TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF HIGHER STUDIES OF

Tianguistenco

CAREER:

MECHATRONICS ENGINEERING

PROJECT:
SOLAR PANEL

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 INDEX

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.................................................................3

JUSTIFICATION..................................................................................................4

INTRODUCTION.................................................................5

GENERAL OBJECTIVE.........................................................................................6

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES................................................................................6

RENEWABLE ENERGIES...............................................................7
Solar energy...................................................................................................7
Wind energy.................................................................................................8
Energía geotérmica.........................................................................................8
Hydraulic energy.......................................................................................9
Electric energy...........................................................................................10
Energy to be used...........................................................................................10

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY...............................11

DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY.......................................................11

TYPES OF LIGHTING FIXTURES IN THE MARKET....................................................12

There are two types of solar lighting...............................12

QUOTE FOR MATERIALS.......................................................................13

Description of materials..............................................................................13

COUPLING OF ENERGIES.....................................................................15

ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT ELECTRICAL SYSTEM OF A SOLAR PANEL.....15

Solar panels or modules...............................................................15
Charge regulator or controller..............................................................16
Accumulators or batteries.............................................................................16
DC/AC inverter or converter.....................................................................16
Solar Panel.....................................................................................................16
Panel Connection.......................................................................................16
Series connection of solar cells..............................................................17
Parallel Connection of Solar Cells .................................................. 17
The charge controller or regulator...........................................................18

INSTALLATION OF A CHARGE CONTROLLER..........................................19

Charge regulator diagram.................................................................19

SOLAR BATTERIES AND STORAGE SYSTEMS................................21

Battery associations............................................................23
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 Inverter or DC/AC Converter.........................................................24

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Over the years, electric energy has been generated with fuels.
fossils which are of very high cost, are finite resources that, undoubtedly,
they are going to run out; hence their designation as non-renewable resources. In the
Currently, there are other alternatives to generate electricity through
renewable resources, which are defined as forms of energy that have
an practically inexhaustible source regarding the time of a human being
on the planet, and whose use is technically feasible. Within these
types of energy include solar, which is the most viable because it is
an infinite resource

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JUSTIFICATION

.
This project is carried out with the intention of being able to give it the importance and the
great care that this energy has. Moreover, it is necessary to take into account that
we must take care of the atmosphere, avoiding air pollution with gases
that the same man is taking care of producing the smoke from the cars,
the chemicals, among others; This makes the atmospheric layer that is the
in charge of protecting us from the sun's rays deteriorates and ends with the
existence of the world, since its rays are needed for the formation of
energy in plants but of a moderate intensity, which living beings
we can resist, in this way we will be able to have the correct energy and achieve
good results; But this whole process is not the only one involved in the
need to explain and apply solar energy around human beings.

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INTRODUCTION

The world is increasingly concerned about the growing changes that

experience the environment which is certainly negative and increasingly so
irreversible, human beings find themselves in the need to carry out activities that
to generate less environmental pollution, that is why the presentation of
this project seeks to demonstrate in a sustainable way to generate energy at
through the sun starting from home activities that and thus take advantage of the
available resources.

Photovoltaic solar panels generate electricity through conversion.

from the energy radiated by the sun. As the name suggests, photo means
what does 'light' and 'voltaic' 'electricity' mean. These panels are becoming more and more
interesting due to their effective use. Cleaner energy sources are in
high demand, due to the great benefits they provide. Efficiency
these renewable energy sources are getting better with progress of
the technology and which is becoming increasingly common. The advantage of the panels
solar and solar energy over other energies is that they can be used
easily at home.

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GENERAL OBJECTIVE

Demonstrate the generation and utilization of solar energy through

solar panels and develop a workable system to supply a classroom.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

Achieve the creation of the homemade solar panel

Achieve the operation of the homemade solar panel
Take advantage of the clean energy generated
To disclose the advantages that solar energy has for the environment
To demonstrate that solar energy can be used

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RENEWABLE ENERGIES

Renewable energies are those energies that come from resources

natural resources that do not run out and that can be resorted to in a way
permanent. Its environmental impact is null in the emission of greenhouse gases.
greenhouse like CO2.
Renewable energies are considered solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, the
hydraulic and electrical. Biomass can also be included in this group.
tide energy.

Solar energy

Solar energy is a renewable energy obtained from

utilization of the electromagnetic radiation coming from the Sun. The
Solar radiation that reaches the Earth has been harnessed by humans.
since ancient times, through different technologies that have been
evolving. Nowadays, the heat and light of the Sun can be harnessed by
through various collectors such as photovoltaic cells, heliostats or
solar collectors, capable of being transformed into electrical or thermal energy. It is
one of the so-called renewable energies or clean energies, which could
help solve some of the most urgent problems facing the
humanity.
The different solar technologies can be classified as passive or active.
according to how they capture, convert, and distribute solar energy. The technologies
active systems include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors
to collect energy. Among the passive techniques, there are different
techniques framed in bioclimatic architecture: the orientation of the
buildings in the sun, the selection of materials with a favorable thermal mass or
that have properties for light dispersion, as well as the design of
spaces through natural ventilation.

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Wind energy

Wind energy is the energy obtained from the wind, that is, the energy
kinetic energy generated by the effect of wind turbines, and which is converted into
electricity or other useful forms of energy for human activities.
Currently, wind energy is mainly used to produce
electricity through wind turbines connected to large networks of
electricity distribution. The wind farms built on land
they represent an increasingly cheaper and more competitive source of energy, and even
cheaper in many regions than other conventional energy sources.

Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is a renewable energy obtained through the

utilization of the heat from the interior of the earth that is transmitted through
the bodies of hot rock or reservoirs through conduction and convection, where

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processes of interaction between groundwater and rocks arise, giving rise to
to geothermal systems.
It can be considered that there are three types of geothermal deposits.
they could call:
Hot water
Dry
Geysers

Hydraulic energy

Hydraulic energy, water energy, or hydroenergy is the energy obtained from

utilization of the kinetic and potential energies of the current
water, waterfalls or tides. It can be transformed into very different
scales. For centuries, there have been small operations in which the
the current of a river, with a small dam, moves a water wheel and
generates a movement generally applied to mills or hammers. Without
embargo, the most significant use is constituted by the power plants
dam hydropower plants.

It is generally considered a type of renewable energy since it does not

it emits polluting products. Others believe it has a great impact
environmental due to the construction of dams, which flood large
land surfaces and modify the river's flow and water quality.
The main application of hydraulic energy today is its obtaining.
of electricity. Hydroelectric plants are generally located in
regions where an adequate combination of rainfall and elevation exists
favorable geological conditions for the construction of dams. Hydroelectric energy
is obtained from the potential and kinetic energy of the masses of water that
They transport the rivers, coming from the rain and the thaw. In their fall between
Two levels of the channel, water is passed through a hydraulic turbine, which
it transmits the energy to an alternator that converts it into electrical energy.

Another system that is used is to divert the water from a stream with great
slope, through a closed pipe, at the base of which there is a turbine. The water
it collects in a small dam and the height difference provides the energy
necessary potential.

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Another one consists of building a small dam in the river and diverting part of the
flow through a channel with a lower slope than the river, so that some
kilometers further ahead they will have gained a certain level difference with the
a channel is created and the water is directed to it through a pipe, with a turbine.

Electric energy

Electrical energy is the form of energy that results from the

the existence of a potential difference between two points, which allows
establish an electric current between both when they are brought into contact
through an electrical conductor. Electrical energy can be transformed
in many other forms of energy, such as light energy or light,
mechanical energy and thermal energy.
Electric energy manifests itself as electric current, that is, as the
movement of negative electric charges, or electrons, through a wire
metal conductor as a consequence of the potential difference that a
generator is applying at its ends.

Every time a switch is activated, an electric circuit is closed and is

generates the movement of electrons through the conductor cable. The charges
that move are part of the atoms of the substance of the cable, which
it is usually metallic, as metals - having a larger amount of
free electrons than other substances are the best conductors of
electricity.

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Energy to be used

The energy we will use in our project is solar energy because it is

the energy that perfectly integrates with the environment where it will be installed and by
consequence is the most economically viable.

VENTAJAS Y DESVENTAJAS DE LA ENERGÍA SOLAR

Advantages of solar energy

Solar energy is a renewable energy source and, therefore, it is inexhaustible.

Although the sun has a limited life, on a human scale it is considered
inexhaustible.
Low pollution and respect for the environment. The production of
electric energy in the case of photovoltaic energy or hot water
sanitary in solar thermal energy is not polluting nor does it cause
greenhouse gases.
Installations with low installation and maintenance costs. The
cost of a solar installation compared to other types of
installations such as a nuclear power plant are very low. Of
in the same way, the maintenance of an operational solar installation is not
very expensive.

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 Favorable for isolated sites. In cases where access is difficult to the
Electric grid solar energy is a very good option.

DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY

Energy efficiency is poor compared to other sources of

energy. The relationship of the amount of energy received by a solar panel
with the amount of electrical energy being low compared to others
energy sources like nuclear energy.
The economic cost compared to other options. Above all, in the
thermal solar energy that takes advantage of the properties of the
temperature and thermodynamics the performance is superior to energy
photovoltaic.
The performance depends on the weather conditions. The dependency of the
climatology makes this energy source a less viable option
in areas where the sky is mostly cloudy.
Limitations on solar hours. It is important to consider that in
in certain areas, solar hours are shorter. The Nordic countries,
for example, during the winter days the solar hours are very
few. In addition, the inclination of the Sun with respect to the surface varies
during the different days of the year. The variation in the tilt of the
Solar radiation influences the performance of solar panels.
Limitations on storing the generated energy. Because the
The hours when electrical energy can be obtained do not always coincide.
with the hours when energy needs to be stored. For
Hello, there are solar batteries and hot water storage, but the
efficiency is still very low.

TYPES OF LIGHTING FIXTURES ON THE MARKET

Various types of lamps can be used in this system, which are

selected according to the requirements that are in place:

LED lamps (light emitting diodes).

CFLs (compact fluorescent lamps)
HIDs (high-intensity discharge lamps).

They can also be classified according to the technology they use, so the
lamps can be:

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).

Low pressure sodium vapor.
Of magnetic induction.

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Currently, LED lamps are the most promising sources of light.
since they consist of the chemical compound that emits light when direct current
(DC) from the battery goes through them. In addition, the life of an LED is
usually very high, can last up to 50 thousand hours and require
very little current to operate.

There are two types of solar lighting

Independent lanterns
The independent solar lights have mounted photovoltaic panels.
in the structure. Each light pole has its own panels and is
independent from the other lamps.

Centralized luminaires
In this type, the photovoltaic panels for a group of lighting fixtures are
mounted separately. All the lights of a particular group are
connected to a central power source.

QUOTE FOR MATERIALS

Solar cells $150 pesos each

12-volt battery at 4 amps $300 pesos
3.-6 volt to 12 volt battery charger $240 pesos
LED bulb $30 pesos each
5.-Cables $50
6.- Charge controller $
7.-LED mounting base $220 pesos

Description of materials

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We will use solar cells from the RADOX brand with the following
characteristics:
Measurements 11X9.5 cm
Great durability and resistance
12 volt capacity
Capacity of 100 mA

2.- We will use a RADOX brand battery with the following characteristics
12 volts
4 amperes

3.-We will need a 6 volt to 12 volt battery charger and 1200 mA

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4.- High brightness LED bulbs of 12 volts

COUPLING OF ENERGIES

For the purposes of service needs, each facility requires a

tension and current determined. That's why the panels form a structure
modular in order to combine them in various ways: in series,
parallel, or in a mixed form. The result of the three combinations is the same
What would we obtain if we coupled batteries; that is, if the coupling is in
in series, the voltage of each element is summed, while the current
remains constant. If the
coupling is done in parallel, the individual values are summed
intensity, with the voltage remaining constant.

Something very important to keep in mind is that the panels that are Inter
Connections must always have the same i-v curve.
The most commonly used are usually 12-volt ones. If you want to operate with this
tension, there is no more to calculate the necessary intensity for the power that
we need to divide it by the one that provides us with a panel and we will obtain the
number of panels to be installed in parallel.

In a group of panels connected in series, it can happen that one of them fails.
they, either due to internal failure or to remain in the shade. So, that module
it becomes a resistive load, making it difficult or completely preventing the

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flow of the current generated by the rest of the panels, so that all
the string of modules connected in series would be out of service.

The way to prevent this problem is to equip the modules with a small
element called a bypass diode, connected in parallel between its
terminals, as indicated in the figure. This is nothing more than a 'path'
alternative to the current generated in the other modules in case it does not
can flow through the module itself.

ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT ELECTRIC SYSTEM OF A SOLAR PANEL.

Solar panels or modules

They are responsible for capturing solar radiation and transforming it into electricity.
generating a direct current (DC), also called direct (DC). The
the number of panels will be determined by the power that is needed
supply, and its arrangement and method of connection (in series or in parallel),
it will depend on the nominal supply voltage and the current intensity
that is desired to be generated.

Charge regulator or controller

In charge of controlling the battery charging from the modules or panels
generators, as well as their discharge to the interior power circuit
from the housing, also avoiding the occurrence of loads or unloads
excessive battery set.

Accumulators or batteries
It allows for the storage of energy that is produced during the day with the
solar radiation to be used at night or during prolonged periods
in bad weather or with low solar radiation. Furthermore, the use of batteries allows
to inject a current intensity higher than that of the panels themselves
solar panels can deliver, if the interior installation of the house requires it.

DC/AC inverter or converter

Device that allows the conversion of the direct current (DC) generated
in the photovoltaic panels in alternating current (AC) so that it can be
used by the receivers and appliances used in the home.

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Basic scheme of a photovoltaic installation.

Solar Panel

A photovoltaic module is a panel that is composed of a set of

solar cells, which are responsible for directly converting into electricity the
photons that come from sunlight. The production of current depends on
the irradiance (level of illumination), so that the more light there is
captured, the greater the electric intensity through the cell.
In the photovoltaic solar panel, the set of cells is connected.
electrically interconnected, encapsulated, and mounted on a structure of
support or frame.
All photovoltaic modules have positive (+) and negative (-) terminals.
at the back for its connection and wiring. Let us remember that the panels
photovoltaic solar panels are designed to generate direct current, which is
transformará en corriente alterna, mediante inversores.

Panel Connection.
The connections that can be made in a photovoltaic installation are two:
Connected in Series or in Parallel.

Series connection of solar cells.

As we can see in the image, the negative pole of panel number 1 has been connected to
the positive pole of panel nº2. If we connect a multimeter to the output,
we would obtain the following:
Total open-circuit voltage: Voc = Voc1 + Voc2 = Vf Volts
Short-circuit current: Isc = Isc1 = Isc2 = It Amperes

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Therefore, in a series connection, the voltages add up and the current
resulting is that of one of the panels (they must be of the same ones
characteristics).

Parallel connection of solar cells.

As we see in the image, the negative pole has been connected to panel no. 1.
with the negative pole of panel number 2, as well as the positive with the positive. If
we connect a multimeter to the output, we would obtain the following:
Total open-circuit voltage: Voc = Voc1 = Voc2 = Vf Volts
Short-circuit current: Isc = Isc1 + Isc2 = It A
Therefore, in a parallel connection, the currents are summed and the
the resulting tension is that of one of the panels (they must be of the same
characteristics) .
Depending on the magnitude of the photovoltaic installation, on the voltage of
battery work (in the case of isolated self-consumption), of the voltage of
output to the investor (in cases of large installations), some will be used or others,
the combination of both.

The charge controller or regulator.

It is responsible for connecting and disconnecting the photovoltaic panel, depending on whether
the battery is charged or drained. In addition, it leaves the photovoltaic panel in
open circuit when it needs to be disconnected.
Regulators must fulfill these functions:
Limit the battery charge.
Having protections against: overcurrent, reverse polarity, short
circuit, and blocking diode, which prevents the battery from discharging
during the night.
Indicators (LEDs) or a screen that informs about the charging status
of the battery.
Control the discharge so that the battery does not completely drain and
it gets damaged.

The regulator helps to reduce battery discharge so that it does not

damage. It usually maintains the charge level not lower than 40% of its
load capacity.

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Some definitions are included to better understand the parameters included:
Rated or maximum power (PMÁX): is also known as
peak power of the panel. It is the maximum power value that can be
obtain from the panel, and it is obtained from the product of the voltage and the
output current of the panel. For the selected module ISF-255,
PMÁX value = 255 W (CEM).
Open circuit voltage (VOC): it is the maximum voltage value that is
I would measure in the panel or module if there were no current flow between the
terminals of the same (intensity of 0 amperes). For the module
selected ISF-255, the VOC value = 37.9 V (CEM).
Short-circuit current (ISC): it is the maximum current that can be
to obtain from the photovoltaic panel (output voltage 0 V). For the module
selected ISF-255, the value of ISC = 8.86 A (CEM).
Tension at the point of maximum power (VM or VMÁX): is the value of the
tension at the point of maximum power or peak power, which is usually the
80% of the vacuum. It is also commonly represented as VMP. For the
selected module ISF-255, the value of VMP = 30.9 V (CEM).
Maximum current intensity (IM or IMAX): it is the value of the current
at the point of maximum power or peak power. It is also often
represent as IMP. For the selected module ISF-255, the value of
IMP = 8,27 A (CEM).
Let's remember that CEM refers to the values mentioned above having been
obtained in Standard Measurement Conditions.
A charge regulator, whose location is indicated with the letter B in the figure.
It is a team responsible for controlling and regulating the flow of current.
electricity from the photovoltaic modules to the batteries.

INSTALLATION OF A CHARGE REGULATOR.

These devices work as a battery charger, also preventing

that overcharges occur and at the same time limit the voltage of the batteries to
suitable values for its operation.
In this way, a charge controller is responsible for controlling the form of
charge the batteries when the solar panels are receiving
solar radiation preventing excessive charges from occurring.
And conversely, that is, during the process of discharging the batteries
intended for electricity consumption in the home, the regulator prevents
similarly that excessive discharges may harm life
from the batteries.
In a simple way, a regulator can be understood as a switch.
placed in series between panels and batteries, which is closed and connected for
the charging process of the batteries, and open when the batteries are
completely loaded.
Currently, most load regulators have
a function that allows to maximize the energy captured by the generator

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photovoltaic through the use of a specific tracking technology and
search for the point of maximum power operation of the generator
(MPP, Maximum Power Point), also called MPP-tracking or MPPT
English, track: to follow, to trace.
The charge regulator will be chosen to be able to withstand damage.
some nominal voltage and maximum current values according to the
configuration of the installed photovoltaic generators system. From this
way, this must be sized to support the maximum intensity of
current generated in the system, both in the input line to the regulator
coming from the photovoltaic generators, as in the output line towards
the loads it feeds.

Charge regulator diagram.

In this regard, the maximum current expected from the input line to
regulator from the photovoltaic generators is the corresponding to the
short circuit current (ISC) of the photovoltaic generator plus a margin of
security (generally around 25%), to take into account possible peaks of
irradiance or temperature changes.
On the other hand, the maximum current expected from the starting line is given by
the consumption of the system loads (electrical devices, appliances,
etc.) also increased by 25% (Isalida). The choice of the regulator will be
the one that supports the greater of the two previous electrical currents, as
you will see later in this tutorial.
As has been seen, the regulator will act by interrupting the supply of
electricity from the storage batteries to the interior installation of the
housing when the battery voltage falls below the threshold of
operation, with the aim of preventing its total discharge that could cause
damage to the batteries.
Likewise, during the periods of insolation where the solar panels are
generating electricity and the voltage of the batteries reaches a threshold value
maximum, the regulator will interrupt the connection between the photovoltaic modules and

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the batteries, or will act by gradually reducing the average current
delivered by the panels.
Therefore, when selecting the most suitable regulator, one must consider
consider that the disconnection voltage of the load consumption of the regulator
should be chosen so that the electricity supply interruption to the
charging occurs when the battery has reached maximum depth
of allowed download, as indicated by the manufacturer's specifications of the
battery.
Finally, it should be indicated that any regulator used in the installation must
to be labeled with at least the following information:
Tensión nominal (V)
Maximum current (A)
Manufacturer (name or logo) and serial number
Polarity of terminals and connections
Batteries and solar accumulator systems

Batteries, also known as solar or photovoltaic accumulators, are used

to store the electrical energy generated by the generator system
photovoltaics, in order to have it available during nighttime or in
those hours of the day when the sun does not shine.

SOLAR BATTERIES AND STORAGE SYSTEMS.

However, they can also perform other functions, such as elements

that are used to stabilize the supply voltage and current, or to inject
current peaks at certain moments, such as during the startup of
motors.
Batteries essentially consist of two electrodes that are located
submerged in an electrolytic medium. The most recommended types of batteries
for use in photovoltaic installations are stationary lead type
acid and tubular plate, composed of a set of electrochemical cells
interconnected at 2V each, which will be arranged in series and/or parallel to
complete the 12, 24, or 48 V supply voltage and the capacity of
direct current that is appropriate in each case.
The electrical connection of a set of batteries is usually referred to
call accumulator system or simply accumulator.
The following table indicates the voltage level of the photovoltaic module at
function of the power consumption needs that are demanded.

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The capacity of a battery is measured in ampere-hours (Ah), a unit of charge.
electric that indicates the amount of electric charge that passes through the terminals
from a battery. Indicates the amount of electricity it can store during
the battery is charged, to later return it during its discharge.
However, the time spent on charging the battery has an influence
decisive in its storage capacity. In this way, the faster
as the battery discharges, its supply capacity decreases,
because more energy is lost due to internal resistance, and vice versa,
as the download time increases and is done more slowly,
then the battery capacity increases.
Therefore, since the capacity of a battery depends on the time spent on its
download, this value is usually provided in reference to a standard time of
discharge (10 or 20 hours), and for a determined final voltage.
The following will provide the definitions and comments about the
most important parameters that define batteries or accumulators
solar.
Battery performance factor: a parameter defined as the
quotient between the value of ampere-hours that can actually be
battery discharge divided by the value of ampere-hours
employees in your charge.
Self-discharge: it is the loss of charge from the battery when it is
remains in open circuit. It is usually expressed as
percentage of nominal capacity, measured over a month, and at a
temperature of 20 °C. In general, the self-discharge values of the
batteries used will not exceed 6% of their nominal capacity for
month.
Nominal capacity, C20 (Ah): is the amount of electric charge that is
possible to extract from a battery in 20 hours, measured at a temperature
from 20 °C, until the voltage across its terminals reaches 1.8V/cup.
Loading (or unloading) regime: it is a parameter that relates to the
nominal capacity of the battery and the value of the current to which it
carry out the loading (or unloading). It is normally expressed in hours, and it
represents as a subscript in the symbol of capacity and of the
current at which the charging (or discharging) is done. For example, if a
a 100 Ah battery discharges in 20 hours at a current of 5 A, it
it says that the discharge regime is 20 hours (C20 = 100 Ah) and the
The current is expressed as I20 = 5 A.

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 Depth of discharge (DOD): it is defined as the quotient between
the charge extracted from a battery and its nominal capacity, expressed
normally in %.
Maximum discharge depth (PDmax): in this case it is defined
as the maximum discharge level that is allowed for the battery before
that the disconnection of the regulator occurs, in order to protect the
durability of it. The maximum discharge depths that
they are usually considered for a daily cycle (discharge depth
daily maximum) are around 15-25%. For the case of a cycle
seasonal, which is the maximum number of days that it can be
battery discharging without receiving sufficient solar radiation modules,
it is around 4-10 days and a discharge depth of 75%
approximately. In any case, for photovoltaic installations there is no
they recommend aggressive downloads, rather progressive ones, so
the batteries to be used are usually with a 100-hour discharge (C100),
the more intense and fast the discharge of a battery is, the less
energy is capable of providing us.
Useful capacity: it is the available or usable capacity of the battery and is
define as the product of the nominal capacity by the depth
maximum allowed download.
Charge state: it is defined as the ratio between residual capacity
of a battery, generally partially discharged, and its capacity
nominal.
In most cases, energy storage systems
they will be made up of battery packs, which will be connected in series
or in parallel, to meet the needs, either of voltage, or of
capacity that is demanded.
By connecting battery series, the voltage is increased.
final regarding the service voltage that each battery alone can
offer. In the series connection of several batteries, the following must be connected
negative terminal of each battery with the positive of the next one, and so on
successively. The tension or voltage provided by the set is equal to the
sum of the voltages of each of the individual batteries.
On the contrary, parallel battery connections achieve
increase the supply capacity of the set, that is, its autonomy,
adding the nominal capacities of each battery and maintaining the same
voltage of each individual battery.

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Battery associations.

In another order of things, the nominal capacity of the accumulator systems

employees (measured in Ah) will not exceed 25 times the current (in Ah) of
short circuit in the CEM of the selected photovoltaic generator.
The life of a collector or battery, defined as the corresponding until
that the residual capacity falls below 80% of its nominal capacity,
it should be greater than 1000 cycles when the accumulator is discharged to
a depth of 50% at 20 °C.
Although the manufacturers' recommendations will always be followed, during
the installation of a solar accumulator system must ensure that:
The accumulator or batteries are located in ventilated and accessible places.
restricted;
The necessary protective measures will be taken to prevent the
accidental short circuit of the terminals of the accumulator, for example,
through insulating covers.
Any battery used in solar accumulator systems must be
labeled, at least, with the following information:
Nominal voltage (V);
Polarity of the terminals;
Nominal capacity (Ah);
Manufacturer (name or logo) and serial number.

DC/AC Inverter or Converter

The DC/AC converter, also called an inverter or wave generator, is a
power electronic device responsible for converting direct current
(DC) coming from photovoltaic generators in alternating current (AC)
for consumption in the home. It also synchronizes the frequency of the
current injected with that of the grid, adapting it to the required conditions
according to the type of load, thus guaranteeing the quality of the energy fed into the
electrical installation of the house.
Investors are primarily characterized by the input tension.
from the batteries, the maximum power it can provide and its efficiency
the power performance. The latter is defined as the ratio between the
electric power that the inverter delivers for use (output power) and the
electric power extracted from the battery system or generators
photovoltaics (input power).
In general, investors in photovoltaic facilities must comply with the
following demands:

24
 They must offer the highest possible efficiency that minimizes the
losses. The power output of the inverters (ratio between the
output active power and input active power), oscillates between the
90% and 97%. The value of the performance depends greatly on the power.
as a starting point, which should be as close as possible, or even try to make it
equal to the nominal operating value of the inverter, since if it varies
A lot, then the performance of the investor decreases significantly.
Being adequately protected against short circuits and overloads,
as will be seen later.
Have elements that incorporate rearmament and disconnection
automatic inverter.
Can admit instantaneous power demands greater than 150% of
its maximum or nominal power, in order to cope with the peaks of
start that generates many appliances, such as refrigerators,
washing machines, etc., that will require more power than the nominal in
the moment of its startup or engine ignition.
To offer low harmonic distortion and low self-consumption.
Have galvanic isolation.
Have a measurement and monitoring system.
Incorporate manual controls that allow for turning on and off
general of the inverter, and its connection and disconnection to the AC interface of the
installation.
Returning to the protections that must be incorporated into their functions.
current inverters, these should be the following:
Protection against overloads and short circuits, which will allow detection
possible failures occurring in the input or output terminals of
inverter.
Protection against overheating, which will allow disconnection the
inverter if the temperature of the inverter exceeds a certain value
shadow, and stay disconnected until the team reaches a
preset lower temperature.
Island mode operation protection, which will disconnect the inverter.
in case the voltage and network frequency values are outside of
some threshold values that allow for correct functioning.
Insulation protection, which detects possible insulation failures in
the investor.
Protection against polarity reversal, which allows for protection of the
inverter against possible changes in polarity from the panels
photovoltaic.

Finally, the casing or housing that protects the inverter device will offer
a basic level of insulation class 1 and a minimum level of protection
IP20 for those inverters installed indoors and are
inaccessible places, IP30 for investors located inside buildings

25
and accessible places, with a minimum protection rating of IP 65 for
inverters installed in the open air.

DC INPUT

DC/AC Converter

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