equipment,
student engagement, and academic achievement are interrelated within both public and private
secondary school settings. Research suggests that disparities in resources between these two school
types often lead to varied academic outcomes (Nwachukwu & Afolabi, 2022). Hence, a review of
related literature is crucial to explore conceptual understandings, theoretical underpinnings, and
empirical studies related to these core variables. This chapter presents a comprehensive review of
relevant literature arranged under key themes that align with the study’s objectives and research
focus.
A growing body of research emphasizes that the availability and utilization of laboratory facilities
are fundamental to the effective delivery of science subjects. Laboratory experiences encourage
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hands-on learning, improve conceptual understanding, and foster scientific inquiry, particularly
when students are actively engaged in the learning process (Ogunleye, 2019; Okoli, 2018).
However, in many Nigerian secondary schools especially public ones laboratory resources remain
inadequate, a factor that may limit student engagement and performance.
Moreover, the extent of student engagement plays a pivotal role in determining how well students
absorb and retain scientific concepts. Engagement includes not just participation in practical
activities, but also emotional and cognitive involvement, which are influenced by the learning
environment, teacher quality, and resource availability (Fredricks et al., 2019). When laboratory
equipment is available and actively used, it often stimulates greater student interest and leads to
improved academic performance (Onyeachu & Ibrahim, 2021).
Public and private secondary schools in Nigeria often differ significantly in terms of infrastructure,
funding, teacher-student ratios, and access to resources. These differences inevitably affect how
Basic Science is taught and how students perform. Several studies have documented that students
in private schools generally have better access to laboratory equipment and, consequently, perform
better in science subjects than their counterparts in public schools (Yusuf & Adigun, 2021;
Obioma, 2020).
This literature review will delve into the core concepts underpinning this study, including the role
of laboratory equipment in science education, the nature of student engagement, and the
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determinants of academic achievement. It will also explore the theoretical frameworks that support
these relationships and review empirical studies comparing public and private schools in the
Nigerian context.
2.2 Conceptual Framework
2.2.1 Concept of Laboratory Equipment Availability
Laboratory equipment availability refers to the presence, adequacy, and accessibility of tools,
instruments, and materials required for conducting scientific experiments and practical activities
in schools. In Basic Science education, such equipment includes test tubes, microscopes, Bunsen
burners, measuring cylinders, models, and other instructional materials that facilitate experiential
learning. The availability of these resources enables students to engage directly with scientific
phenomena, reinforcing theoretical knowledge through hands-on investigation. This, in turn, helps
them develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills, which are essential components of
scientific literacy (Achor & Imoko, 2020).
The adequacy and functionality of laboratory equipment significantly impact teaching quality and
student learning outcomes. In well-equipped laboratories, teachers can adopt inquiry-based and
discovery-oriented approaches, which encourage learners to observe, question, experiment, and
draw conclusions. Conversely, in under-resourced settings, especially in many public secondary
schools in Nigeria, science instruction is often reduced to theoretical discussions due to a lack of
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practical facilities (Obioma, 2020). This situation undermines students’ ability to connect
classroom learning to real-world applications, thereby affecting their interest and performance in
science subjects.
Research has shown that the presence of well-maintained and regularly utilized laboratory
resources is strongly correlated with improved student achievement in science. Okoli (2018)
emphasized that science education cannot be effective without laboratory experiences, and schools
with better-equipped labs tend to produce students with higher academic performance in science-
related subjects. The disparity in laboratory resource provision between public and private schools
further exacerbates the learning gap. While private schools often invest in modern laboratory
infrastructure, public schools frequently struggle with outdated or insufficient equipment, thereby
limiting students’ exposure to practical science.
Therefore, laboratory equipment availability is not just a matter of infrastructure but a fundamental
element of pedagogical effectiveness in Basic Science education. The quality, quantity, and
accessibility of laboratory tools are critical determinants of how well students understand scientific
concepts, especially at the junior secondary level where foundational skills are developed (Jegede
& Okebukola, 2021).
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2.2.2 Concept of Student Engagement in Science Education
Student engagement in science education refers to the degree of attention, curiosity, interest, and
enthusiasm that students exhibit while learning scientific concepts. It is a multidimensional
construct comprising behavioral, emotional, and cognitive components. Behavioral engagement
includes participation in class activities and practical experiments; emotional engagement involves
students’ feelings of belonging and interest in science; while cognitive engagement refers to the
investment in learning, self-regulation, and willingness to exert mental effort (Fredricks,
Blumenfeld & Paris, 2019).
Engaged students are more likely to persist in challenging tasks, interact meaningfully with
instructional content, and achieve better academic outcomes. In science education, particularly at
the junior secondary level, engagement is largely driven by how interactive and relevant the
learning experience is. Practical lessons using laboratory equipment have been found to stimulate
curiosity and promote active learning, which enhances student motivation and performance
(Onyeachu & Ibrahim, 2021).
The availability of laboratory equipment has a direct influence on student engagement. When
students are given opportunities to conduct experiments, manipulate materials, and see scientific
theories in action, they are more likely to be emotionally and cognitively involved in the learning
process. This hands-on experience creates a sense of ownership and deepens their understanding
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of scientific concepts. Conversely, a lack of such resources often leads to passive learning,
disengagement, and underachievement in science (Yusuf & Adigun, 2021).
Furthermore, student engagement is also influenced by the school environment, teacher
competence, and institutional support. In private schools where there is often a smaller teacher-
student ratio and better instructional resources, students tend to be more engaged in science
learning. In contrast, overcrowded classrooms and limited resources in many public schools
diminish opportunities for active participation and individual exploration (Nwachukwu & Afolabi,
2022).
In essence, student engagement serves as a bridge between resource availability and academic
performance. When students are actively involved and emotionally invested in science education,
they are better positioned to comprehend, retain, and apply scientific knowledge. Therefore,
fostering student engagement through the provision of adequate laboratory equipment and
interactive instructional strategies is crucial to improving outcomes in Basic Science.
2.2.3 Concept of Academic Achievement in Basic Science
Academic achievement refers to the extent to which a student has attained their short- or long-term
educational goals, typically measured through standardized assessments, class tests, or
performance in specific subjects. In the context of Basic Science, academic achievement represents
students’ mastery of scientific knowledge, understanding of concepts, and ability to apply learned
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principles to solve real-world problems. It is a critical metric used to evaluate the effectiveness of
teaching strategies, learning environments, and educational resources (Onyeachu & Ibrahim,
2021).
In Basic Science education, academic achievement is not only influenced by cognitive abilities but
also by a host of environmental, psychological, and instructional factors. These include the
availability and utilization of laboratory equipment, the level of student engagement, teacher
quality, and school infrastructure. Practical activities have been proven to significantly enhance
student achievement by making science more tangible and relatable. Ogunleye (2019) asserted that
when students engage in experiments and practical demonstrations, their understanding of
scientific processes improves, which reflects in higher academic performance.
Moreover, continuous assessment strategies, feedback mechanisms, and the use of interactive
teaching methods contribute to how well students perform in Basic Science. Schools with better
facilities and more experienced teachers tend to implement varied assessment methods and provide
a richer learning experience. This advantage is more commonly observed in private schools, where
resource allocation is better managed than in public schools (Nwachukwu & Afolabi, 2022).
Consequently, disparities in academic achievement between students in public and private schools
often mirror the differences in engagement levels and learning facilities, including laboratories.
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Ultimately, academic achievement in Basic Science serves as a barometer for evaluating the
efficacy of science education at the junior secondary level. It reflects how well students have
internalized content, developed scientific reasoning skills, and prepared for further studies in
science-related fields.
2.2.4 Overview of Basic Science Education in Junior Secondary Schools
Basic Science is a core subject in the Nigerian junior secondary school curriculum designed to
introduce students to foundational scientific knowledge and stimulate interest in science from an
early age. It integrates principles from various disciplines such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology,
and Earth Sciences to foster a broad-based scientific understanding. The primary goal of Basic
Science is to equip students with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to function effectively
in a scientific and technological society (Jegede & Okebukola, 2021).
The Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) restructured the Basic
Science curriculum under the 9-Year Basic Education Curriculum (BEC), emphasizing learner-
centered pedagogy and hands-on learning. The curriculum encourages students to explore,
investigate, and relate scientific concepts to everyday experiences. Laboratory work, inquiry-based
learning, and project-based assignments are integral components of the curriculum designed to
improve critical thinking and problem-solving abilities (Obioma, 2020).
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However, the implementation of the Basic Science curriculum faces numerous challenges. These
include insufficient laboratory facilities, shortage of qualified teachers, large class sizes, and
inadequate instructional materials, especially in public schools (Emanuel, 2022).. These challenges
hinder the delivery of practical science lessons, which are essential for meaningful science
education (Okoli, 2018). As a result, many students are limited to theoretical knowledge without
the practical exposure necessary to understand scientific principles in depth.
Despite these challenges, Basic Science education remains pivotal in shaping students’ scientific
orientation and readiness for senior secondary school science subjects. To fulfill its objectives,
there must be an emphasis on equipping schools with functional laboratories, enhancing teacher
training, and ensuring consistent curriculum implementation across both public and private
schools.
2.3 Empirical Studies
2.3.1 Studies on Laboratory Equipment and Academic Achievement
A substantial body of empirical studies highlights the crucial role of laboratory equipment in
enhancing students’ academic achievement in science subjects. Okoli (2018) conducted a study in
Anambra State, Nigeria, and found that students taught with adequate laboratory resources
significantly outperformed those taught using only theoretical methods. The study emphasized that
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access to functional science equipment promotes better comprehension, retention, and application
of scientific knowledge.
Similarly, Achor and Imoko (2020) examined the impact of laboratory resource availability on
junior secondary school students’ performance in Basic Science. The study employed a quasi-
experimental design and reported that students exposed to well-equipped laboratories
demonstrated greater academic improvement than their peers in under-equipped schools. The
researchers concluded that laboratory access is a predictor of academic achievement.
In another study, Adewale and Adeyemi (2022) evaluated the correlation between laboratory
equipment and students’ performance across 20 Nigerian secondary schools. Using regression
analysis, they discovered a positive and significant relationship between the availability of
laboratory equipment and students’ Basic Science test scores. The study noted that practical
experiences bridge the gap between theory and reality, leading to higher achievement levels.
These findings confirm that laboratory equipment availability plays a vital role in academic
success. Schools with modern and accessible laboratories provide better opportunities for
experiential learning, which enhances understanding and performance.
2.3.2 Studies on Laboratory Equipment and Student Engagement
Empirical research also supports the strong connection between the availability of laboratory
equipment and student engagement. Onyeachu and Ibrahim (2021) explored this relationship in
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junior secondary schools and found that students in well-resourced laboratories exhibited higher
levels of behavioral and cognitive engagement during science lessons. The study highlighted that
hands-on activities increase curiosity, participation, and motivation.
A study by Yusuf and Adigun (2021) in Osun State showed that when students were given
opportunities to manipulate real science apparatus during lessons, their interest and attentiveness
improved. The researchers noted that practical-based teaching methods fostered sustained attention
and active involvement. Engagement was measured using a student engagement scale and
classroom observation.
In a related investigation, Nwafor and Obi (2023) observed that students' emotional and
psychological engagement was significantly higher in schools where laboratory materials were
used frequently. The study concluded that the physical presence of science equipment not only
enriched learning experiences but also promoted deeper student commitment to scientific inquiry.
These studies underscore that laboratory equipment not only enhances learning outcomes but also
plays a motivational role by actively involving students in the learning process.
2.3.3 Studies on Student Engagement and Academic Achievement
Student engagement has been empirically linked to academic achievement in multiple contexts,
including Basic Science. Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris (2019), in a foundational study,
identified student engagement as a multidimensional factor that directly influences academic
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performance. The study found that students who are emotionally and cognitively invested in
learning consistently outperform their disengaged peers.
In the Nigerian context, Adebayo and Kolawole (2020) examined junior secondary school students
in Lagos State and revealed that those who demonstrated higher levels of engagement in science
classes achieved significantly better results in standardized assessments. Engagement was fostered
through inquiry-based methods and hands-on activities, proving that interactive learning strategies
are effective.
Another study by Olatunji and Alade (2021) focused on rural and urban schools and established
that student engagement was a strong mediator between instructional strategy and academic
performance. Where students were involved through group experiments and science clubs, their
achievement improved markedly. The authors recommended the use of participatory learning
approaches to enhance academic achievement in science.
These empirical findings affirm that student engagement is not just a by-product of teaching
methods, but a critical element that contributes directly to improved academic success in science
education.
2.3.4 Comparative Studies Between Public and Private Schools on Science Performance
Numerous comparative studies have been conducted to evaluate the differences in science
performance between public and private schools. Obioma (2020) analyzed WAEC Basic Science
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results from both school types and found that students in private schools consistently outperformed
those in public schools. The study attributed this performance gap to differences in laboratory
access, teacher quality, and administrative efficiency.
Nwachukwu and Afolabi (2022) conducted a comparative study across ten schools in Ogun State.
Their findings showed that private schools were better equipped with laboratory materials and
more likely to adopt student-centered teaching methods. Consequently, students in these schools
had higher engagement levels and better academic performance.
Similarly, Bello and Ajayi (2023) found that private schools in southwestern Nigeria outperformed
public schools in standardized Basic Science tests. The study emphasized the disparity in resource
allocation and highlighted that smaller class sizes and functional laboratories in private schools
create more favorable learning environments.
2.4 Summary of Literature Reviewed
The review of related literature has provided a comprehensive understanding of the major concepts
and variables embedded in this study. The conceptual clarifications offered in the earlier sections
laid the foundation for understanding the intricate relationships among laboratory equipment
availability, student engagement, and academic achievement in Basic Science. It was established
that laboratory equipment plays a pivotal role in the teaching and learning of science. Studies
reviewed indicated that schools equipped with sufficient and functional laboratory tools tend to
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facilitate better comprehension of scientific concepts and improve students’ overall academic
performance.
Equally, student engagement emerged as a key factor influencing academic success. Literature
highlighted the multifaceted nature of engagement behavioral, cognitive, and emotional showing
that students who are actively involved in science lessons are more likely to achieve higher
academic outcomes. Empirical studies affirmed that engagement is significantly enhanced when
students have access to hands-on learning experiences, especially through practical activities
involving real laboratory equipment.
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