Basics of Thermodynamics

Course Instructor:
Dr. Nadimetla. Thirupathi
Dept. of Production Engineering, VJTI
[Link]: +91 8099501502
Introduction- Basic thermodynamics
• The thermodynamics term originated from Greek words:
• Therme –Heat
• Dynamics – Force
• Thermodynamics is the branch of science that describes the basic laws and principles governing
the processes of transfer and transformation of energy.

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• The science of thermodynamics provides also the relationships between the thermodynamic
properties of a system (or) substance, these helps us in determining the changes in property of a
system executing a process.

• The laws are formulated from the observations in nature, while the basic principles are the
corollaries of these laws and are established through logical deductions following the laws.

Modes of energy transfer → Heat and Work

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Scope of thermodynamics
Directional constraints on the various process dictated by thermodynamic laws :
• All natural /spontaneous process follows certain rhythm.

• Spontaneous process like water flow, heat are possible in one direction only.

• Mechanical energy converted to heat energy is possible, but reverse is not possible.

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• Process like compression/expansion and cooling/heating is possible in both directions.

• Mechanical energy to electrical or vise verse is possible 100 %.

• Mechanical energy to heat energy is possible 100 %, but reverse is not possible .

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 Thermodynamics Approaches
Macroscopic Approach Microscopic Approach
• Classical thermodynamics • Statistical view /kinematic theory approach
• Fix attention on certain quantity of matter or • Fix our attention on certain quantity of
substance without going into the events occurring matter or substance ,focusing on the

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at the molecular level. events occurring at the molecular level.

• Macroscopic quantities (which are sense able/ • Considers molecules behavior and
measurable directly) used to specify the averages over a time
[Link]: Pressure , Temparature etc
Note: In thermodynamics, we focus on
• Concerned with the average effect of a large classical thermodynamics
number molecules.

• Assume continuum i.e., matter exist as a

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continuous medium
 Course- STRUCTURE
M1 ❖ Fundamental Concepts and First Law

M2 ❖ Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy

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M3 ❖ Air Standard and Gas Power Cycle

M4 ❖ Vapour and Combined Power Cycles

M5 ❖ Introduction to Heat Transfer 5

 Course- STRUCTURE
1. Fundamental Concepts and First Law:
Definition and scope, Basic concepts and terminology (system, surroundings, boundaries, states, properties,
processes, cycles), properties of system, thermodynamic equilibrium, Reversible and irreversible process,
Zeroth law of thermodynamics, First Law, Application to Closed and Open System, Steady flow Energy
Equation and its Application.

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2. Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy:
Introduction to second law statement, Thermal Reservoir, Reversible and irreversible processes of second
law, Heat Engine, Refrigerator, Heat pump, Kelvin Planck and Clausius Statement, Equivalence of two
statements, Perpetual Motion Machines, second law to cycle and Cyclic device, Carnot cycle, Carnot Principle,
Ideal Carnot Heat Engine, Refrigerator and Heat Pump, Thermal Efficiency, COP. Entropy as parameter to
quantify second law effects, increase of entropy principle, Calculation of Entropy change during processes,
Isentropic process and property relation, reversible steady flow relation, entropy balance to various system.
3. Air Standard and Gas Power Cycle:
Basic Consideration in Power Cycles, Carnot cycle and its Engineering Value, Air Standard Assumption,
Overview of Reciprocating Engine, Otto Cycle for SI Engine, Diesel Cycle for CI Engine, Dual/ Brayton Cycle,
Striling and Ericsson Cycle, Development of Gas Turbine, Deviation of actual with ideal, Brayton with
Intercooling and Reheating, Introduction and working of Turbojet Engines, Second law for gas power cycle
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 Course- STRUCTURE
[Link] and Combined Power Cycles:
Carnot Vapor Cycle, Rankine Cycle, Deviation from actual vapor power cycles, Increasing Efficiency of
Rankine Cycle: Lowering Condenser Pressure, Superheating, Increasing the boiler Pressure, Ideal Reheat
Rankine Cycle, Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle, Combined Gas-Vapor Power Cycle, Steam Tables and
Mollier Charts, Law of Interpolation

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5. Introduction to Heat Transfer:
Introduction to different modes of Heat Transfer, Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity. Conduction:
Simultaneous Heat Transfer, Steady and Transient 1-D Heat Conduction, Heat Generation, Fourier law, One
Dimensional Heat Conduction for plane wall, Cylinder and Sphere. Composite Cylinder and Multiplane Wall.
Convection: Fundamental of Convection, Continuity, Momentum and Energy Equation, Free and Forced
Convection, Internal Forced Convection, Flow in a Close Conduit, External Forced Convection over a flat
plate and cylinder.

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Reference Books:

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 Subject Importance in Various Examination

• Gate PI 2027/28: Production and Industrial Engineering

• Gate XE 2027/28: Thermodynamics

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• Indian Engineering Services IES 2028

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System, Surroundings and Boundary
❖ Quantity of matter or Region in space which is under investigation is known as SYSTEM.

❖ Anything which is external to the system is known as SURROUNDINGS.

❖ BOUNDARY is the interface shared by System and Surroundings

❖ Universe = System + Surroundings.

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System
Surroundings

Surroundings vs Environment Boundary

Environment
❖ The part of surrounding where property can very during energy interactions is known as
immediate surrounding.
❖ Where as remaining part of surrounding where intensive properties are unaffected during
energy interactions is known as Environment. 10
Types of Systems:
❖ Control Mass System/Closed system

❖ Control Volume System/ Open sysemt

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❖ Isolated System

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Control Mass / Closed System:
❖ For Control Mass System: Mass + Identity is fixed.

❖ No mass interactions with surroundings (min = mout =0 )

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❖ Energy interactions takes place(Ein ≠Eout ≠0)

Boundary

Ein ≠Eout ≠0
System
Surroundings
min = mout =0

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Control Volume/Open System:
❖ For Control Volume System: Volume is fixed

❖ Flexible volume also exist (Control surface)

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❖ Mass and Energy interactions exists i.e., (min ≠ mout ≠ 0 ) and (Ein ≠Eout ≠0)

Boundary

Ein ≠Eout ≠0
System
Surroundings
min ≠ mout ≠ 0

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Isolated System:
❖ For isolated system, it is a closed system with no energy interaction.

❖ i.e., min = mout =0 and Ein = Eout =0.

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❖ System is invariant with time.

Boundary

Ein = Eout =0
System
Surroundings
min = mout = 0

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Thermodynamic Properties:
Properties are the characteristic features of a system , that is identifiable and
observable characteristic features of system by which the system can be specified.

1. Extensive Properties of the system

➢ Properties which are directly related to the mass.

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➢ Properties which depends on the extent of the system.

➢ Example: Mass, Volume, Internal Energy, Enthalpy etc.

2. Intensive Properties of the system

➢ Properties which doesn’t directly related to the mass.

➢ Properties which doesn’t depends on the extent of the system.

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➢ Example: Temperature, Pressure.

Thermodynamic Properties:
3. Specific Extensive Properties of a System:

➢ Extensive properties per unit mass.

➢ Specific extensive properties are also called Intensive Properties.

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➢ These properties doesn’t depend on the extent of the system.

➢ Example: [Link] Energy, [Link] , [Link], [Link].

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Thermodynamic State & Equilibrium
State: the condition of a system at a specific moment, described by its
macroscopic properties.

The important conditions to be fulfilled to specify the state of a system:

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(i) The properties must be uniform throughout the system.

(ii) The values of all properties should be invariant with time.

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Thermodynamic State & Equilibrium
How to fix the state of system ? Phase diagram

Gibbs Phase Rule: F = C − Ø + 2

F: no. of independent intensive properties

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C: number of components
Ø : number of phases

Special cases:

• One component, Single phase → f = 2

• One component, two phases, Water/Vapour → f = 1

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• One component, three phases, Triple point → f = 0

Thermodynamic State & Equilibrium
Achieving thermodynamic equilibrium is possible through :
• Isolate the system Dead State: System has same properties
• Dead state system as surroundings (no interaction). 19

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In thermodynamics, equilibrium refers to a state in which a system’s properties remain
constant over time and there are no net changes occurring within the system (or) between the
system and its surroundings.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium

Thermal Equilibrium Mechanical Equilibrium Chemical Equilibrium

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Thermodynamic Equilibrium
• Thermal Equilibrium
System A
XA,YA System A
• Concept of Temperature
XA,YA
• Zeroth law of Thermodynamics Adiabatic wall
Diathermic wall

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System B
System B
XB,YB
Arbitrary values of XA,YA for XB,YB
system A , and XB,YB for system B
Are POSSIBLE

Thermal Equilibrium: The equilibrium states achieved by two (or Arbitrary values of XA,YA for
more) systems, characterized by restricted values of the system A , and XB,YB for system B
are NOT POSSIBLE
thermodynamic properties of the systems, after they have been
in communication with each other through a diathermic wall. 20
Zeroth law of thermodynamics Arbitrary values of XA,YA for
system A , and XB,YB for
system B Are NOT POSSIBLE

Adiabatic
wall

Diathermic wall
System A System B
XA,YA XB,YB System A System B

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XA,YA XB,YB
Diathermic wall

System C
XC,YC

System A and System C interacts & System B and System C interacts separately and achieve thermal equilibrium

Zeroth Law: When two bodies or systems are in Temperature: A thermodynamic property
thermal equilibrium with a third one then they are that determines whether or not a system is
in thermal equilibrium with each other in thermal equilibrium with other systems 21
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Thermodynamic Equilibrium

✓ Thermal Equilibrium Mechanical Equilibrium Chemical Equilibrium

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• Mechanical Equilibrium is with respect to Work • Chemical Equilibrium is with respect to
transfer between the system and surrounding. chemical reaction with in system and mass
transfer between the system and surrounding.
• Any imbalance in any property that causes
work transfer between system and • Concentration gradients and chemical
surroundings leads in Mechanical In affinities are primitive factors for attaining
equilibrium. chemical equilibrium.

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 Thermodynamic Process
• A thermodynamic process is any change in the state of a thermodynamic system
(which is at equilibrium) due to a transfer of heat (Q), work (W), or both between
system and surroundings.

What happens when a process takes place?

• Properties such as : temperature, pressure, volume, or internal energy of a system

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changes due to heat being added/removed or work being done by/on the system.

How to specify a process on thermodynamics co-ordinates?

(P1,V1)
P 1

(P2,V2)
Gas
2
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State 1 (P1,V1) State 2 (P2,V2) V

 Thermodynamic Process
How to conceive such intermediate equilibrium states to represent a process?

Gas

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State 1 (P1,V1) State 1’ (P’1,V’1) State 1” (P”1,V”1) State 1”’ (P”’1,V”’1)

(P1,V1)
P 1 1’ Quasi Equilibrium /
1’’ Quasi static /Reversible process
1’’
(P2,V2)
2 24

State 2 (P2,V2) V
Thermodynamic Concept of Energy
Thermodynamic Energy Forms

Energy in Storage Energy in Transit

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(Internal Energy ) Path Function
Point Function
State variable Work Transfer Heat Transfer
Typer of Mechanical Work Transfer :
• Displacement or pdV work
• Paddle wheel work
• Flow work
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• Shaft work
Mechanical Work Transfers:
1. Displacement or pdV work
• It is associated with close system.

pext=pin
dV

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p
State 1 State 2
P1,V1 P2,V2

2
Work done = ‫׬‬1 𝑝𝑑𝑉
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Mechanical Work Transfers:
1. Displacement work or pdV work
w
pext pext
• Pertains to closed system
dz • pdV work is non dissipative

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Gas work.
P
• Reversible work
State 1 (P1,V1) State 1’ (P’1,V’1) State 2 (P2,V2)

Let, Weight of the piston + Small weights + Pext = w = p A

Infinite Small Work done (dW) = w dz = pA dz

2
Total Work done, W1-2 = ‫׬‬1 pdV • p : Pressure inside the cylinder (N/m2)
• A: Area of the piston (m2) 27

• dz: Elemental displacement of the piston (m)

Mechanical Work Transfers:
2. Paddle wheel work

Rotation

Work transfer to the system

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Liquid
Stirrer/paddleWheel

• Paddle wheel work is dissipative work.

State 1 State 2
• This work also pertains to closed system.

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Mechanical Work Transfers:
3. Flow work/Pressure energy
Flow out
Work done = F dx = pA dx

Control Work done /unit mass = pA dx / ρ A dx

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Volume

A Flow work = Work done /unit mass = p/ ρ = pυ

p F: Force (N)
Flow in P: Pressure (Pa or N/m2)
dx
A: Cross sectional area (⊥ lar to the stream flow ) (m2)
dx : Elemental thickness (m)
ρ : Density of the flowing fluid (kg/m3)
υ : Specific volume ( 1/V) (m-3) 29
Mechanical Work Transfers:
4. Shaft work
• Work interacting devices: Compressor
and Turbines
Flow out • Compressor takes work input
Shaft

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Control • Turbine provides work out put
volume
• This pertains to open system

W in : Compressor

Flow in
W out : Turbine
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Work and Heat are Path Function:
❖ Heat and Work are Path functions.
• Heat (Q) and Work (W) depend on how the process is carried out
— the specific way energy is transferred.
• They are not properties of the system — meaning they cannot be
stored in the system.

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• Their values change depending on the process path even if the initial
and final states are the same.
(X1,Y1)
➢ W 1-A-2 ≠ W1-W2 1
Y Wout 1-A-2

➢ Q 1-A-2 ≠ Q1-Q2
A Qin 1-A-2
Wout
➢ W 1-A-2 ≠ W1-B-2 1-B-2
B
(X2,Y2)
Qin 2
➢ Q 1-A-2 ≠ Q1-B-2 1-B-2

• But X2 –X1 and Y2 –Y1 same for both path, Since, X and Y are X 31

point function/state variables , don’t depend on the path.

 First law of thermodynamics:
2
Y W 1-2
Joule's experiment: (X2,Y2)
Work
transfer (W)
1 Q2-1
(X1,Y1)
Fluid

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X
Fluid
W 1-2 = Q2-1

Heat transfer (Q)

Hot body

The First Law: The algebraic sum of

net heat and work interactions Heat
Cold water
between a system and its surrounding container transfer (Q)
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in a thermodynamic cycle is zero.
First law of thermodynamics:
The First Law: The algebraic sum of net heat and work interactions between a system and its
surrounding in a thermodynamic cycle is zero.
σ𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑄 = σ𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑊 Sign conventions

For a cycle, ර 𝑄 − 𝑊 = 0 Heat added to Work done by

the system : System the system:

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For an infinite small process, ර δ𝑄 − δ𝑊 = 0 Positive (+ve) Positive (+ve)

(∵ For any point function "X" , ර dX = 0)

For a finite process, going from state 1 to state 2
∴ For an infinite small process, δ𝑄 − δ𝑊 = 𝑑𝑋
𝑄1−2 − 𝑊1−2 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1
For a finite process, 𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆ 𝑋 Physically also it true, that if we give some
amount of energy to system and some amount of
This X is so, called as Internal Energy (E)
work done by the system, then net energy stored
∴ For an infinite small process, δ𝑄 − δ𝑊 = 𝑑𝐸 within the system
Internal Energy component,
For a finite process, 𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝐸 33
𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
First law of thermodynamics:
Internal energy : A property of a system whose change in a process executed by the system equals to
the difference between the heat and work interactions by the system with its surroundings
Internal Energy, E = U+ K.E + P.E + Flow Energy
From the First Law of thermodynamics: [Link]: A closed system executing only pdV work :
2
For a finite process, going from state 1 to state 2

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For a finite process, 𝑄1−2 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + න 𝑝𝑑𝑉
𝑄1−2 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 + 𝑊1−2 1
For an infinite small process, δ𝑄 = δ𝑈 + 𝑝𝑑𝑉
Change in Internal Energy,
dE = dU+ d(K.E)+d(P.E)+d(F.E) For unit mass the expression can be written as :
2
For a closed system at stationary equilibrium state, 𝑄1−2
d(K.E) = 0 and d(P.E) =0 and d(F.E)=0 For a finite process, = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + න 𝑝𝑑𝑣
𝑚
1
For a finite process in closed system , going from δ𝑄
state 1 to state 2 𝑄 =𝑈 −𝑈 +𝑊 For an infinite small process, = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑝𝑑𝑣
1−2 2 1 1−2 δ𝑚
For an infinite small process,
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δ𝑄 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + δ𝑊
First law of thermodynamics:
Enthalpy : A property of a system, mathematically it is expressed as :
Enthalpy, H = U+ pV
Specific Enthalpy, h = u+ pυ
Sp.case1 : A closed system executing only pdV work at constant pressure (p), what is the heat transfer ?

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2

For a finite process, 𝑄1−2 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + න 𝑝𝑑𝑉 For an infinite small process,

1
2 δ𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + δ𝑊
𝑄1−2 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑝 න 𝑑𝑉 δ𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑝𝑑𝑉
1
δ𝑄 = 𝑑 𝑈 + 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑑𝐻
𝑄1−2 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑝 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
For an finite process,
𝑄1−2 = (𝑈2 +𝑝2 𝑉2 ) − (𝑈1 +𝑝1𝑉1 ) 𝑄1−2 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1
How to execute pdV work at constant
𝑄1−2 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 pressure (p)? 35
Specific heats (Cp and Cv)
Specific heat constant at constant volume (Cv):

𝛿𝑄ൗ
𝛿𝑚 𝑣=𝑐 δm
𝐶𝑉 = lim
𝛿𝑇→0 𝛿𝑇 δT
δQ

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𝑑𝑢 𝑣=𝑐 From First law , for a closed system
𝐶𝑉 = lim
𝛿𝑇→0 𝛿𝑇
δ𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + δ𝑊
𝜕𝑢
𝐶𝑉 = δ𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑝𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑇 𝑣=𝑐
δ𝑄
= 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑝𝑑𝑣
δ𝑚
𝛿𝑄
= 𝑑𝑢
𝛿𝑚 𝑣=𝑐 36

Note: Specific heat constant at constant volume (Cv) for air : 0.718 kJ/kg K
Specific heats (Cp and Cv)
Specific heat constant at constant pressure (Cp):

𝛿𝑄ൗ
𝛿𝑚 𝑝=𝑐 δm
𝐶𝑝 = lim
𝛿𝑇→0 𝛿𝑇 δT
δQ

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𝑑ℎ 𝑝=𝑐 From First law , for a closed system
𝐶𝑝 = lim
𝛿𝑇→0 𝛿𝑇 δ𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + δ𝑊
δ𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑝𝑑𝑉
𝜕ℎ
𝐶𝑝 = δ𝑄
𝜕𝑇 𝑝=𝑐
= 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑝𝑑𝑣 ⇒ 𝑑(𝑢 + 𝑝𝑣)
δ𝑚
𝛿𝑄
= 𝑑h
𝛿𝑚 𝑣=𝑐

Note : Specific heat constant at constant pressure (Cp) for air : 1.005 kJ/kg K 37

Note: Specific heat constant at constant volume (Cv) for air : 0.718 kJ/kg K
First law of thermodynamics: Open/Control Volume (CV)system
Let , single inlet and single outlet control volume system
2 𝑑𝑚2
𝑑𝑚1
𝑑𝑡 = mass inflow rate at inlet (1-1)
𝑑𝑡
Shaft mCV Flow out 𝑑𝑚2
2 = mass inflow rate at outlet (2-2)
𝑑𝑡
CV mCV = mass in the control volume at any time
1 δW

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Flow in ECV ECV = energy with in the control volume at any time
δ𝑄 δt
𝑑𝑚1 Conservation of Mass:
𝑑𝑡 1 δt
Mass comes in per unit time – Mass leaves out per unit time
= rate of change of the mass of the CV
𝑑𝑚1 𝑑𝑚2 𝑑𝑚𝐶𝑉
– =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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First law of thermodynamics: Open/Control Volume (CV)system
Conservation of Energy:
2 𝑑𝑚2
Total energy comes into the CV per unit time – Total energy
𝑑𝑡 leaves out of the CV per unit time = rate of change of the energy
Shaft mCV Flow out of the CV
2
CV Total energy comes into the CV per unit time = Total energy carried
δW by the stream into the CV per unit time + Energy transfer to the CV in
1

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Flow in ECV δt the form of Heat transfer and work transfers.
𝑑𝑚1 δ𝑄
Energy carried by the stream into the CV per unit time,
𝑑𝑡 1 δt
e1= I.M.E + K.E + P.E + Flow Work

𝑑𝑚1 δ𝑄 𝑑𝑚2 δ𝑊 𝑑𝐸𝐶𝑉

𝑒1 + – 𝑒2 + =
𝑑𝑡 δt 𝑑𝑡 δt 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑚1 𝑉12 δ𝑄 𝑑𝑚2 𝑉22 δ𝑊 𝑑𝐸𝐶𝑉

𝑢1 + + 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑝1 𝑣1 + – 𝑢2 + + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑝2 𝑣2 + =
𝑑𝑡 2 δt 𝑑𝑡 2 δt 𝑑𝑡

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First law of thermodynamics: Open/Control Volume (CV)system
Under steady state condition:
𝑑𝑚1 𝑑𝑚2 𝑑𝑚𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑚1 𝑑𝑚2 𝑑𝑚1 𝑑𝑚2 𝑑𝑚
– = ⇒ – =0⇒ = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑚1 δ𝑄 𝑑𝑚2 δ𝑊 𝑑𝐸𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑚 δ𝑄 𝑑𝑚 δ𝑊

𝑒1 + – 𝑒2 + = => 𝑒1 + – 𝑒2 + =0
𝑑𝑡 δt 𝑑𝑡 δt 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 δt 𝑑𝑡 δt

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𝑑𝑚1 𝑉12 δ𝑄 𝑑𝑚2 𝑉22 δ𝑊 𝑑𝐸𝐶𝑉
𝑢1 + + 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑝1 𝑣1 + – 𝑢2 +
+ 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑝2 𝑣2 + =
𝑑𝑡 2 δt 𝑑𝑡 2 δt 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚 𝑉12 δ𝑄 𝑑𝑚 𝑉22 δ𝑊
⇒ 𝑢1 + + 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑝1 𝑣1 + – 𝑢2 + + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑝2 𝑣2 + =0
𝑑𝑡 2 δt 𝑑𝑡 2 δt

𝑉12 δ𝑄 𝑉22 δ𝑊
𝑢1 + + 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑝1 𝑣1 + – 𝑢2 + + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑝2 𝑣2 + =0
2 δm 2 δm
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The above equation is called Steady Flow Energy Equation

Thank
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