TOPIC 48 BASIC ANALOG ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

1. BASIC ANALOG ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS. CHARACTERISTICS

2. TYPES OF BASIC ANALOG ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
3. BASIC PROPERTIES
3.1. ALTERNATING CURRENT RECTIFICATION
[Link]-WAVE RECTIFIER
[Link] WAVE RECTIFIER
3.2. FILTERING
3.3. VOLTAGE STABILIZATION
3.3.1. STABILIZATION USING ZENER DIODE
3.3.2. VOLTAGE REGULATOR CIRCUITS
3.4. AMPLIFIERS
3.4.1. BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR BASED AMPLIFIER
3.4.2. UNIPOLAR TRANSISTOR-BASED AMPLIFIER
3.4.3. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER BASED AMPLIFIER
3.5. OSCILLATORS
[Link] OSCILLATORS
3.5.2. RADIO FREQUENCY OR SINE OSCILLATORS
4. APPLICATIONS

Introduction

This topic deals with the study of electronic circuits responsible for rectification.
of alternating current, filtering, and voltage stabilization. These are the three processes necessary for
obtain from an alternating current, a direct current. These three joint processes
they are the ones that carry out the so-called power supplies.

The process of voltage stabilization is evolving very rapidly thanks to the

operation and characteristics of integrated voltage regulators, both linear and
switched. This topic has also been dedicated to studying the amplifiers based on
in analog electronic circuits, describing the most basic ones based on transistors, both
unipolar as bipolar and, in addition, the circuits based on operational amplifiers.

Finally, oscillator circuits are studied, including a classification of them and,

subsequently emphasizing the most commonly used oscillators today.

1. BASIC ANALOG ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS. CHARACTERISTICS

As indicated, power supplies carry out the three rectification processes of

alternating current, filtering and voltage stabilization. First of all, we will study the
electronic circuits that are responsible for these three processes.

The rectification of alternating current consists of the conversion of alternating current to direct current.
continues, carried out by the circuits called rectifiers or power supplies.

The next phase is filtering, which involves increasing the average value of the signal and decreasing
the curling of it, obtaining a signal that is as continuous as possible.
Finally, the voltage stabilization process aims to reduce ripple voltage that
it is obtained at the output of the filter. Therefore, when the application requires it, it will be necessary
incorporate the necessary circuitry following the filter.

Within the topic, the main analog circuits responsible for will be discussed.
amplification. Most of these amplifier circuits are based either on transistors,
or in operational amplifiers.

Finally, in this section, the oscillators, also called signal generators,

they are electronic systems capable of generating a variable and periodic signal at the output without
need to apply an input signal to them. Using some type of feedback for that purpose.
through time-dependent devices.

2. TYPES OF BASIC ANALOG ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

Within the rectification of alternating current, rectifiers can be classified according

with various criteria. If the number of phases of the input alternating current is taken into account,
being able to be a single-phase, two-phase, three-phase, six-phase rectifier, etc. They can also be
differentiate based on the type of connection of the elements, being half-wave rectifiers
wave and full wave. Another possible classification is according to their ability to adjust the value of
the output voltage, being controlled rectifiers or those that use thyristors or transistors
as rectification elements, and uncontrolled rectifiers, being those that use
diodes as rectification elements.

For the filtering phase, the most commonly used are condenser filters, which consist of
place a capacitor in parallel with the load resistance, also called a low-pass filter.

To achieve voltage stabilization, it can be done in two ways:

Firstly, using circuits made up of discrete components such as resistors,

diodes, transistors, etc. They are known as voltage stabilizer circuits.

Secondly, by using circuits that have feedback and that are

capable of continuously regulating the output voltage when it varies due to
changes in the load current and in the input voltage. They are known as circuits
voltage regulators. They can be made up of differentiated components, such as
resistors, transistors, operational amplifiers, etc., or as integrated circuits
commercials (integrated voltage regulators). It is important to note that they can function
in a linear manner, or in a switched manner.

Within the amplification phase, three types of amplifiers can be considered: the based
bipolar transistor, unipolar transistor based, and operational amplifier based.

Finally, within the oscillators, the following types will be considered: relaxation oscillators,
also called square wave oscillators or multivibrators, and sine wave oscillators.

3. BASIC PROPERTIES
3.1. ALTERNATING CURRENT RECTIFICATION

To convert AC/DC, two phases are required: first, the rectification process of the
specifically, it consists of changing the waveform of the input signal, and in
second place the filtering of it.
The input signal is a sinusoidal signal and when it exits the rectifier circuit, it leaves with the same
polarity. Depending on the type of rectifier used, a rectified signal is obtained.
Subsequently, when the rectified signal passes through the filter, a continuous signal is obtained.

The fundamental device in rectification is the diode, as it conducts current in a

Only sense. It is important to consider the non-linear characteristic of the diode, as well as the value
characteristic of its threshold voltage, voltage at which the conducting current increases
constantly increasing the tension, being this relationship the slope of the characteristic.

3.1.1. HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

In the half-wave rectification process, consisting solely of a diode D, the process

Conduction only occurs during the positive half of the alternating cycle.

The rectifier circuit consisting of a real diode truly consists of an ideal diode,
the voltage drop in direct Vdo of the diode and its direct resistance rd, which represents the
pending.

If the input and output signals are compared, assuming a sinusoidal input signal,
there is only an output signal in the positive half of the input signal and the output signal
It is zero in the negative semiperiod of the input signal. This is always considered the
ideal diode, that is to say assuming that the threshold voltage and the internal resistance in direct are equal to
zero. The feature would indicate a complete current step from the moment when the
tension is positive, thus providing an exit signal with a positive half-period identical to the
input signal and zero during the negative half-period of the input signal.

If the input voltage Vs = Vmax sin wt, the output will be that between 0 and pi.
The value of the average voltage (in direct current) of the output at the load R will be: Vodc = Vmax/pi

The value of the effective or rms voltage: Vocf = Vmax/2

[Link] WAVE RECTIFIER

Also called a full-wave rectifier, since the output signal has both
semiperiods of the input signal, but both with the same polarity.

Usually in power supplies before rectification there tends to be a

transformer that adapts the electrical grid signal to the type of signal we need in the
final application. Depending on whether the transformer used has a center tap or not, the
full-wave rectifier circuit is different.

If there is an intermediate connection, this rectification needs two diodes, one will be in direct.
direct and another in reverse, and when polarized in the opposite way, they will conduct in the opposite direction.
Assuming ideal diodes, the average voltage (in direct current) of the output across the load R would be
Vodc=2Vmax/pi. And the effective voltage Voef=Vmax/sqrt(2).

If there is no intermediate connection, it is also called a Graetz bridge rectifier.

For this rectification, 4 diodes are used. In the positive half-cycle of the input signal,
Two conduct in direct and during the negative semiperiod the other two conduct in reverse.

Three-phase (or even more phase) half-wave rectifiers can also be implemented and
of full wave. These rectifiers are normally used in the industry.
To carry out this rectification, it is necessary to use power semiconductors that can
being controlled like thyristors, being controlled rectifiers. Just like if
We use diodes instead of thyristors for the uncontrolled.

3.2. FILTERING

An output signal obtained in a rectifier is a periodic wave signal. To analyze

The magnitude of these signals is necessary to consider the form factor Ff, which is the ratio
between the effective value and the mean value, and the ripple factor Fr, which is the ratio between the value
effective waveform and the mean value.

Ff = Voef / Vodc Fr = Voef ond / Vodc Fr=square root(Ff^2–1)

The filtering is the next phase after the rectifier signal to obtain a continuous signal.
this process aims to increase the average value of the signal and reduce the ripple to obtain
a signal as continuous as possible.

The most commonly used filters are condenser filters, placed in parallel with the
load resistance, called the low-pass filter.

The capacitor is charged to the maximum voltage of the rectified signal, and when the value of this
the signal is lower than the voltage stored in the capacitor, it discharges through
the load resistance.

The peak-to-peak ripple voltage is Vrpp = Vmax - Vmin. The peak-to-peak ripple voltage being
is directly proportional to the maximum voltage Vmax and inversely proportional to the
load resistance R, the capacitance of the capacitor C, and the frequency f of the input signal
to the filter Vrpp≈Vmáx/2RCf.

3.3. VOLTAGE STABILIZATION

3.3.1. STABILIZATION USING ZENER DIODE

Zener diodes are diodes that are made to operate in the reverse breakdown region and
They are used to maintain a constant voltage at a point. Their behavior in direct is
similar to the rest of the diodes, while in reverse, there is the Zener voltage Vz, being this
tension the point at which the current begins to increase rapidly through the
avalanche effect. In this operating region, small changes in voltage produce
large current changes. The Zener diode being an element capable of maintaining the voltage
practically constant between its ends for a wide range of reverse current.
In this type of circuits, the Zener diode is placed in parallel with the load and is responsible for maintaining
constant tension between its ends, even if changes occur in the source of tension
Vs and in the load current IL.

If it is considered that Vs is constant, but the load current varies. The current IL = Vz / Rcarga
and the current relationship is: It = IL + Iz, where It is the total current provided by the source
and what happens for R, and Vs=It.R + Vz = Vr + Vz, with Vr being the voltage drop across R, if Vs and Vz are
constants, Vr must also be so. In this way, It is fixed; if IL increases, Iz decreases, and
vice versa. Vz does not remain constant, but varies very little due to the changes in Iz.

If the load current is now considered constant and the voltage source Vs varies, it increases.
From this, there is an increase in IT and therefore in Iz, since IL remains constant, and vice versa.
if there were a decrease in Vs. It would be the same as before, an output voltage.
practically constant; the small variations would occur due to the variations of Iz for
offset the variations of Vs.

[Link] REGULATOR CIRCUITS

Regulator circuits, through feedback of the output voltage, are capable of

control the variations of this voltage, either due to changes in the load current or
from the input tension.

For example, an error amplifier circuit compares a fixed or reference voltage with a
shows the output tension and, depending on the difference between them, acts on a
control circuit that is responsible for varying output voltage.

Regulators are classified into linear and switched, depending on their operation.
control circuit. In the case of linear regulators, the control circuit performs the control
from the output voltage, continuously adjusting the voltage drop across a power transistor
connected in series between the unregulated input and the load. Said transistor must be effective
drive current continuously, it operates in its active or linear region, making this type
regulators are often inefficient, having to obtain regulation by subtracting the voltage
collector-emitter of the input voltage. There are numerous models available in the market.
integrated linear regulators, both with fixed output voltage and variable output voltage
adjustable, most of which have three terminals. In the low power versions
They have plastic encapsulations, and the higher power ones have metal encapsulations.

In the case of switched regulators, the control element is a switch that is usually
is made up of a transistor that goes from a cutoff state to saturation; this transistor
converts the unregulated input direct current into alternating current, obtaining the value
half through an LC filter. In these regulators, the output voltage is controlled by the
modulation of the pulses of the signal at the input of the filter. The greatest advantage is the efficiency of the
circuit, reaching values of 85-90%. The power dissipation is considerably
smaller than that of a linear regulator. It can also be connected directly
to the tension of the rectified and filtered line, without the need for a power transformer
of the alternate. Currently, most power supplies are switched.

3.4. AMPLIFIERS
3.4.1. BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR-BASED AMPLIFIER

These amplifier circuits are designed to keep the transistors operating in

the active zone, that is, with the base-emitter junction forward biased and the base-collector junction
in reverse.

A transistor working as an amplifier receives an input signal between two terminals and
it extracts an amplified output signal between two other terminals. The transistor has three
terminals (emitter, base, and collector), one of them must be common to both the input and output. Giving
therefore allowing for three possible configurations.

For a bipolar transistor to amplify, it is necessary to bias it properly.

through external components causing voltage drops while allowing to maintain
the base-emitter and base-collector junctions of the transistor are correctly configured. The most
the one used is the common emitter, as it allows for gains in both voltage and current. In
in this circuit, the output voltage matches that of the collector.
For the understanding of transistors and their operation, the curves are useful.
characteristics that represent various variables (voltages or currents) of a
bipolar transistor in Cartesian coordinates. An example of an important characteristic curve is
the one that relates the current values in the collector and the collector-emitter voltage (VCE) in
function of different values of the base current that are considered. From these curves
es posible determinar el punto de trabajo del transistor.

Within the characteristic curves, it is possible to identify the different regions of

operation of a bipolar transistor. A good biasing for amplification will be one that
that locates the working points in the active zone, away from cutting and saturation. The point of
work is always located on the load line, which determines the possible points
operation of the transistor.

To set the operating point, it is necessary to adjust the value of the components according to
a series of equations. To do this, the input circuit must satisfy that: Vbb = [Link] + Vbe

In the output circuit: Vcc = [Link] + Vce

To solve the equations, it is necessary to know the amplification factor β or hfe: being
Ic=βIb.

Once the device is well polarized, the phenomenon of can be analyzed.

amplification taking into account the alternating input. With no input voltage
constant, the operating point varies. The voltage Vbe remains constant, however Ib varies between
of values (IB1 IB2). The operating point varies, although the load line remains fixed. This
Variation of the operating point causes Ic and Vce to vary. There are biasing circuits.
perfectly designed to effectively locate the work point; from this
In addition to the basic common emitter circuit, there is a variant with universal biasing.
another that includes polarization of the emitter, another with two power supplies, +Vcc and -Vcc, the
polarization using negative feedback through the base, etc.

To analyze the behavior of an alternating input signal in the amplifier, it is replaced

that transistor by an equivalent model (hybrid model), constituted by a four-port network in
the one controlling the input impedance of the transistor, the output impedance, the gain of
current is the relationship between the output and input current, and the gain of
tension. It is important to note that both gains are related and are often considered
just one of them.

3.4.2. UNIPOLAR TRANSISTOR BASED AMPLIFIER

There are several biasing circuits for the junction field-effect transistor.
(JFET). The simplest is the fixed bias circuit, but there are also other circuits.
additional polarization of the JFET. For its analysis in AC, the equivalent model is still
more simplified than the bipolar transistor model, since its input impedance is
consider it infinite.

The biasing circuits and the equivalent AC model for the unipolar transistor
The field effect with an isolated gate (MOSFET) is practically identical to that of the JFET.

[Link]-AMP BASED AMPLIFIER

The Operational Amplifier is one of the most commonly used integrated analog circuits.
Currently. They have high precision and gain in a large number of applications.
The ideal operational amplifier model has a considered input impedance.
infinite, a zero output impedance, and is composed solely of a voltage source
whose value is the product of the differential gain or in an open loop, considered infinite, by
the differential input tension Vd = Vp–Vn. In reality, the model of a real op-amp is
composed of a large number of transistors. The AO has a first gain stage.
differential, a second stage of voltage gain, and its last stage is an output stage.

Closed-loop configurations (with negative feedback) allow for obtaining

amplifiers with a linear behavior in which the voltage gain is given by:
Vo/Vi = - R2/R1.

3.5. OSCILLATORS

An example of an oscillator circuit consists of an amplifier with a feedback network.

This feedback signal is in phase with the input signal, resulting in an effective signal.
greater and allows, without an input signal, to obtain an output waveform. This type of
feedback is called positive feedback.

There are two conditions for a feedback amplifier to become an oscillator.

firstly, the feedback signal must be in phase with the signal entering the amplifier, which
what is achieved with positive feedback, and, on the other hand, what the loop gain is
the closure of the entire set must be greater than or equal to 1, otherwise, the output signal will
it would dampen and eventually disappear over time. These requirements are called
Barkhausen conditions, being necessary and sufficient conditions.

3.5.1. RELAXATION OSCILLATORS

Also called square wave oscillators or multivibrators. They are used for low
frequency and are characterized by using the charging and discharging time of a capacitor at
through a resistor as a reference to generate a periodic signal.

The capacitor thus operates between two voltage levels VT+ and VT-, causing the
the capacitor reaches VT+, at the output it holds a fixed high voltage level Voh, which remains
until the voltage of the capacitor reaches VT-. At this moment the output will switch to level
By lowering the voltage, repeating this process results in a square wave oscillator.

To achieve this type of oscillator, it is based on using the regeneration of a Schmitt circuit.
Trigger, specifically an inverter. The operating principle connects the power supply of
circuit in such a way that initially V0 is 0V, with the capacitor discharged and the output V0
it is at a high level VOH. The capacitor begins to charge and when V1 reaches the level of
input high threshold of the Schmitt Trigger (VT+ = Vih of the inverter) the output of this changes
a nivel bajo VOL. En cambio cuando V1 desciende hasta el nivel de tensión de entrada en bajo
of the Schmitt Trigger (VT- = VIL of the inverter). The output changes to the high level VOH. The cycle is
repeat indefinitely.

The second inverter used in the circuit is solely to isolate the oscillator from the load and
that this does not influence the operation of the oscillator.

It is also possible to obtain a relaxation oscillator circuit using an amplifier.

operate with positive feedback. The circuit that constitutes positive feedback,
R1 and R2 make the A.O. behave like an inverting Schmitt Trigger circuit, and the circuit in
Negative feedback is what determines the operating frequency (the constant
de tiempo de carga y descarga del condensador es RfC).

There are specific circuits that can be properly configured to work as

multivibrator circuits or astables, as is the case with the integrated circuit Timer 555. When using
a capacitor, when it is charging, the output is at a high level, and when the capacitor
it is downloading, the output is at a low level.

3.5.2. RADIO FREQUENCY OR SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

They are used for higher frequencies and there are numerous types, depending on
mainly on the characteristics of the positive feedback circuit. Next, we
they comment on the main ones.

RC oscillators have a feedback circuit consisting of networks of resistors and

capacitors. There are several types. The Wien bridge oscillator and the delay oscillator.
phase among others.

LC oscillators are made up of networks of inductances and capacitors. In this

the Hartley oscillator, the Colpitts oscillator, and crystal oscillators are found in the category
of quartz.

Quartz crystal oscillators are the most commonly used high-frequency oscillators.
mainly due to the accuracy and stability of the obtained oscillation frequency. The crystal
(XTAL) acts like a large coil in series with a small capacitor; hence,
The resonance frequency is hardly affected by the amplifier and parasitic capacitances.

The vibration is due to the piezoelectric effect by which, when a voltage is applied to the crystal, it
vibrate at the frequency of the applied tension. And inversely, if they are forced to vibrate,
generates an alternating tension of the same frequency. This quartz crystal has the shape of a
hexagonal prism with pyramids at the ends and cut into rectangular sheets.

4. APPLICATIONS

As has already been discussed, power supplies perform three combined processes to
feed different circuits that need direct current from alternating current.
The three processes are AC rectification, filtering, and voltage stabilization.

On the other hand, amplifiers are used in almost all electronic sections, such as
radio and television transmitters and receivers, computers, etc. The amplifiers perform their
function taking power from a power supply and controlling the output to make
match the waveform of the input signal with that of the output, but with one amplitude
The relationship between input and output is called the transfer function of the
amplifier and its gain magnitude. They are usually operated within a certain range
of frequencies, normally where the amplification is constant or linear.

Finally, oscillators are devices capable of converting current energy.

it continues in alternating current at a certain frequency. As applications, it can be
to be used as radio and television frequency generators, local oscillators in the
receivers, sweep generators in cathode ray tubes, etc.

The oscillators along with the amplifiers and power supplies are the basis of any
analog electronic circuit.