Autumn Session 2012

Solved problems of
GPA668 Sensors and
actuators
By Guy Gauthier
professor in GPA
Collection of problems - GPA668 Sensors and
Actuators

Guy Gauthier

5 septembre 2012
2
Table of contents

1 Metrology and measurement chains 1

1.1 The questions 1
1.1.1 Question #1 1
1.1.2 Question #2 2
1.1.3 Question #3 . . . . . . . . .3 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 Question #4 3
1.1.5 Question #5 4
1.1.6 Question #6 5
1.2 The solution manual . . . . . . . . . 6. . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Solution #1 6
1.2.2 Solution #2 . . . . . . . . .7 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Solution #3 8
1.2.4 Solution #4
1.2.5 Solution #5
1.2.6 Solution #6

2 Instrumentation Schemes 17
2.1 The questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Question #7 .......................... 17
2.1.2 Question #8
2.2 The solution manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Solution #7
2.2.2 Solution #8

3 proximity detectors 25
3.1 The questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Question #9 .......................... 25
3.1.2 Question #10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

i
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.1.3 Question #11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.4 Question #12
3.2 The solution manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Solution #9 29
3.2.2 Solution #10 30
3.2.3 Solution #11
3.2.4 Solution #12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Distance sensors 35
4.1 The questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Question #13 .................................................. 35
4.1.2 Question #14
4.1.3 Question #15
4.1.4 Question #16
4.1.5 Question #17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.6 Question #18 ............................ 40
4.1.7 Question #19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 The solution manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Solution #13 ................................................................... 42
4.2.2 Solution #14 43
4.2.3 Solution #15
4.2.4 Solution #16 ....................................... 44
4.2.5 Solution #17 ...................................... 45
4.2.6 Solution #18 ............ 46
4.2.7 Solution #19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5 Force, pressure, and torque sensors 51

5.1 The questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Question #20
5.1.2 Question #21
5.2 The solution manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Solution #20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2 Solution #21 ...

6 Level Sensors 59
6.1 The questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Question #22
6.1.2 Question #23 .................................................. 60
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TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

6.1.3 Question #24

6.1.4 Question #25 ......................................................................... 61
6.2 The solution manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Solution #22 ................. 62
6.2.2 Solution #23 ...
6.2.3 Solution #24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Solution #25

7 flow sensors 67
7.1 The questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1 Question #26
7.1.2 Question #27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.3 Question #28
7.1.4 Question #29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.5 Question #30 ............... 69
7.1.6 Question #31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 The solution manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Solution #26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2 Solution #27 .......................... 73
7.2.3 Solution #28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.4 Solution #29 ................................ 75
7.2.5 Solution #30
7.2.6 Solution #31 .............................. 78

8 temperature sensors 81
8.1 The questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 Question #32 ............................................... 81
8.1.2 Question #33 ...................................... 81
8.1.3 Question #34 ................................ 82
8.1.4 Question #35
8.1.5 Question #36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.6 Question #37
8.2 The solution manual ...
8.2.1 Solution #32 ............................ 84
8.2.2 Solution #33 ........................................................................ 85
8.2.3 Solution #34 ............................................... 85
8.2.4 Solution #35 ................................ 85
8.2.5 Solution #36
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

8.2.6 Solution #37 ........................................................................ 86

Regulating valves 89
9.1 The questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1 Question #38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.2 Question #39 ........................................... 89
9.1.3 Question #40 ............................................ 90
9.1.4 Question #41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.5 Question #42 .............................................. 90
9.1.6 Question #43
9.1.7 Question #44
9.1.8 Question #45 ........................................ 91
9.2 The solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Solution #38 ......................................... 92
9.2.2 Solution #39 .................................................. 94
9.2.3 Solution #40 ...................................... 96
9.2.4 Solution #41
9.2.5 Solution #42 ... 99
9.2.6 Solution #43 ................................ 100
9.2.7 Solution #44
9.2.8 Solution #45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Electric Motors 107

10.1 The questions ................. 107
10.1.1 Question #46 .............................................. 107
10.1.2 Question #47
10.1.3 Question #48
10.2 The solution manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
10.2.1 Solution #46 .......................... 109
10.2.2 Solution #47
10.2.3 Solution #48
Chapter 1

Metrology and chains of

measure

1.1 The questions

1.1.1 Question #1
` the 'Pronto Chemical' factory in St-Glinglin, several sensors transmit
At
sensors have been installed and calibrated as follows:
D'ebitm`etre with pneumatic transmitter:
400 Gallons per minute gives 15 psig;
0 Gallons per minute gives 3 psig.
Pressure with transmitter 4 to 20 mA:
30 inches of mercury gives 20 mA;
10 inches of mercury gives 4 mA.
Level with voltage transmitter:
20 meters gives 5 DC Volts;
0.5 meters gives 1 DC Volts.
Temperature with 4 to 20 mA transmitter (given as an example);
120◦ C gives 20 mA;
-40◦ C gives 4 mA.

#1 a)
What is the sensitivity of each of the transmitting sensors (except for the one
in temperature)?

1
2 ´
CHAPTER 1. METROLOGY ˆ
AND MEASUREMENT CHAINS

#1 b)
Ẃriting the transfer function (linear equation y=Mx+b) allows
so much to know the value of the outputs based on the inputs (except for the one in
temperature)?

#1 c)
If the pressure measured at the output of the flow transmitter sensor is
8.5 psig, what will be the corresponding flow rate?

Example with the temperature sensor.

Sensor sensitivity:
∆exit 20 mA - 4 mA
S= =
entrance 120◦ C−(−40)◦ C
16 mA
= 0.1 mA/◦ C
160◦ C

Transfer function:

y(mA) = 0.1 mA/◦ C×x(◦ C) + 4 mA

1.1.2 Question #2
Consider a 12.5 kΩ potentiometer used as a displacement sensor,
to measure a range of movements from 0 to 600 cm, and powered by a
tension of 10 Volts.
1.1. THE QUESTIONS 3

#2 a)
What is the sensitivity of this device in V/mm?

#2 b)
If the accuracy class of this sensor is ±0.25% of F.S., what is its
absolute error and its relative error at 375 cm?

#2 c)
Repeat question #2 b) for a distance of 1 cm. Discuss the result.

1.1.3 Question #3
Consider a level sensor with a measuring range of 0.5 to 25 meters.
and giving an output signal of 4-20 mA (4 mA = 0.5 m and 20 mA = 25 m)
sent to an automation system with a 10-bit analog-to-digital converter
bits (absolute error of ±1 on the conversion result).

#3 a)
What is the measured level if the value read by the device (at the output of the
converter) is (668)10(Read 668 in base 10).

#3 b)
If the sensor has a precision class of ±0.125% EM, and the
converter has an absolute error of ±1 on the result of the conver-
In this case, what will be the relative error on the measurement?

1.1.4 Question #4
Let there be a temperature sensor whose input characteristic (temperature
in ◦C) vs output (voltage in Volts) appears in Table 1.1.
The manufacturerit indicates on the identification sheet that the extent of
the measurement is from◦ 0 to 50 C and the output signal varies from 0 to 5 Volts.
4 ´
CHAPTER 1. METROLOGY ˆ
AND MEASUREMENT CHAINS

Table1.1 – Mesures sur le capteur de temp´erature

Temperature Output
◦C Volts
0.000 0,000
5,000 0.489
10,000 0.980
15,000 1,473
20,000 1,970
25,000 2,468
30,000 2,970
35,000 3,473
40,000 3,980
45,000 4,489
50,000 5,000

#4 a)
What is the equation of the best line approximating this characteristic?

#4 b)
What is the linearity error of this sensor as a percentage of the measurement range?

#4 c)
What is the sensitivity of this sensor?

1.1.5 Question #5
Consider an inductive proximity detector with a nominal range of 10.
This sensor switches from 0 to 1 when the target approaches a certain
distance. Table 1.2 lists the 25 distance measurements (in mm) from the point
of the detector switching.

#5 a)
What are the standard deviation and the average of the measurement?
1.1. THE QUESTIONS 5

Table 1.2 - Measurements taken on the detector (switching point)

4.96 4.99 4.98 4.95 5.06
5.00 5.03 4.97 5.06 5.04
5.01 4.98 5.03 5.05 4.96
4.95 5.06 4.99 4.99 5.03
5.01 5.03 4.98 5.03 5.01

#5 b)
What is the repeatability error (in mm) of this sensor (reminder: use
the Chauvenet criterion)?

1.1.6 Question #6
Let it be a load cell that can measure loads from 0 to 8,000
Newton. This sensor generates an output signal with reduced sensitivity.
of 2 mV/V. It is excited by a voltage source of 12 V±0.05 V and its
The precision class is ±0.125% EM.

#6 a)
What is the absolute error on the output signal of this sensor? (Hint:
The output voltage depends on the load and the source voltage).

#6 b)
This sensor sends its signal to an electronic conditioning module.
transforming a signal from 0 to 25 mV into a signal from 0 to 5 V with a
precision class of ±0.1 % EM, what is the absolute error at the output of this
module ?

#6 c)
If the conditioning electronic module is connected to the analog input
the operation of an automaton with an analog-to-digital converter that gives a
numeric value on 16 bits with an error of ±1 on the converted value,
What is the absolute error in the memory of the automaton?
6 ´
CHAPTER 1. METROLOGY ˆ
AND MEASUREMENT CHAINS

#6 d)
If the output value of the analog-to-digital converter of the board
The analog input of the controller reads a value of 12000, what are the
forces (ideal value, minimum value, and maximum value) represented by
this reading?

1.2 The solutions manual

1.2.1 Solution #1
#1 a)
The sensitivity is expressed by:
exit
S= (1.1)
entry
By applying (1.1), we obtain for the debit measurement:
15 psig - 3 psig 12 psig
S= = = 0.03 psig/GPM
400 GPM - 0 GPM 400 GPM
Similarly, for the pressure sensor:
20 mA - 4 mA 16 mA
S= = 20 pointsHg
0.8 mA/poHg
30 pointsHg-10 pointsHg

Finally:
5 V−1V 4V
S= = 0.205 V/m
20 m−0.5 m 19.5 m

#1 b)
The transfer function of the debitrm is:

y(psig) = 0.03 psig/GPM×x(GPM) + 3 psig

y(mA) = 0.8 mA/poHg×x(poHg ) + 4 mA

y(V) = 0.205 V/m×x(m) + 1 V

1.2. THE SOLVER 7

#1 c)
If the flow sensor outputs 8.5 psig, we can deduce the flow rate.
by solving this equation for the unknown x:

y(psig) = 8.5 psig = 0.03 psig/GPM×x(GPM) + 3 psig

which leads me to 183.3 GPM.

1.2.2 Solution #2
#2 a)
It is assumed that the potentiometer is connected to the 10 Volts source and
that the resistance between the cursor and the ground is 0 kΩ (which gives 0 V
at output) 0 cm and 12.5 kΩ (which gives 10 V at output) 600 cm.
Then, using relation (1.1) we can write:

10 V−0 V 10 V
S= = 0.00167 V/mm
6000 mm−0 mm 6000 mm

#2 b)
The absolute error of the sensor corresponds to a class of precision of
±0.25 % E.M., is:

EAbs=±0.25 %×600 cm = ±0.25

100 ×600 cm =±1.5 cm
Knowing this value, we can now calculate the relative error.
It has a measurement of 375 cm.
EAbs ±1.5 cm
ERel=
Measure×100 % = 375 cm ×100 % =±0.4 %

#2 c)
The absolute error obtained in #2 c) remains to evaluate the error.
relative for a measurement of 1 cm. This error is:

EAbs +/- 1.5 cm

ERel=
Measure×100 % = 1 cm ×100 % =±150 %
8 ´
CHAPTER 1. METROLOGY ˆ
AND MEASUREMENT CHAINS

The relative error increases as the measurement decreases towards

0 cm. It is equal to the precision class when the measurement is equal to
The measurement range of 600 cm. It becomes infinite at 0 cm.
Ainsi, si la mesure`a 375 cm est sens´ee, celle`a 1 cm ne l’est pas.

1.2.3 Solution #3
#3 a)
Before solving this question, it is necessary to calculate the transfer function.
from the sensor and that of the analog input card of the controller.
By assigning the variable xau measured by the sensor, the variable ya
output and the variable for the content of the register receiving the output from the converter
analog/digital, we can write:

y=m1 x + b1

for the sensor and:

z=m2 y + b2
for the analog input card.
The sensitivity1the sensor is:

20 mA−4 mA 16 mA
m1= =
25 m raised to the power of24.5
negative
0.653 mA/m
m 0.5 m
To find1 it suffices to evaluate the transfer function when the reservoir
is at its maximum. Thus:

20 mA = 0.653 mA/m×25 m + b1

and the value of deb1The

solution to this equation is 3.675 mA.
The transfer function of the sensor is therefore:

y = 0.653 mA/m × x + 3.675 mA

The sensitivity2the A/N converter is:

210 1024
m 2= = 64 mA−1
20 mA - 4 mA 16 mA
1.2. THE SOLUTION MAN 9

To find2 It is enough to evaluate the transfer function when the signal

this is the minimum. Thus:

0 = 64 mA−1×4 mA +b2

and the value of deb2 The

solution to this equation is -256.
The transfer function of the A/D converter is therefore:

z = 64 mA−1×y−256

We now have everything we need to answer the question. The

the value of current corresponding to a value of 668 is the solution of:

z = 668 = 64 mA−1×y−256

the current is 14.4375 mA.

The corresponding level is the solution of:

y = 14.4375 mA = 0.653 mA/m × x + 3.675 mA

which gives = 16.48 meters.

The level of the reservoir corresponding to a value of 668 in the memory.
The length of the machine is 16.48 m.

#3 b)
It is necessary to calculate the error on the measurement chain generated by the sensor and
the analog entry card.
The precision class of ±0.125% EM gives an absolute error ∆y on
the output of the sensor of :

∆y=±0.125% (20 mA−4 mA) =±0.125%×16 mA =±0.02 mA

The error in the analog input card of the automation is

∂z ∂z ∂ 2z
∆z= ∆m2 + ∆y + ∆m2 ∆y
∂m2 ∂y ∂m2 ∂y
= ∆m2|y| + ∆y|m2 + ∆m2 ∆y
10 ´
CHAPTER 1. METROLOGY ˆ
AND MEASUREMENT CHAINS

The absolute error ∆m2±1 on a range of 16 mA or ±1/16 mA−1

and the worst is 20 mA. So we can calculate:

∆z= +1 mA|20
-1 mA|+±0.02 mA 64 mA
-1
16
+ +1 mA−1× ±0.02 mA
16
±2.531 ⇒ ±3

The absolute error of the measurement chain from the perspective of the automaton
est±3.
The error related to the measurement of 668 will be:

EAbs +/-3
ERel=
Measure×100 % = 668 ×100 % =±0.45 %

Note that the accuracy class of the measuring chain can be obtained
in the following way:

EAbs ±3
C.P.=
EM ×100 % = 210 ×100 % =±0.29 %

let it be a precision class of ±0.29 % EM.

1.2.4 Solution #4

#4 a)

Using the Excel spreadsheet, we find with the "Slope" function: m = 0.1
V/◦ And with the function "[Link]": b = -0.019 V.
Thus:

ytheo0.1 V/◦ Cx−0.019 V

THE SOLUTIONAIRE 11

#4 b)
For trTo open this result, it is necessary to calculate the theoretical value for each.
◦
entry (in C). Then, we calculate the absolute error as follows:

eabs=|ymonth-ytheo| (1.2)

for all measures.

Next, we calculate the percentage error of the measurement range (of 5
Output volts) and we keep the highest value.
This brings me to a precision class of ±0.378% EM.

In Excel (see figure): assuming that the entries are in a column

C (from C5 to C15), the outputs measured in column D (from D5 to D15), the slope
at point D18 and the ordinate at the origin at point D19, the calculation of the first output
The formula in cell E5 is: =$D$18*C5+$D$19. It is enough to copy this cell.
E5 to E6, up to E15 to obtain the other values. The pointers to
cells D18 and D19 remain unchanged because dollar signs ($) have been
insert into the equation.
12 ´
CHAPTER 1. METROLOGY ˆ
AND MEASUREMENT CHAINS

The calculation of absolute error is performed in cell F5 with :=ABS(D5-E5).

Then, we copy this cell in F6, up to F15.
The error calculation in % in cell G5 is :=F5/5 since the range of
The measurement is 5 Volts. Then, we copy this cell to G6, up to G15. And
the display style of the cells in column G has been changed to the style
Percentage. The highest value is the sensor's accuracy class.

#4 c)

The sensitivity of the sensor is directly 0.1 V/◦ C.

1.2.5 Solution #5
#5 a)

La moyenne estx¯ = 5.01 mm et l’´ecart type est deσ= 0.033 mm.

#5 b)

To calculate repeatability, one must assess whether data can be

removed from the list using Chauvenet's criterion.
For a series of 25 data points, any data point located above can be rejected.
2.33 standard deviations from the mean. In our case, we must retain the
given that it meets the following condition:

3σ2.+ x̄ ≤x≤3σ2.- x̄

so, if 4.93≤x≤5.09.
Since all the data is part of this interval, it must be preserved.
vers.
The repeatability error consists of evaluating the distance of the data.
further from the average, i.e. max(5.06mm−5.01mm, 5.01mm−4.95mm) =
0.06mm.
The repeatability error of this sensor will therefore be ±0.06 mm.
1.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 13

1.2.6 Solution #6
#6 a)
The transfer function of the sensor can be expressed as:

Sr Vexc
y= x+b (1.3)
EM

withSr , the reduced sensitivity of the sensor (2 mV/V), Vexcthe power supply voltage
station (of 12 V), the measured force (in N), the measuring range of
Sensor output voltage (in mV) when the force is minimal.
By inserting the numerical values, we obtain:

2 mV/V×12 V
y= x + b = 0.003 mV/Nx (1.4)
8000 N−0 N

The value is set at 0 mV, since for a force of 0 N, the tension

The output of the sensor is 0 mV.
The sensor has a sensitivity of 0.003 mV/N.
The sensor's precision class can be related to sensitivity.
reduced
Delta Sr=±0.125 %Sr+/- 0.0025mV/V (1.5)
The absolute error on the power supply voltage is ∆Vexc±0.05 V.
The resulting error from the combination of these two errors is:

∂y ∂y ∂ 2y
∆y = ∆Sr + ∆Vexc + ∆Sr Delta Vexc 1.6
∂Sr ∂∆V exc ∂Sr ∂∆V exc

Vexc Sr 1
∆y = ∆Sr x + ∆Vexc x + ∆Sr ∆Vexc x (1.7)
EM EM EM

∆y = ±0.0025 mV/V × 12 V + ±0.05 V × 2 mV/V

+±0.0025 mV/V × ±0.05 V (1.8)
=±0.130 mV

The absolute error, at the output of the sensor, is ±0.130 mV.

14 ´
CHAPTER 1. METROLOGY ˆ
AND MEASUREMENT CHAINS

#6 b)
The output voltage of the sensor varies from 0 mV to 2 mV/V × 12 V =
24 mV. This variation is less than the allowed variation on the input of the
conditioning electronic module (CEM) which is from 0 to 25 mV.
The transfer function of this MEC is:
z=m2 y + b2 (1.9)
The sensitivity2the MEC is calculated as follows:
∆z 5 V−0 V
m2= = 0.2 V/mV (1.10)
∆y 25 mV−0 mV
The error regarding the sensitivity of the MEC is:

∆m2=±0.1%m2=±0.1%×0.2 V/mV =±0.0002 V/mV (1.11)

The value of deb2is equal to 0 V, because the MEC gives an output of 0 V when
the input is 0 mV.
The output error of the MEC is the cumulative absolute error on the input.
∆yet the error on the sensitivity ∆m2:
∂z ∂z ∂ 2z
∆z = ∆m2 + ∆y + ∆m2 ∆y (1.12)
∂m2 ∂∆y ∂m2 ∂y
By calculating the derivatives, we find:

∆z = ∆m2|y| + ∆y|m2 + ∆m2 ∆y (1.13)

and since all the values are positive:
∆z = ∆m2 y + ∆ym2+ ∆m2 ∆y (1.14)
With the numerical values, we finally calculate:
∆z = ±0.0002 V/mV × 25 mV + ±0.130 mV × 0.2 V/mV
+±0.0002 V/mV × ±0.130 mV (1.15)
+/-0.031 V
Note that the worst case considered for the entry is the maximum value that
can take the input, possibly 25 mV, despite the fact that the maximum value
the signal from the sensor is 24 mV.
The cumulative absolute error at the output of the MEC is ±0.031 V.
1.2. THE SOLUTION PROVIDER 15

#6 c)
The transfer function is:

M=m3 z+b3 (1.16)

The sensitivity3of the analog/digital converter of the input card

Analogues are calculated as follows:

2n 216
m 3= = 13107.2 V−1 (1.17)
∆z 5 V−0 V
The error on the sensitivity of the analog/digital converter of the board
the analog inputs are:
1 1
∆m3=± =± =±0.2 V−1 (1.18)
EM 5 V−0 V
The value of the deb3is
equal to 0, as the analog-to-digital converter
the analog input card gives an output of 0 when the input is
0 V.
The error at the output of the analog-to-digital converter of the input board
Analogues is the sum of the absolute error on the input ∆z and the error on the
sensitivity ∆m3:

∂M ∂M ∂ 2M
∆M= ∆m3 + ∆z + ∆m3 ∆z (1.19)
∂m3 ∂∆z ∂m3 ∂z

By calculating the derivatives, we obtain:

∆M= ∆m3|z| + ∆z|m3 |+ ∆m3 ∆z (1.20)

then, since the values are positive:

∆M= ∆m3 z + ∆zm3+ ∆m3 ∆z (1.21)

Which gives numerically:

∆M=±0.2 V−1×5 V ±0.031 V ×13107.2 V−1

+±0.2 V−1× ±0.031 V (1.22)
±407.65 ⇒ ±408
16 ´
CHAPTER 1. METROLOGY ˆ
AND MEASUREMENT CHAINS

The absolute error of the measurement chain, evaluated at the output of the converter
analog/digital is ±408.
If we report this absolute error on the measured value of the sensor, we must
obtain the complete transfer function which is directly:

M=m3 m2 m1 x = 7.864 N−1 x (1.23)

By setting M=±408 in this equation, we find x=±51.88 N.

Thus, the absolute error of the measurement chain is ±51.88 N.

#6 d)
S̀tarting from the equation (1.23), with M = 12000, we find x = 1525.94 N.
The force measured when the analog-to-digital converter gives
12000 is 1525.94 N.
Taking into account the absolute error of ±51.88 N, we find that the
Measured force can be between 1474.06 N (i.e., 1525.94 N - 51.88 N) and 1577.82 N.
N (that is 1525.94 N + 51.88 N).
Chapter 2

Instrumentaion schemes

2.1 The questions

2.1.1 Question #7
Figure 2.1 shows the instrumentation diagram of a heating process.
juice face (process called aseptization).

Figure 2.1 - Juice aseptization process

17
18 ´
CHAPTER 2. INSTRUMENTATION SCHEMES

´
#7 a) Study of a control loop:
Represent the temperature control loop of the heat exchanger
(identified 'Juice Heater'); enumerate all the equipment in this loop.

#7 b)
` does it return?
What is the function of the valve FCV-1? When
the juice in the supply tank?

#7 c)
What type of level sensor (or transmitter sensor) is identified?
by LT-1?
2.1. QUESTIONS 19

2.1.2 Question #8
Let the instrumentation scheme shown in Figure 2.2 (page 23) represent
such the control of a chemical pulp digester of the company 'KaBoum
inc.

Scenario:

Introduction
Paper mills are able to produce various types of
products from fine paper to corrugated cardboard. This range of products requires that the
the primary raw material of paper, wood pulp, has characteristics
at the level of the fibers capable of meeting the specific requirements of
braid. Numerous methods for reducing wood chips to pulp
developed to economically produce pulps having
correct characteristics at the fiber level. These processes include means
mechanics and chemistry of digestion. They can be executed in batches or in
continuous processes.

THE CHEMICAL´ ´ PROCESS OF DIGESTION

In the chemical digestion process, wood chips are
circuits under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure for dis-
bind the fiber binding agents and other non-fibrous parts of
wood shavings. The resulting residue is mainly a pulp called
by a blend of cellulose fiber.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE PROCESS ´ ´

Wood chips and a chemical product helping in cooking
liquors) are loaded into a vertical tank called “digester tank”
The amount of wood chips to put in the tank
the digestor is measured on a weight basis while the chemical product
is dosed based on a volumetric basis. The chip entry hatch (Capping
the valve closes (in an airtight manner) after loading the wood chips and the
the cooking cycle is launched. The circulation pump is then started and
begins to extract the liquid generated by the cooking of the chips. This liquid is
pumped to a heat exchanger and the heated liquid is reintroduced into
the digester's vat. As the cooking progresses, air and other gases
non-condensables are expelled through the gas exhaust pipe (Digester
20 ´
CHAPTER 2. INSTRUMENTATION SCHEMES

relief line). When the cooking is complete, the pulp is discharged by the
outlet valve located at the bottom of the tank.

´
COOKING METHOD
The cooking method presented here is called 'indirect method' and
she is shown in the figure on page 9.
In this method, the liquid resulting from the cooking of the chips circulates.
through a heat exchanger. On the return line to the tank
the digester, two valves are adjusted to ensure that the incoming flow
at the top of the tank should be higher than the incoming flow at the bottom of the tank. The goal
being able to heat the chips located at the top of the reservoir, otherwise the
The chips at the bottom of the reservoir would be warmer than those at the top.
In fact, we obtain a more uniform temperature of the shavings.
This cooking method allows for better control of the
quality of the pulp.

#8 a)
Identify the instruments and equipment of the instrumentation diagram
proposed.

#8 b)
Identify on the diagram the two control loops present in this
digest and describe what is controlled by each of the loops. Indicate,
for each of the loops if the controls are of type: feedback control
(feedback), predictive command (feedforward) or cascade control.

2.2 The solution manual

2.2.1 Solution #7
#7 a)
Temperature control loop (Standard feedback control):
•TT-1: Temperature transmitter (connected via a capillary);
•TIC – 1 : Temperature display controller;
•TCV – 1 : Temperature control valve via steam flow.
2.2. THE SOLUTION 21

#7 b)
The valve 'FCV - 1' allows directing the flow to the filtration reservoir.
or towards the supply reservoir. This prevents the reservoir from overflowing.
of filtering whose level is measured by LT-1 and whose level signal
maximum is extracted by the high level alarm (Level Switch High) LSH
– 1 commander the 3-way valve LY-1 whose output pressure command
the valve FCV-1.

#7 c)
It is a level sensor by bubbling.

2.2.2 Solution #8
#8 a)
List of equipment identified by bubbles:
TT-1, TT-2, TT-3 and TT-4: Temperature transmitters
•TR-1, TR-2 and TR-3: Temperature recorders
PT-1, PT-2: Pressure transmitters
FT-1: Flow transmitter
•FY-1, FY-2: Units of flow conversion (square root and value
lower
•PIC-1, PIC-2: Pressure display controllers
FIC-1: Flow display controller
•KI-1, KI-2: Timers and displays
FCV-1, FCV-5: Flow control valves
PCV-2: Pressure Control Valve
•PDSH: High differential pressure detector

#8 b)
The two loops are, one for temperature control and the other for control.
under pressure.
The temperature control regulates the flow rate of the valve FCV-1.
steam. The order sent is the smallest between the flow regulator
FIC-1 and PIC-1 pressure to prevent the occurrence of excessive pressures.
Students. It is a feedback control.
22 ´
CHAPTER 2. INSTRUMENTATION SCHEMATICS

The second loop controls the pressure of the gases generated by digestion
wood shavings through a temperature measurement TT-4 and pressure PT-
2. The pressure relief valve PCV-2 ensures a suitable pressure. It is a
cascading control.
2.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 23

Figure 2.2 – Wood chip digestion process

24 ´
CHAPTER 2. INSTRUMENTATION SCHEMAS
Chapter 3

Proximity detectors

3.1 The questions

3.1.1 Question #9
At Thalie Inc., it is necessary to detect a copper object passing through less
of 4 mm according to an axial presentation. The inductive proximity sensor
must send a logical signal to the load if the distance is 4 mm or
less. The output of this detector must be of NPN type. The temperature of
the location of the sensor varies by 10◦ It's 40◦ C.

25
26 ´
CHAPTER 3. PROXIMITY DETECTORS ´

#9 a)

Among the list of detectors provided in Appendix A, which one or ones can
make the deal. Indicate the model number as well as their nominal range
and real.

#9 b)

What is the minimum size of the target necessary for the

Does detection take place at the requested distance?

#9 c)

For a DC voltage source of 24 Volts, what is the range of

load resistance that ensures that a current that is too high does not flow
in the sensor?
Indice : Voir ”Control output (switching capacity)” et ”Residual voltage”.

#9 d)

What is the voltage across the load when the detector is

activated by the presence of a target?

3.1.2 Question #10

Consider an AC capacitive proximity detector whose capacitance evolves.
according to the following equation which is valid six ≤ 3 cm:

(3 cm - x) p+x r
C = 8.85 pF/m×A
3 cm(x + 0.1 cm)

what is the distance between the target and the face of the detector (in centimeters)
pis the correction factor of the target material,ris the factor of
correction for air (also called the relative permittivity of air)
which is 1.000264 and is the surface of the capacitance of the detector. The
Detector has a capacitance surface area of 3 cm2and the target presents itself from
axial falcon.
3.1. THE QUESTIONS 27

#10 a)
What are the extreme values of capacitance for a target in
melamine resin with a correction factor of 10?
Plot the capacitance C as a function of distance x.

#10 b)
What is the value of the capacitance if the target is made of melamine resin?
positioned 1.5 cm?
This value can therefore serve as a threshold to switch the detector.
citif.

#10 c)
Using a porcelain target (correction factor of 5), at what
will distance be detected for a capacitance value equal to that cal-
culminating in b)?

3.1.3 Question #11

Consider an optical proximity detector using the diffuse method that has
the specifications appearing in Figures 3.1 and 3.2. The nominal range
is 1 meter.
We need to detect the passage of cardboard boxes having a power
of 60% reflection on a conveyor. The work environment is very
dusty, since we are in a sawmill.

#11 a)
H̀ow far from the box can we install the sensor?
ensure a correct detection of it at all times? What should be the
threshold to ensure the detection of these boxes?

#11 b)
If a wall painted with a matte color (40%) is present in the field.
from the sensor, the contrast will be too low. Suggest and justify another way.
to detect the box.
28 ´
CHAPTER 3. PROXIMITY DETECTORS ´

Figure 3.1 - Operating margin curve of the detector

question #11

Figure 3.2 – Detection pattern of the detector of question #11

3.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 29

#11 c)
If the conveyor belt carrying the boxes rolls at 3 meters per minute, what
should be the minimum distance between the boxes for the sensor to detect
the interval between them? (switching time of the detector is 8 ms).

3.1.4 Question #12

We want to measure the speed of a rotating object with a detector.
inductive proximity. This proximity detector has a switching time
of 1.5 ms (thus TON→OF F =TOF F →ON= 1.5 ms).
The gear that will be used to detect the speed of the rotating mobile has
10 dents spaced 1.5 inches apart and having a width of 1.25 inches.

#12 a)
What is the maximum speed of the engine that can be measured (in
RPM) ?

#12 b)
If the motor speed is 1200 RPM, what is the generated frequency?
at the output of the proximity sensor?

#12 c)
If the frequency voltage converter has an error of ±0.25 Hertz, what
What is the absolute error (in RPM) and the relative error at 1200 RPM?

3.2 The solution book

3.2.1 Solution #9
#9 a)
The nominal rangenmust ensure that:

4 mm≤Sn×0.9×0.9×0.3
What leads men≥16.46 mm. The required model is therefore the Bi20-G47-AN4X
which has a nominal rangen of 20 mm.
30 ´
CHAPTER 3. PROXIMITY SENSORS ´

#9 b)
The minimum size of the target to ensure detection at the distance
The calculated dimension in #9 a) is 60 mm × 60 mm × 1 mm.
This value is obtained by comparing the diameter of the sensor which is
47 mm is three times the nominal range, that is 3×20 mm or 60 mm. The most
the larger of the two compared values is 60 mm.

#9 c)
To calculate the load resistance that prevents overload
the sensor uses the following two pieces of information:
Continuous load current Iload= 200 mA (Maximum output current)
— continuously) ;
Voltage drop across conducting sensor Vo= 1.8 V (Voltage drop
to the sensor — in conduction).
The load resistance that ensures not to cause a higher current
I is calculated as follows:
load

24 V−1.8 V
Rload ≥ Vexc−Vo = = 111 Ω (3.1)
Iload 200 mA

The load must have an impedance of at least 111 Ω to ensure a

proper functioning of the sensor.

#9 d)
It is simply the difference between the sensor's supply voltage.
Vexc24 V and the voltage drop in the sensor Voof 1.8 V, which gives
a voltage of 22.2 V. This is the numerator of equation (3.1).

3.2.2 Solution #10

#10 a)
Since the transfer function of the sensor is:

(3 cm−x) p+xr
C = 8.85 pF/m×A
3 cm(x + 0.1 cm)
3.2. THE SOLUTION PROVIDER 31

and thatpis 10 for the melamine, then we can write:

10(3 cm−x) + 1.000264x

C = 8.85 pF/m×A
3 cm(x + 0.1 cm)

This gives a maximum of 26.55 pFa at x = 0 cm and a minimum of

0.0857 pFa`x = 3 cm.
Figure 3.3 shows the behavior of capacitance vs distance
for melamine and porcelain.

Figure 3.3 – Capacitance curve vs distance

#10 b)
The value of the capacitance for a distance of 1.5 cm is 0.9127 pF.

#10 c)
By changingpfrom 10 to 5 while maintaining a capacitance of 0.9127 pF,
they solve the capacitance equation to find x = 0.976 cm. So, a
The porcelain object must come closer to the capacitive detector to
to be detected. Moreover, Figure 3.3 shows that the capacitance curve of
The porcelain is always below the capacitance curve of the melamine.
So, the sensor is more sensitive to melamine.
32 ´
CHAPTER 3. PROXIMITY SENSORS ´

3.2.3 Solution #11

#11 a)
We need to detect the passage of cardboard boxes having a power
of 60% reflection on a conveyor. The work environment is very
dusty, since we are in a sawmill.

#11 a)
Since the environment is very dusty, a margin of operation
a range of 50 is required. According to Figure 3.1 (on page 28), the distance range
from the front face of the box relative to the sensor is approximately 0.05 to 0.15
m`etre.
The detection threshold would be:
Energy received 60%
Seuil = = 1.2% (3.2)
MF 50
which is very weak!

#11 b)
Among the possible alternatives, there would be the capacitive detector or the
ultrasonic detector for detecting the box.
Or use a photoelectric detector with the method of the
barrier.

#11 c)
If the conveyor belt carrying the boxes rolls at 3 meters per minute, what
should be the minimum distance between the boxes for the sensor to detect
the interval between them? (switching time of the detector of 8 ms).
If we calculate directly from the speed and the switch time
we find directly:

dhole=Vtapis t
comm = 3 m/min × 8 ms = 4 × 10−4m = 0.4 mm (3.3)

Assuming we use the photoelectric detector with the

photoelectric method, Figure 3.2 (on page 28) shows that the width
the detection head is approximately 30 to 35 mm (which is 0.15 meters that
3.2. THE SOLUTION 33

the largest width in the identified range in a)), which exceeds

by a lot the 0.4 mm, calculated from the switching time. So,
the interval between the two boxes should exceed the width of the pattern
(who is the limiting factor in the current situation), and be at least 30
or 35 mm.

3.2.4 Solution #12

#12 a)
The maximum speed to detect the tooth is directly:
ddent 1.25 po.
Vmax(dent) = = = 833.33po/s (3.4)
tcomm 1.5 ms
The one for detecting the interval between two successive teeth (named the gap)
east
dhole 1.5 pounds.
Vmax(trou) = = = 1000po/s (3.5)
tcomm 1.5 ms
The worst case corresponds to the speed of 833.33 in/s, since 1000 in/s, one does not
detect more the teeth.
Since the circumference of the wheel is 27.5 inches (because there are 10 teeth
of 1.25 inches plus 10 spaces of 1.5 inches), the wheel therefore turns 30.3
RPS (i.e. 833.33/27.5), which gives 1818.2 RPM.

#12 b)
Àt 1200 RPM, the wheel turns at 20 RPS, which gives a frequency of
200 Hz (which is 20 rotations per second × 10 teeth per revolution).

#12 c)
Due to the error of 0.25 Hz, this results in an absolute error of 1.5 RPM.
which gives a relative error of 0.125%.
34 ´
CHAPTER 3. PROXIMITY SENSORS ´
Chapter 4

Distance sensors

4.1 The questions

4.1.1 Question #13
We want to measure the position of a target with an LVDT. This mobile...
move over a total distance of 12 inches, at a speed that can reach
1 per second.

#13 a)
Among the models proposed in appendix B, which model should be chosen?
Sir, for the desired beach?

#13 b)
What is the output voltage range generated by this sensor?

4.1.2 Question #14

It is necessary to measure an angular position precisely with a resolver.
The resolver is excited with an alternating voltage of 12 Volts RMS.
kHz). It outputs a signal that can reach a maximum of 6 Volts.
RMS (always at 2 kHz). One of the rotor coils (R1 ) gives a signal
The amplitude depends on the sine of the angle θ, and the other (R2 gives a signal
the amplitude depends on the cosine of the angle θ.

35
36 CHAPTER 4. DISTANCE SENSORS

#14 a)
Ẁhat angle corresponds to a voltage of 3.11 Volts RMS at the coil R1?
and 5.14 Volts RMS at the coil R2? (Express the angle in degrees - minutes).

#14 b)
Ẁhat angle corresponds to a 2.320 Volts RMS phase voltage of
180◦ at the coil R1 and 5.333 Volts RMS phase shifted by 180
R2?loichet◦ ta
(Express the angle in degrees - minutes).

#14 c)
What are the signals generated (including the phase shift) in the coils?
R1 and R2, if the angle to be measured is 155◦ 8’ ?

4.1.3 Question #15

It is necessary to measure a distance with an ultrasonic proximity sensor.
The operating principle of this detector is relatively simple.
The piezoelectric crystal of the sensor operates in transmitter mode and sends a
ultrasonic signal that will strike the target whose distance needs to be determined.
The returning echo goes back to the piezoelectric crystal that has meanwhile passed.
in receiver mode. The duration between emission and reception depends on the
distance traveled by the ultrasonic signal.

#15 a)
If the speed of sound is 330 meters/second, what is the distance of a
object with a total round trip time of 0.55 sec?

#15 b)
The sensor can only measure the distance if the echo returns while the
The piezoelectric crystal is in reception mode. Therefore, there is a minimum distance.
I measure it because it takes a certain time to switch from emission mode.
in reception mode. If the switching time between reception mode
is 35 msec, what is the minimum measurable distance with this sensor
(with a speed of sound of 330 m/s)?
4.1. THE QUESTIONS 37

4.1.4 Question #16

Let it be an optical proximity detector (based on the diffuse method) used
list to detect the presence of a white sheet of paper (power of
80% reflection). As it points downward, it can potentially
detect the factory floor (10 inches from the sensor) has a power of
reflection of 50%.

#16 a)

Figure 4.1 - Detection Pattern

Knowing that the detection pattern is shown above, what is the gap?
maximum allowed between the end of the sheet and the sensor axis if the sheet is
situated 3 inches from the sensor?

#16 b)
To detect the paper sheet, what is the operational margin?
(required excess gain) that will ensure detection when the detection threshold
Is it 70%?
38 CHAPTER 4. DISTANCE SENSORS

#16 c)
If the environment is slightly dusty, what is the detection threshold?
maximum that will ensure leaf detection?

#16 d)
In this same environment, what would be the detection threshold for detecting
the floor? What is the contrast between the floor and the paper?

4.1.5 Question #17

This question and the next two are taken from a former exam.

Situation setting:
´
The company CEPOCHE Inc. is entering the chips market.
(chips) and developed a production unit located at 12321 empty rank
Pochea` St-Edmond des Meu-Meu. In this factory, there is a position
of cutting and preparing bags. This position shown in Figure 4.2 is
composed of several sensors whose ultimate goal is to maintain quality
´
from production. "At CEPOCHE, it's the container that matters"
(sic).

Figure 4.2 – Cutting post diagram

The strip of paper, which will become bags, is held in place by

a series of pressure rollers. This strip comes from the left in the form of
continue and should go out straight into chip bags. The knife
driven by a cutting machine so the band is in a bag. In order to
To ensure the result is correct, the automated system accessed information from 3 sensors. The
first is an optical proximity detector (1) that sends a beam
light to detect the end of bags.
4.1. THE QUESTIONS 39

Figure 4.3 shows that the strip of paper has intervals.

regular brands of bag ends. It is in relation to these brands that the
the knife must cut. The optical proximity detector is placed 20 cm away
In front of the knife, when a detection occurs, it will be necessary to wait.
that the strip of paper moves forward 20 cm before cutting. To ensure
to carry out this operation in the right place, a position measurement system
A digital encoder generating 1000 pulses per revolution will be installed. This is the wheel
identify 2 on the drawing (Figure 4.2). The paper moving forward causes the
wheel that drives the digital encoder. The output of the encoder is connected to
the counting input of the automated control at this station.

Figure 4.3 - Bag of chips and end-of-bag marks

The speed measurement is done using a DC tachymeter (wheel 3 - Fi-

figure 4.2) which is mounted exactly in the same way as the encoder, but
whose output is connected to an analog input of the controller.

The optical proximity detector (end-of-bag detection):

Igor Popov is in charge of selecting the optical proximity detector.
choose to take a proximity detector using the diffuse method. This
The detector will be tasked with identifying the end-of-bag marks. The paper of the
sack reflects 65% of the received light and the end mark of the sack is a
black band of 3 mm that reflects only 25% of the received light. In appendix
Here you will find the specifications of the chosen optical proximity detector.
by Igor.
40 CHAPTER 4. DISTANCE SENSORS

#17 a)
Knowing that the required operating margin (excess gain) is 5,
give the optimal distance range at which the detector could be
place above the surface.

#17 b)
The comparator threshold must be carefully adjusted, as it must be able to
distinguish the paper bag from the brand tags of the bag. Firstly, let's ensure
we need to detect the presence of the paper, because if the paper is not detected,
how to detect the end of bag marks. So, what should the threshold be
maximum of the comparator (in %) that ensures the detection of the bag's presence
(r'efl´echissanta` 65 %) ?

#17 c)
Secondly, it is important to ensure that one can distinguish the paper from the brands.
dead end. So, starting from what threshold (minimal) of the comparator (in %)
the system would no longer be able to detect the presence of the marks
cul-de-sac (reflecting 25%) ?

#17 d)
In your opinion, is the contrast sufficient in this application? If not,
How would you go about increasing this contrast.

#17 e)
What is the maximum rate (in number of bags per minute) we can-
we handle ensuring the ability to correctly detect the end markers
of bag (switching time = 0.7 ms) ?

4.1.6 Question #18

We are still dealing with the writing system in question #17.

The distance sensor (detection of movement of 20 cm):

4.1. THE QUESTIONS 41

Jo Blow is in charge of choosing the distance sensor. He chooses to

take an incremental position encoder that must be connected to the auto-
mate. In the machine, he makes a program that resets to zero.
Count each detection of a bag end mark. Then the comp-
your increments until reaching a value corresponding to the distance to
measure.

#18 a)
When Jo Blow has to connect this sensor to the controller, he does not understand.
not that he has to connect a ground wire and two wires called A and B. He is given
indicate that the counting card of the automaton can be connected to a
incremental encoder having quadrature signals and that allows
the automaton to be able to increment or decrement according to the direction of
rotation of the encoder. I don't understand anything, explain what this type is.
of the position encoder and how the automaton is able to interpret
correctly the direction of rotation.

#18 b)
Now that he understands, what should be the diameter of the wheel?
measurement (2) applied to the paper of the bag which ensures having a frequency of
10,000 Hertz output from the encoder when the production rate is
60 bags per minute?

#18 c)
How many pulses are needed to measure a distance of 20?
cm ?

4.1.7 Question #19

We are still dealing with the writing system in question #17.

The speed sensor (speed of movement):

Rodrigue Tremblay is in charge of selecting the speed sensor. He chooses
to take a tachymeter DC that he mounts on a roll like his did
colleague with the encoder. The specifications of the speed sensor are:
Measurement range: from -1000 RPM to 1000 RPM;
42 CHAPTER 4. DISTANCE SENSORS

•sensitivity: 2.5 mV/RPM

•precision class: ±0.125 % EM.

#19 a)
` a rate of 60 bags per minute, what will be the tension obtained if the
At
pressure roller with a diameter of 1 cm? What is the relative error on
this measure?

#19 b)
The output signal from the tachogenerator passes through an electronic module.
of conditioning that converts a signal of 0 - 3 volts into a 4-20 mA signal. This
packaging module with an absolute error of ±0.025 mA on the signal
of output. What is the combined error (in mA) of the sensor and the module
conditioning?

#19 c)
The 4-20 mA signal enters a controller whose converter is 16
bits is only tainted by the ±1 error due to the analog-to-digital converter
digital. What is the error of the output set from the converter
analog/digital of the automaton?

#19 d)
If the machine indicates 5555, what is the production rate in
bags per minute? Indicate the possible deviation (from the pace) due to errors in
measured in bags per minute.

4.2 The solutions manual

4.2.1 Solution #13
#13 a)
The total distance to be covered is 12 inches or 30.48 cm. However, the
specifications of the measurement ranges of these distance sensors are under
the form−xa` +x. Thus, we need an LVDT whose total distance
4.2. THE SOLUTIONNER 43

measurable is at least 30.48 cm or a range between -152.4 mm and

+152.4 mm.
The chosen model is therefore: DCTH8000C whose stroke (or extent
-200 mm to +200 mm.

#13 b)
The output voltage range of the LVDT is: 0 to 10 V or -5 to +5 V depending on
the chosen exit. In fact, with our run of -152.4 mm +152.4 mm, we
we observe a variation in the output voltage of 7.62 V.
The exact range of output voltage variation depends on the installation.
physical action of the sensor. Since it is not specified in the question, we
we cannot establish it. We can only mention that the variation of
the output voltage is 7.62 volts.
In practice, this adjustment will be made during the installation of the sensor on
the site.

4.2.2 Solution #14

#14 a)
The angle θ is approximately 31◦ 10 min and 35 s, and it is calculated as follows:

3.11
θ = tan−1
5.14

#14 b)
The angle θ is 203◦ 30 min 37 s, and it is calculated as follows:

3.11
θ= tan−1
5.14

#14 c)
The signals will be 2.52 V and 5.44 V (phase shift of 180◦ ).
Indeed:

VR1= 6 V RMS×sin(155◦ 80 2.52 V RMS

44 CHAPTER 4. DISTANCE SENSORS

and
VR2= 6 V RMS×cos(155◦ 80 V RMS = 5.44 V RMS∠180◦

4.2.3 Solution #15

#15 a)
The distance is calculated as follows (going time = 1/2 going time -
return)
t 0.55 s
d=c= 330 m/s 90.75 m (4.1)
2 2

#15 b)
The same calculation with a time of 35 msec gives:
t 35 ms
d=c= 330 m/s 5.775 m (4.2)
2 2

4.2.4 Solution #16

#16 a)
The gap is ±1/2 inch.

#16 b)
The operating margin should be:

received light 80%

MF= = = 1.14 (4.3)
% threshold 70%
This value is rather low! Let's hope that the environment where it is located
the sensor is a clean room...

#16 c)
A score of 5 or more is required. Therefore:

received light 80%

MF = 5 = = ⇒% seuil = 16% (4.4)
% threshold % threshold
4.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 45

On the other hand, we might detect the floor, because its reflective power...
is 50%. Therefore, another detection approach should be used, so
the fixed field or the convergent method. Or paint the floor
facing a dark and matte color detector.
Moreover, the contrast is:

Lumenlightened 80%
Contraste= = equals 1.6 (4.5)
Lumdark 50%

which is insufficient (three or better is recommended).

4.2.5 Solution #17

#17 a)

According to the operational margin figure shown in Appendix C, the

The distance range is from 0 mm to 90 mm from the surface.

#17 b)

With an operational margin of 5, the maximum threshold is obtained at

solutioning :

% light received 65%

MF5 = ⇒% seuil = 13% (4.6)
% threshold % threshold

or less.

#17 c)

Similarly, with an operational margin of 5, the minimum threshold

should be calculated as follows:

% light received 25%

MF5 = =>% threshold = 5% (4.7)
% threshold % threshold

or more.
46 CHAPTER 4. DISTANCE SENSORS

#17 d)
The contrast is:
% light received ON 65%
Contraste = = equals 2.6 4.8
Light received OFF 25%
The contrast is lower than 3, which implies that detection will be difficult.
The adjustment of the detector will also be challenging.
To increase this contrast, one would need to either choose less prominent brands.
reflective, either choose a more reflective bag or make both choices
simultaneously.
One can also prefer to choose a photoelectric detector that
is sensitive to transitions rather than to brightness levels (option
generally identified - AC coupled.

#17 e)
The limiting factor will not be the interval between the end-of-bag marks.
(30 cm minus 3 mm) but rather the width of the mark (3 mm). Thus, the
The maximum speed for detecting the brand is calculated as follows:
dbrand 0.003 m
Vmax(brand) = = 4.286 m/s (4.9)
tbrand 0.7 ms
As a bag is 30 cm long, this speed implies a
maximum cadence of 857 bags per minute.

4.2.6 Solution #18

#18 a)
Reference: classroom course.

#18 b)
The diameter of the wheel ensuring a frequency of 10000 Hz for a
cadence of 60 bags per minute (i.e. a speed of 30 cm/sec) is calculated
as follows :
1000×30 cm/s
10000 Hz = π×Diameter ⇒Diameter ≈ 0.955 cm (4.10)
4.2. THE SOLUTOR 47

#18 c)
If for 30 cm, we count 10000 impulses (because 10000 impulses per
second corresponds to 30 cm per second), so for 20 cm, we will count
2/3, or about 6667 pulses.

4.2.7 Solution #19

#19 a)
If the cylinder has a diameter of 1 cm, then its circumference is 3.1416.
cm.
At a rate of 60 bags/min, the speed of the bag unfolding is 30.
cm/s. Which, along with the circumference, allows us to conclude that the rotational speed
tion of 572.96 RPM. Since the sensitivity of the sensor is 2.5 mV/RPM,
So the output voltage is +1.43 V.
Since the sensor has a precision class of ±0.125% EM, thus the error
the absolute corresponding to this precision class is:
abs=±0.125/100×2000 RPM =±2.5 RPM (4.11)
and the measurement range is 2000 RPM, since we measure from -1000 RPM
R
+
P
10M.
The relative error is:
abs +/- 2.5 RPM
rel= ×100 % = (4.12)
m 572.96 RPM ×100 % =±0.44 %

#19 b)
The output voltage of the tachogenerator varies from -2.5 V to +2.5 V.
as the process unfolds, the bags are aligned in one direction, only the 0 area.
a +2.5 V is sent to the electronic conditioning module (MEC).
This variation is lower than the allowed variation on the entry of the MEC which
is from 0 to 3 V.
The transfer function of this MEC is:
z=m2 y+b2 (4.13)
The sensitivity2The MEC is calculated as follows:
∆z 20 mA−4 mA
m 2= = 5.333 mA/V (4.14)
∆y 3 V−0 V
48 CHAPTER 4. DISTANCE SENSORS

The error on the sensitivity of the MEC is:

±0.025 mA
∆m2= =±0.0083 mA/V (4.15)
3V
The value of deb2it equals 4 mA, as the MEC gives an output of 4 mA
when the input is 0 V.
The output error of the MEC is the cumulative absolute error at the input.
yet the error on the sensitivity Δm2:

∆z = ∆m2|y| + ∆y|m2 |+ Δm2 ∆y 4.16

Since the accuracy class of the tachogenerator is ±0.125% EM,

so the absolute error on its output voltage is:

∆y = ±0.125/100 × 5 V = ±0.0063 V (4.17)

since the output measurement range goes from -2.5a to +2.5 V.

As the values of the error calculation at the output of the MEC are all
positive sign, then:

∆z= ∆m2 y + ∆ym2+ ∆m2 ∆y (4.18)

With the numeric values, we finally calculate:

∆z=±0.0083 mA/V×3 V +±0.0063 V×5.333 mA/V

+±0.0083 mA/V × ±0.0063 V (4.19)
±0.0586 mA

Note that the worst-case scenario for the input is the maximum value that
can take the input, either 3 V, despite the fact that the maximum value in
the sensor's source is 2.5 V.
The cumulative absolute error at the output of the MEC is ±0.0586 mA.

#19 c)
The transfer function is from the analog input card of the controller.
est :
M=m3 z+b3 (4.20)
4.2. THE SOLUTION PROVIDER 49

The sensitivity3of the analog/digital converter of the input card

analogues are:

2n 216
m 3= = 4096 mA−1 (4.21)
∆z 20 mA - 4 mA

The error on the sensitivity of the analog-to-digital converter of the board

Analog input is:

1 1
∆m3=± =± =±0.0625 mA−1 (4.22)
EMz 20 mA - 4 mA

The value of deb3-16384, as the analog-to-digital converter

the analog input card gives an output of 16384 when the input
is 4 mA.
The error output from the analog-to-digital converter of the input card
Analogues is the cumulative absolute error on the input ∆z and the error on the
sensitivity ∆m3:

∆M= ∆m3|z| + ∆z|m3 |+ ∆m3 ∆z (4.23)

then, since the values are positive:

ΔM = Δm3 z + ∆zm3+ ∆m3 ∆z (4.24)

With the numerical values, we calculate:

∆M=±0.0625 mA−1×20 mA +±0.0586 mA×4096 mA−1

+±0.0625 mA−1±0.0586 mA (4.25)
±241.28 ⇒ ±242

The absolute error of the measurement chain, evaluated at the output of the converter
analog/digital is ±242.
If we report this absolute error on the measured value of the tachogenerator,
we must obtain the complete transfer function which is directly:

M=m3 m2 m1 x = 54.61 RPM−1 x (4.26)

By substituting M = ±242 in this equation, we find x = ±4.43 RPM.

50 CHAPTER 4. DISTANCE SENSORS

#19 d)
If the automaton receives the value 5555, then the rotation speed of the roller
of 1 cm in diameter is calculated from equation (4.26) and is 101.72
±4.43 RPM.
This gives a rate of 10.65 bags per minute (101.72 RPM × π × 1
cm / (30 cm/sac) with a deviation of ±0.46 sacs per minute.
Chapter 5

Force, pressure and sensors

couple

5.1 The questions

5.1.1 Question #20
Let there be a strain gauge mounted on a cylindrical tube in tension,
as shown in figure 5.1.
The tube in question has an outer diameter D of 3 inches and one
Inner diameter to be defined. A strain gauge is glued on as
the one at the bottom to measure longitudinal elongation.
An equation used in the resistance of materials tells us that the al-
The unit elongation suffered by the cylindrical tube is equal to the stress of

51
 52 CHAPTER 5. FORCE, PRESSURE AND TORQUE SENSORS

traction (identified by σ) divided by Young's modulus (identified by E):

σ 4F
= = (5.1)
E piE(D2-d2 )

Figure 5.1 - Tubular force sensor

The metal used to make this tube has a Young's modulus equal to
nteνde
iciffoecson'sPoiandahnc0.305.
i/pounds56×1027.a La 6 2

gauge stuck on the beam, a Gde Gauge factor of 2.25 and its elongation
maximum is 12.5 micro-strains (to have a useful life of 20,000,000
of operations). It is part of a network of resistors, all having a value
of 350 Ω, which is also the resistance of the gauge at rest (it is identified
on the bridge shown in Figure 5.2 by Rc The excitation voltage used is
of 15 Volts.

#20 a)

What is the necessary inner diameter to measure a force of 2

000 books with a maximum of sensitivity?
5.1. THE QUESTIONS 53

Figure 5.2 - Resistance bridge for questions #20 and #21. Note:
Rc=Rg

#20 b)

For the situation indicated in a), what will be the value of the resistance R?g
and the value of the output voltage Vm?

#20 c)

What is the force that would give an output tension of 0.25 mV?

#20 d)

What is the error in the output voltage if the conductors between the gauge
and the bridge introduces a resistance of 0.0025 Ω in series with the resistance
Rg , for the force measured in c) in the case of a 2-wire measurement system?

5.1.2 Question #21

Let it be a flexural stirrup (Figure 5.3) whose dimensions are: a = 2
cm,b= 4 cm,c= 5 cm,d= 2 cm and e= 2 cm. The material that constitutes
This caliper is made of aluminum with a Young's modulus of 71 GPa and a
Poisson coefficient ν of 0.334.
54 CHAPTER 5. FORCE, PRESSURE AND TORQUE SENSORS

´
Figure 5.3 - Bracket in bending to measure a force

The strain gauge is placed on the outer surface and longitudinally.

The unit elongation undergone by this gauge is:
F 6c
= (5.2)
Eae and -1
The strain gauge has a gauge factor G equal to 2 and it can
a unit elongation of 2500 micro-strains before returning the core.
This gauge with a nominal value of 1200 Ω is connected to a bridge.
so 3 other resistors of the same value (Figure 5.2 on page 53). The voltage
The excitation of this bridge is 10 Volts.

#21 a)
What is the maximum measurable force (in Newton) that allows the gauge
of the constraint to hold on without problems?

#21 b)
What is the voltage generated at the output of the bridge (shown in Figure 5.2)?
with the maximum force applied?
5.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 55

#21 c)
Since the signal in b) is very small, there is a little trick that allows
to appreciably increase the output voltage. It is enough to add a
second identical gauge (identifiedRg2 ) on the outer surface. This resistance
replace the resistor R2on the resistance bridge diagram.
What will be the voltage generated at the output of two gauges with the
maximum force applied?

#21 d)
If we add two other identical gauges on the inner surface (Rg3
replacementR1etRg4replacingR3 whose extension will be:

= −F6c +1 (5.3)
Hey and

what will be the maximum measurable load (in Newton) and what will be the ten-
output tension from the bridge with the 4 gauges for this load?

5.2 The solution manual

5.2.1 Solution #20
#20 a)
The unit deformation is:
4F 4×2000 lbs
= = 12.5 times 10−6
πE(D 2-d2 ) 2
π × 27.56 × 106lbs/po ((3 points)2-d2 )
(5.4)
what leads me to approximately 1.268 inches.

#20 b)
The resistance of the strain gauge is:

Rg=R0 (1 + G₀) = 350 Ω(1 + 2.25 × 12.5 × 10−6 ) = 350.0098 Ω (5.5)

56 CHAPTER 5. FORCE, PRESSURE AND TORQUE SENSORS

The output voltage of the bridge will be:

Rg R3
Vout=Vexc −
R1+RgR2+R3
350.0098 Ω 350 ohms (5.6)
15 V −
350 Ω + 350.0098 Ω 350 Ω + 350 Ω
0.105 mV

#20 c)
With an output voltage of 0.25 mV, we need to find the resistance of the
gauge in solvent:
Rg 350 ohms
Vout15 V − 0.25 mV (5.7)
350 Ω +Rg 350 Ω + 350 Ω
what givesg = 350.023 Ω.
The corresponding unit deformation is obtained by solving:
Rg= 350 Ω(1 + 2.25ᵑ ) = 350.023 Ω 5.8
which gives = 29.63×10−6 .
The corresponding force is obtained by solving:
4F
= = 29.63×10−6 (5.9)
2
π times 27.56 times 106lbs/po (3 points)2-(1 po2 )
Finally the force is 4740.9 lbs.

#20 d)
The gauge resistance is Rg= 350.0233 Ω and that of the wires is: 2Rf =
0.0025 ohms
Which leads me to an output voltage of:
Rg+ 2Rf R3
Vout=Vexc −
R1+Rg+ 2Rf R2+R3
350.00258 Ω 350 ohms (5.10)
15 V −
350 Ω + 350.00258 Ω 350 Ω + 350 Ω
0.277 mV
while it was 0.25 mV at question #20 c).
Which implies an error on the output voltage Voutof 0.027 mV.
5.2. THE SOLUTIONIST 57

5.2.2 Solution #21

#21 a)
The unit deformation is obtained with:
F 6c
=
Hey and -1
F 6×0.05 m 5.11
=
71×10 Pa×0.02 m×0.02 m
9 0.02 m -1
2500 times 10−6

Thus, by solving this equation, we find a force F = 5071.43 N.

#21 b)
Avec une d´eformation unitaire = 2500 ×10 −6 , we can calculate the
resistance of the strain gauge:
Rg=R0 (1 +G ) = 1200 Ω(1 + 2×2500×10−6 ) = 1206 Ω (5.12)
Then the voltage at the output of the bridge:
Rg R3
Vout=Vexc −
R1+RgR2+R3
1206 Ω 1200 Ω (5.13)
= 10 V −
1200 Ω + 1206 Ω 1200 Ω + 1200 Ω
= 12.47 mV

#21 c)
By replacing the resistance R2by a second gauge behaving
identically to Rg (thereforeR2=Rg we can recalculate the output voltage:
Rg R3
Vout=Vexc −
R1+RgRg+R3
1206 Ω 1200 Ω (5.14)
= 10 V −
1200 Ω + 1206 Ω 1206 Ω + 1200 Ω
24.94 mV
We observe a doubling of the output voltage when the resistance
R2is replaced by a resistance gaugeg What makes the bridge
features two strain gauges.
58 CHAPTER 5. FORCE, PRESSURE, AND TORQUE SENSORS

#21 d)
For the force of 5071.43 N, the gauge on the inner face is deformed.
This deformation is:

= -F6c +1
Hey and
-5071.43 N 6×0.05 m (5.15)
= +1
71×109Pa × 0.02 m × 0.02 m 0.02 m
-2857.14 times 10−6

By replacing the resistances R1etR3by gauges measuring this

from deformation, we obtain:

Rg2=R0 (1 + G ) = 1200 Ω(1 + 2x - 2857.14×10)−6 1193.14 Ω (5.16)

With the four gauges, we get this output voltage.

Rg Rg2
Vout=Vexc −
Rg2+RgRg+Rg2
1206 Ω 1193.14 Ω 5.17
10 V −
1193.14 Ω + 1206 Ω 1193.14 Ω + 1206 Ω
53.59 mV

The bridge has a gauge that outputs a voltage that is approximately four times.
from that of the bridge to a gauge. So, this bridge is about four times larger.
sensible.
Chapter 6

Level sensors

6.1 The questions

6.1.1 Question #22
Let it be a closed reservoir of citric acid with a density of 12.834 pounds
per US gallon (at 60)◦ F) and whose level is measured via a pressure sensor
differential. This differential pressure sensor has a high-pressure inlet.
connected at the bottom of the tank, and a low-pressure connection connected to
top of the reservoir. The pressure sensor has a measuring range from 0 to 5
psig and sends a 4 to 20 mA signal output. The vertical cylindrical tank
a section of 7 square feet.

#22 a)
What is the maximum level of liquid (in feet) measurable with such a device?
device?

59
60 CHAPTER 6. LEVEL SENSORS

#22 b)
What is the measured pressure and the generated current (in mA) if the level
The liquid is 2.75 feet?

#22 c)
If the density of citric acid decreases by 0.015% per◦ F of increase
of the temperature, what will be the pressure measured at a level of 3.75 feet and
a temperature of 80 F? What ◦ level will be indicated on the connected display?
( calibrated with density at 60 F◦ ) for this sensor?

6.1.2 Question #23

Consider an open water reservoir (density of 1.00 g/cm3a` 20 C) dont
◦

we measure the level using a relative pressure sensor with the high side
pressure with a connection at the bottom of the reservoir. The pressure sensor has a
measurement range of 0 to 100 kPa-relative and sends a 4 to 20 mA signal
Takeoff. The atmospheric pressure is on average 101.3 kPa.

#23 a)
What is the maximum level of liquid that can be measured with such a device?
device (at 20 °C)◦ ?

#23 b)
What is the measured pressure?and the generated current (in mA) if the level
◦
The liquid is 4.5 meters (at 20°C)?

#23 c)
If the pressure sensor had been an absolute pressure sensor having
universitywith a measurement range of 200 kPa, what would be the maximum measurable level?
◦
(a` 20 C) ?

#23 d)
With this absolute pressure sensor, what would be the measured pressure and the
generated current (in mA) if the liquid level was 4.5 meters (at 20◦ C) ?
6.1. THE QUESTIONS 61

#23 e)
If the atmospheric pressure increases by 5 kPa (the weather is nice), what
What would be the relative error of the measurement 4.5 meters with the pressure sensor?
absolute? Repeat the calculation with the relative pressure sensor and explain it.
difference.

6.1.3 Question #24

Let it be a closed reservoir of isopentane (chemical formula C5 H12and density
0.625 g/cm20◦3C)
à where the level is measured via a pressure sensor
relative to the low pressure side having a fitting at the bottom of the reservoir and the
high pressure side connected to a wet column (because the boiling point
is only 28 C). The ◦ wet column measures 8 meters in height and the

differential sensor used to determine a range and sends a signal 0 to 5

Go out.

#24 a)
What is the required measurement range of the pressure sensor in kPa (at 20
◦ C) ?

#24 b)
What is the measured pressure?and the voltage generated (in V) if the level of
◦
the liquid is 5.25 meters (at 20 °C)?

6.1.4 Question #25

Let it be a level sensor by bubbling. The reservoir can hold a
height of 4 meters of liquid and the pipe stops 0.0625 meters before the
bottom of the reservoir. The reservoir contains an aqueous solution of NaCl with
a density of 1.19 g/cm3 (g = 9.81 m/s2 ).

#25 a)
What is the relative pressure required for bubbles to form?
continuously? This relative pressure is that applied by the compressor
follower.
62 CHAPTER 6. LEVEL SENSORS

#25 b)
If the measured relative pressure is 20 kPa, what is the liquid level?
in the tank?

#25 c)
If the reservoir is in the shape of a truncated cone with a diameter at the base
is 4 meters and the diameter at the top is 5 meters, what is the volume of
liquid in the reservoir if the measured relative pressure is 13.3 kPa.

6.2 The answer key

6.2.1 Solution #22
#22 a)
Hydrostatic pressure is:

P = ρgh (6.1)

Since ρg = 13.834 lb/gal US and 1 gal US represents a volume of

231 po3 , so:

13.834 lb/gal US
P = 5 lb/po2= (6.2)
231 pounds3 /gal US ×h⇒h= 83.49 po = 6.96 pi

So, the level corresponds to a pressure of 5 lb/in2is 6.96 feet.

#22 b)
The pressure will be:

13.834 lb/gal US
P = ρgh = (6.3)
231 po3 /gal US ×2.75 pi×12 po/pi = 1.98 psi

#22 c)
Chickensque the densityit decreases by 0.015% per
◦ F and there is a variation
◦ ◦
of 20 F (let 80 -60 F), the variation
◦ in density will be
6.2. THE SOLUTION 63

0.015%×20 = 0.3%. Thus, the new density will be 13.792.

lb/gal US.
The pressure generated by a level of 3.75 feet of liquid will be:

13.792 lb/gal US
P = ρgh = (6.4)
231 p3 /gal US ×3.75 pi×12 po/pi = 2.687 psi

Since the sensor is calibrated with ρg = 13.834 lb/gal US, the level that
will be interpreted will be the solution of:

13.834 lb/gal US
P= 2.687 psi = ρgh= (6.5)
231 po3 /gal US ×h
which gives = 44.865 inches or 3.739 feet. This will be the displayed level.
As a result, the level will be underestimated.

6.2.2 Solution #23

#23 a)
The water height is calculated from the hydrostatic pressure (noting that
1 g/cm3equivalent to 1000 kg/m3 ) :

P = 100000 Pa = ρgh = 1000 kg/m3×9.81 m/s2×h (6.6)

which leads to 10.194 meters.

#23 b)
For a water level of 4.5 meters, the pressure is found by calculating

P = ρgh = 1000 kg/m3×9.81 m/s2×4.5 m = 44145 Pa (6.7)

So, the relative pressure corresponding to a level of 4.5 m of water is

44145 Pa.
If the output of the relative pressure sensor is adjusted to ensure that
that 4 mA corresponds to 0 Pa and 20 mA to 100000 Pa, which corresponds to:

y(mA) = 16×10−5 mA/Pa×x(Pa) + 4mA 6.8

For a pressure of 44145 Pa, an output of 11.063 mA is obtained.

64 CHAPTER 6. LEVEL SENSORS

#23 c)
For this absolute pressure sensor, it is necessary to take pressure into account.
atmospheric, thus the water height corresponding to a pressure of 200000
P is calculated as follows:

P= 200000Pa = ρgh + PATM1000kg/m3×9.81m/s 2×h+101300Pa (6.9)

what leads me is 10.06 meters.

#23 d)
By repeating with a height of 4.5 meters using a pressure sensor
absolute instead of the relative pressure sensor (used in #23 b)), we calculate:

P = ρgh + Patm= 1000 kg/m3×9.81 m/s2×4.5 m + 101300 Pa = 145445 Pa

(6.10)
So, the absolute pressure corresponding to a level of 4.5 m of water is
145445 Pa.
If the output of the absolute pressure sensor is adjusted to ensure
that 4 mA corresponds to 0 Pa and 20 mA to 200000 Pa, which corresponds to:

y(mA) = 8×10−5 mA/Pa × x(Pa) + 4mA (6.11)

For a pressure of 145445 Pa, an output of 15.636 mA is obtained.

#23 e)
For the absolute pressure sensor, the measured level would be incorrect. Thus,
sincePatm= 101300 Pa + 5000 Pa = 106300 Pa, we solve:

P = ρgh + PATM1000 kg/m3 ×9.81m/s 2 ×h+106300Pa = 145445Pa (6.12)

to find h = 3.99 m. This results in an error of 0.51 m since the

valeur r´eelle du niveau correspondanta` une pression de 145445 Pa est 4.5 m.
For the relative pressure sensor, the measurement remains unchanged and the error
the relative is null. Hence the advantage of using this sensor instead of the sensor of
absolute pressure, as it is independent of atmospheric pressure.
6.3. SOLUTION #25 65

6.2.3 Solution #24

#24 a)

The pressure difference between the high pressure side and the low pressure side
pressure is:

∆P = Php-Pbp=ρgH−ρgh=ρg(H−h) 6.13
625 kg/m3×9.81 m/s2 (8 m−0 m) = 49050 Pa

#24 b)

By repeating the calculation with h = 5.25 m, we obtain:

∆P=Php−Pbp=ρgH−ρgh=ρg(H−h) (6.14)
= 625 kg/m3×9.81 m/s2 (8 m - 5.25 m) = 16861 Pa

If the sensor is adjusted so that a pressure of 0 Pa gives a

an output of 0 V and a pressure of 49,050 Pa gives 5 V, then the function of
the transfer of the sensor is:

y(V) = 1.019 V/Pa×x(Pa) (6.15)

and with a pressure of 16861 Pa we find that the output y = 1.72 V.

6.3 Solution #25

#25 a)

The pressure that needs to be applied for bubbles to be emitted must

exceed the hydrostatic pressure.
Thus, it is necessary that:

P > ρgh = 1190 kg/m3× 9 . 8 1 m / s 2× ( 4 m − 0 . 0 6 2 5 m ) = 4 5 9 6 5 . 9 8 P a ( 6 . 1 6 )

The pressure of the compressor must therefore exceed 45965.98 Pascal.

66 CHAPTER 6. LEVEL SENSORS

#25 b)
If the measured relative pressure is 20 kPa, then the height of the pipe
immergée is the solution of :

P = 20000 Pa = ρgh = 1190 kg/m3×9.81 m/s2 ×h (6.17)

which leads me to 1.713 meters.

You need to add the distance of 0.0625 m between the end of the duct and the
bottom of the reservoir. Thus, the level will be 1.713 m + 0.0625 m = 1.776
m.

#25 c)
The volume V of a truncated cone is calculated as follows:

πR2 h r r2
V= 1++ (6.18)
3 R R2

the rays emitted from the truncated cone (and R > r) ethla
height.
In our case, r = 2 meters (since the small diameter is 4 m), R = 2.5
m (since the large diameter is 5 m) and the height is 4 meters.
The reservoir, which is 4 meters high, has a height of 1.176 m, the radius
Would be:
1.176 m
R= (6.19)
4 m ×0.5 m + 2 m
With this data, we obtain a volume of 24.88 cubic meters.
Chapter 7

Flow sensors

7.1 The questions

7.1.1 Question #26
Consider a flow sensor by orifice plate with sharp edges. The diameter of the
The conduit is 8 inches. It is necessary to measure a water flow (8.333 pounds/gallon.
US) ranging between 400 and 2000 US gallons per minute, with a sensor of
differential pressure ranging from 0 to 120 psi. The outputs of this sensor
Pressure sensors are mounted on the pipeline at the corners of the flanges.

#26 a)
What should be the diameter of the hole in the orifice plate for measurement?
the maximum flow rate with this pressure sensor? (Note: you must choose from

67
68 CHAPTER 7. FLOW SENSORS ´

a series of plates with holes whose diameters are multiples of 1/8

of the thumb.)

#26 b)
Verify that the Reynolds number always remains above the value
I wanted for the chosen orifice plate in the flow measurement range. Discuss.
of the quality of the measurement.

7.1.2 Question #27

I wish to replace the orifice plate from the previous question with a
Venturi.

#27 a)
What should be the minimum diameter of the Venturi to measure the flow rate?
maximum with the pressure sensor of the previous question? (Note: it
must choose from a series of Venturi whose minimum diameter is a
multiple of 1/8 inch.

#27 b)
Verify that the Reynolds number remains always above 150,000
for the chosen orifice plate in the flow measurement range. Discuss
the quality of the measurement.

#27 c)
Report on questions #26 and #27. Which measurement system would you recommend?
you in this application, the Venturi or the orifice plate?

7.1.3 Question #28

A pipe with a diameter of 35 cm transports Triptane (density
0.695 gram/cm3and viscosity 3×10−3It has a debit of up to 30000
litres/minutes.
7.1. THE QUESTIONS 69

#28 a)
What is the measurement range of the pressure sensor that is necessary?
to measure such a flow rate with a Venturi having a minimum diameter of
15 cm ?

#28 b)
Calculate the Reynolds number? What is the minimum flow rate that ensures
Does the Reynolds number remain above 150,000?

7.1.4 Question #29

A pipe with a diameter of 25 cm transports bromide (density of
2.93 g/cm3and a viscosity of about 10−3It has a maximum debit of 1750.
m3 /heure. La mesure de d´ebit se fait grˆacea` un tube de Pitot qui exige que
the Reynolds number should be greater than 300000.

#29 a)
I have to choose between the following 4 pressure sensors (A: 0 - 50 kPa, B:
0 - 100 kPa, C: 0 - 150 kPa and D: 0 - 200 kPa) all having a precision of
+/-0.125 % and an output signal of 4 to 20 mA. What sensor would be a choice?
optimal in terms of precision and measurement range?

#29 b)
What is the minimum flow rate (in m3 who ensures that the number of Rey-
Is the threshold greater than 300,000? What is the measured differential pressure?
For this speed? What is the rangeability of this sensor?

#29 c)
What is the flow rate in the pipe if the measured current is 16.5 mA?
What is the relative error in this measurement?

7.1.5 Question #30

A rotameter is used to measure a flow of water (density of 1 g/cm³3
and a viscosity of about 10−3The float used has a volume of 4 cm.3and
 70 CHAPTER 7. FLOW SENSORS ´

a surface of 1.125 cm2 The density of the float is equal to 6 times the density
water. The annular section for fluid passage can be at most
0.5 cm2 The proportionality constant K1is positioned at 1.5. The cone
measures a total angle of 2.5◦ The acceleration of gravity g is assumed
2s.
m10/àegéla

#30 a)

What is the maximum flow rate measurable by this sensor? What is the height?
corresponding to the floater?

#30 b)

What is the height of the float corresponding to a flow rate of 75 liters/hour?

Is the position of the float in a linear relationship with the flow rate?

7.1.6 Question #31

Let there be a trapezoidal spillway whose bottom is 4 feet wide.
the flow rate is such that the height of the drop is 4 feet.

#31 a)

What is the flow rate that causes this elevation of 4 feet?

#31 b)

If we had a triangular spillway with an angle of 60 degrees◦ what would be the

height of the elevation for the same flow rate?

#31 c)

If a linear spillway (whose width of drop is 2 feet)

If feet were used, what would be the height of the elevation for the same flow rate?
d) What is the flow rate corresponding to each of the three techniques if the height
The elevation change is 1.25 feet?
7.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 71

7.2 The solution manual

7.2.1 Solution #26
#26 a)

Before answering the question about the diameter of the orifice plate, it
First, it is necessary to check if the flow is turbulent at the maximum flow rate.
This amounts to evaluating whether the Reynolds number Reis superior 45000.
The equation giving the Reynolds number is:

3160QGt
Re= Dµ
3160×2000 GPM×1 (7.1)
=
8 po×1.002 cP
= 788423>45000

withGt= 1 and because the liquid is water.

The flow being turbulent and Re>45000, we can consider the use of
Dimensioning of the orifice plate is required.
The equation giving the flow rate measured by a depressor organ (of which the
plaque orifice) is :
2
Q = αβ2 A1 r ∆P (7.2)
ρ
It is necessary to ensure that the units are suitable for the calculation. The maximum flow rate -
The flow rate is 2000 GPM. Since 1 US gallon is equal to 231 cubic inches and
If one minute equals 60 seconds, then we set Q = 7700 cubic inches.
per second. The surface of an 8-inch pipe is 150.2656 inches
squares.
The pressure drop ∆P will be expressed in pounds per square inch.
Bulk density can be converted into a mass density in
seeing by the acceleration of gravity (g = 32.174 feet per second at
square or 386.088 inches per second squared). The specific weight of 8.333
pounds/gallon US corresponds to 0.0361 pounds/inch3 The density will be
so:
ρg 0.0361 lb/ft3
ρ= = = 93.434×10−6lb.s2 /po4 (7.3)
g 386.088 po/s 2
72 CHAPTER 7. FLOW SENSORS ´

Thus, we can solve the following equation to find the drop of

pressure

2
Q= 7700 po3 /s = αβ2 A1 r ∆P
ρ
(7.4)
s 2
=αβ2×50.2656 in2× 4∆P
93.434 × 10−6lb.s2 /po

One thus finds the relation between ∆Petαβ2:

1.096
∆P= lb/po2 (7.5)
αβ 2

There are several possible solutions, depending on the choice of dimension

from the orifice, or equivalently as β = d/D. From Table 6-3 on page
210 from the book of Abdalla Bsata1 , (reproduced in the acetates) we derive:
•β= 0.5 ⇒αβ2= 0.1568 which leads me ∆P= 44.59 psi etd= 4.0
inches;
β = 0.55 ⇒ αβ2= 0.1937 which gives me ∆P= 29.22 psi and d= 4.4
inches
•β= 0.6 ⇒ αβ2= 0.2369 which leads me ∆P= 19.53 psi etd= 4.8
inches
•β= 0.625 ⇒αβ2 = 0.2614 which leads me to ∆P = 16.04 psi and d = 5.0
inches;
•β = 0.65 ⇒ αβ2= 0.2879 which leads me to ∆P= 13.23 psi and d= 5.2
inches.
This list is not exhaustive, as it only enumerates a few solutions.
sibles.
For example, we could choose a 5.0-inch orifice plate and
a pressure sensor with a measuring range of at least 16.04 psi.

#26 b)
The equation giving the Reynolds number is:
3160QGt
R e= (7.6)
Dµ
1. Bsata, Abdalla, "Instrumentation and Automation in Process Control"
The Clay Gryphon, 1994.
7.2. THE SOLVER 73

At minimum debit, this number is:

3160×400 GPM×1
Rand= = 157684.63>45000 7.7
8 po×1.002 cP

which indicates that the orifice plate is a good approach for measuring the
flow range of 400 to 2000 GPM.

7.2.2 Solution #27

#27 a)
Using the results from question #26 a), the Reynolds number
convenient, because 788423≥150000. Thus the venturi can also be considered.
The calculation for the dimension of the venturi is identical and ultimately we
use the result obtained in #26 a):

1.096
∆P= lb/po2 (7.8)
αβ 2

From Table 6-3 of Abdalla Bsata's book 2 on tire :

•β= 0.5 ⇒αβ2= 0.2530 which leads me ∆P= 17.13 psi etd= 4.0
inches
•β= 0.55 ⇒αβ2= 0.3110 which leads me to ∆P= 11.33 psi and d= 4.4
inches
•β= 0.6 ⇒αβ2= 0.3781 which leads me to ∆P = 7.69 psi and d = 4.8
inches
•β= 0.625 ⇒αβ2= 0.4159 which leads me to ∆P= 6.34 psi and d= 5.0
inches
•β= 0.65 ⇒αβ2= 0.4568 which leads me to ∆P= 5.25 psi and d= 5.2
inches.
As previously mentioned, this list is not exhaustive.
By choosing a venturi with a diameter of 5.0 inches, it would be necessary for it
associate a pressure sensor with a measurement range of at least
6.34 psi. For an orifice plate of the same size, a sensor is needed.
having a measurement range of 16.04 psi. Thus, there will be less loss
of charges.
[Link]., page 210
74 CHAPTER 7. FLOW SENSORS ´

#27 b)
Since the Reynolds number at the minimum flow rate is approximately 157685, it
is therefore greater than 150000 over the entire desired measurement range. This sensor
the debit suits him as well.

#27 c)
On the monetary side, the orifice plate is the ideal solution.
On the other hand, as for pressure losses, it's the Venturi that is
the best solution since it causes the smallest pressure drops.
The measurements from the two approaches are of the same quality, as the
Reynolds number corresponding to the minimum flow exceeds the required threshold.
in both cases.

7.2.3 Solution #28

#28 a)
Since the surface of the pipe is A=πD2 0.09621 m2 , the speed
The flow rate is v=Q/A= 311.8138 m/min = 5.197 m/s.
So, the Reynolds number corresponding to the described situation is:

vρD
Rand=
µ
kg/m3×0.35 m 7.9
= 5.197 m/s×695 −3
3×10 Pa.s
= 421380.67

Since it is superior to 150000, this implies that the venturi can make
the case.
Since a Venturi diameter of 15 cm (d = 0.15 m) is chosen, then
β = 0.15/0.35 = 0.4286. In the αβ table2 , there are values for
β= 0.425 (αβ2= 0.1800) et β = 0.450 (αβ2= 0.2026).
By interpolation, one finds:

0.2026−0.1800
αβ 2= (7.10)
0.450−0.425 ×(0.4286−0.4250) + 0.1800 = 0.1833
7.2. THE SOLVER 75

We therefore evaluate the following equation for our situation:

2
Q = αβ2 A1 r ∆P
ρ
(7.11)
2 2 s 2
0.5 m /s = 0.1833×0.0962 m ∆P
695 kg/m3
Which leads me to a pressure drop of 279328.9 Pascal. This is the extent
measurement necessary for the pressure sensor with the venturi having a
diameter of 15 cm.

#28 b)
The Reynolds number calculated in #28a) is 421380.67. It is when
the flow rate is maximal.
The minimum measurable flow rate will be the flow rate giving a Reynolds number.
of 150000.
By interpolation, we find:
150000 150000
Qmin = Qmax = ×30000l/min = 10679.18l/min (7.12)
421380.67 421380.67

7.2.4 Solution #29

#29 a)
The flow velocity equation for a Pitot tube is:
2
v= r ∆P (7.13)
ρ
The surface of the pipe is A=πD2 /4 = 0.0491 m2 . The speed
The flow is v = Q/A = 9.9030 m/s.
So we can solve:
2
v = 9.9030 m/s = s ∆P (7.14)
2930 kg/m3
which leads me to ∆P = 143670.27 Pa.
The pressure sensor 'C' is the one that is most suitable. Its range
the measuring frame almost matches the pressure range to be measured. Since all
the sensors have the same class of precision, it will be the most precise among the
usable sensors (C and D).
76 CHAPTER 7. FLOW SENSORS ´

#29 b)
To find the minimum flow rate, it is enough to find the corresponding speed.
given that the Reynolds number is equal to 300000:

vρD
Re=
µ
(7.15)
3
300000 = v×2930 kg/m 0.25 m
10−3Pas
which leads me to a flow velocity of v = 0.410 m/s, which corresponds to
a (minimum) flow of 7.375 m3 /h.
For this flow rate, the differential pressure is obtained by solving:

2
v = 0.410 m/s = s ∆P (7.16)
2930 kg/m3

which gives a differential pressure of 245.734 Pa.

The rangeability is derived from the minimum and maximum flows:
Qmax
Ran:= = 24.18 7.17
Qmin
so it is 24.18 : 1.

#29 c)
The transfer function of the sensor is:

y = mx + b (7.18)

with a pressure difference, the current, the sensitivity and b = 4 mA,

the output of the sensor when the pressure difference is zero.
The sensitivity is:
20 mA − 4 mA
m= 0.0001067 mA/Pa (7.19)
150000 Pa−0 Pa
The pressure difference is found by solving:

y = 16.5 mA = 0.0001067 mA/Pa × x + 4 mA (7.20)

7.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 77

which leads me to a pressure difference of 117187.5 Pa.

This pressure corresponds to a flow velocity calculated as
suit
2
v= s (7.21)
2930 kg/m3 ×117187.5 Pa = 8.944 m/s
and it corresponds to a flow of 1580.50 m3 /h.
The absolute error of this flow sensor is:

abs+/-0.25% 1750 m3 /h =±4.375 m3 /h 7.22

The error related to 1580.50 m3 /h this is :

rel =
abs ±4.375 m3 /h (7.23)
M ×100% = 1580.50 m3 /h ×100% =±0.277% EM

7.2.5 Solution #30

#30 a)
The equation for a rotameter is:

Vf ρf
Q=K1 A2gs -1 (7.24)
Afρliq

With the numerical values, we can write:

4 times 10−6m3 6ρliq

Q = 1.5A2 ×s 10 m/s2
1.125 times 10−4m2ρ -1
liq (7.25)
q m2 /s2= 2.83 m/s×A
1.5A3.5587

Since the maximum surface area of A can be 0.5 cm2 , so the flow
maximum measurable estQ = 2.83 m/s × 0.5 cm21.4148×10−4 m3 It
corresponds to a maximum flow of 8.49 liters per minute.
As for the height of the float at maximum flow rate, one must use
geometry. Assuming that the surface A is zero at the bottom of the rotameter, the
the radius at the bottom of the rotameter corresponds to the radius of the float, which is about 0.598

cm (carπ×(0.589 cm)2≈1.125 cm3The radius of the rotameter at the point where

78 CHAPTER 7. FLOW SENSORS ´

the surface area is 0.5 cm2is approximately 0.719 cm (because π × (0.719 cm)2≈
1.125 cm3+ 0.5 cm3 ).
The change in radius is 0.1208 cm and the cone has an angle of
2.5◦ The height of the rotameter at a flow rate of 8.49 liters per minute is:
0.1208 cm
h= 5.536 cm (7.26)
tan(2.5◦ /2)

#30 b)
Like the relationship between the flow rate Q and the surface A — equation (7.25) —
is linear, then:

Q 75 l/h 2.0833 times 10−5m3/s

A= = = 0.0736 cm2 (7.27)
2.83 m/s 2.83 m/s 2.83 m/s
And the relationship between the surface A and the height h being linear as well:

0.0736 cm2
h= (7.28)
0.5 cm2 ×5.536 cm ≈ 0.815 cm
The flow rate/height relationship is linear because the two equations above are
linear.

7.2.6 Solution #31

#31 a)
The flow rate equation (in pi3 The formula for a trapezoidal spillway is:

Q= 3.367l h3/2
(7.29)
= 3.367×4×43/2pi3 s = 107.74 pi3 /s

#31 b)
The flow equation (in pi3 The formula for a triangular spillway is:

Q = 1.443h5/2
(7.30)
107.74 pi3 /s = 1.443h5/2

By solving, we find h = 5.61 feet.

7.2. THE SOLUTION 79

#31 c)
The flow rate equation (in pi3 The formula for a linear spillway is:

Q= 7.57m h
(7.31)
107.74 pi3 /s = 7.57×2h

By solving, we find h = 7.12 feet.

#31 d)
Using the equations in a), b), and c), we find:

Q = 3.367l h3/2
(7.32)
= 3.367×4×1.253/2pi3 s = 18.82 pi3 /s

Q = 1.443h5/2
7.33
= 1.443×1.255/2= 2.52 pi3 /s

Q = 7.57m h
(7.34)
7.57×2 1.25 = 18.925 pi3 /s
80 CHAPTER 7. FLOW SENSORS ´
Chapter 8

Temperature sensors

8.1 The questions

8.1.1 Question #32
Consider a type J thermocouple. If the measured voltage is 30 mV, and
that the reference temperature of the isothermal block is 19◦ C, what is it
the temperature at the thermocouple junction?

8.1.2 Question #33

Consider a type J thermocouple. If the temperature of the furnace is 755 °C,◦
and that the measured voltage is 35 mV, what is the temperature of the block
isothermal?

81
82 CHAPTER 8. TEMPERATURE SENSORS ´

8.1.3 Question #34

Let it be a type J thermocouple. What will be the measured voltage if the
junction of the thermocouple is 313 C,◦ and a thermoresistance mounted
The thermal block has a resistance of 102 Ω.

8.1.4 Question #35

Consider a type J thermocouple. What would be the resistance of a ...
resistance in the case where the measured voltage is 6.275 mV and the temperature
from the junction 154◦ C. ?

8.1.5 Question #36

Let the measurement system shown in the figure above. We want to me-
Ensure the temperature in the oven #32. It can heat up to 1200.◦ C, what
Amené Raspoutine Tremblay to install a thermocouple to do this.
measurement. He also chose to connect this thermocouple to an isothermal block
(located in a room whose temperature varies from 0◦ It's 40◦ C) which conveys
the signals to a measuring device via copper conductors. A
compensation "software" is used, and the temperature of the block is measured
compensation via a thermoresistance.

#36 a)

Mr. Tremblay is hesitant to choose and he asks you to help him in his decision.
What is the most suitable type of thermocouple? Explain your choice.
8.1. THE QUESTIONS 83

#36 b)

Let it be a signal transduction circuit coming from the thermocouple that

send a signal of 0 - 10 V to the actuator, proportional to the input signal
measured (assuming the thermocouple is linear), and that a conditioning circuit
The functioning of the signal from the RTD also sends a signal of 0 - 10
V, proportional to the value of the measured resistance (which is also assumed
linear)
What calculation must the machine perform to display the actual temperature?
measured in C.◦ We assume that the received signals are converted into values-

their numbers on 12 bits (from 0 to 4095). Write the equation giving the
temperature in the oven, assuming that we represent by X: the value
obtained by the voltage from the thermoresistance conditioner; and
by Y, the value obtained from the signal transducer voltage
the thermocouple?

8.1.6 Question #37

The Steinhart-Hart equation is a widely recognized equation for
calculate the temperature (in kelvin) from the resistance value of a
thermistance. This equation is:

1
=A+BlnRT+Cln3RT (8.1)
T(kelvin)

and includes three coefficients A, B, and C which are determined experimentally.

#37 a)

F̀rom the following three measurements, determine the coefficients A, B, and C.

Temp´erature (en C)◦ R´esistance (en Ohms)

0 960
25 320
80 110

Index: You have solved 3 equations with 3 unknowns.

84 CHAPTER 8. TEMPERATURE SENSORS ´

#37 b)
Starting from the equation ofthe Steinhart-Hart and the coefficients found in a),
◦
calculate the temperature in C corresponding to a resistance of 444 Ohms.

8.2 The solution manual

8.2.1 Solution #32
For this measurement circuit, the relationship between the measured voltage VM, the
reference tension (of the isothermal block) VREFand the tension generated by it
hot junction1is simply:

VM=V1-VREF (8.2)

Since the temperature of the isothermal block is 19◦ C, so the tension

referenceVREFthe output from the thermocouple is 0.968 mV.
The measured voltage being 30 mV, then the voltage at the hot junction
is the solution of:
30 mV = V1-0.968 mV (8.3)
what leads me130.968 mV.
By looking for this value in the thermocouple table, we observe
what:
for a temperature of 563◦ C, the voltage is 30.960 mV; and
for a temperature of 564◦ C, the voltage is 31.017 mV.
So the temperature of the hot junction is obtained by an interpo-
linear equation:
30.968 mV - 30.960 mV
T1= 563◦ C + ◦ ◦ (8.4)
31.017 mV - 30.960 mV ×1 C = 563.14 C

This calculation can be easily performed on MATLAB(R). Thus, with the

command "interp1", you can write:

interp1([30.960 ;31.017],[563 ;564],30.968)

to obtain the result.

8.2. THE SOLVER 85

8.2.2 Solution #33

As the oven temperature is 755◦ C, the thermocouple table
indicates that the voltage of the hot junction1It will be 42.599 mV.
The measured tension VMbeing 35 mV, then the voltage at the junction of
referenceVREFv is obtained by solving:

VM=V1-VREF42.599 mV-VREF= 35 mV (8.5)

what leads meREF7.599 mV.

When searching for this value in the thermocouple table, we find
what:
For a temperature of 142◦ C, the voltage is 7.569 mV; and
For a temperature of 143◦ C, the voltage is 7.624 mV.
So the temperature of the reference junction TREFis obtained via
this linear interpolation:
7.599 mV - 7.569 mV
TREF= 142◦ C + ◦ ◦ (8.6)
7.624 mV - 7.569 mV ×1 C = 142.55 C

8.2.3 Solution #34

The temperature of the reference junction is 5.128◦ C (see Table
5.4 in the book of Abdalla Bsata1 ) and the reference voltage will then be:

0.303 mV - 0.253 mV
VREF= 0.253 mV + ×0.128◦ C = 0.259 mV (8.7)
1◦ C
The voltage at the hot junction is: 17.046 mV
The measured voltage will then be:

VM=V1-VREF= 17.046 mV−0.259 mV = 16.787 mV (8.8)

8.2.4 Solution #35

The temperature of the oven ensures that1est: 8.231 mV.
The reference voltage will then be:

VM=V1-VREF8.231 mV−VREF6.275 mV (8.9)

1. Abdalla Bsata, Op. cit., page 164
86 CHAPTER 8. TEMPERATURE SENSORS ´

This is 1.956 mV. The temperature of the reference junction will be 38.◦ C.
The corresponding resistance (see Table 5.5 in Abdalla's book
Bsata2 ) will then be:
115.54 Ω - 113.61 Ω
R= 113.61 Ω + ×3◦ C = 114.77 Ω (8.10)
5◦ C

8.2.5 Solution #36

#36 a)
Parmi les candidats : - Type B, type K, type N, type R, type S
I choose type K which is the most linear.

#36 b)
The thermocouple generates a signal of 0 mV.◦ C is 54.819 mV
1370◦ C (if the cold junction is 0◦ C).
So at the output of the transducer, 0 V = 0 mV = 0◦ C and 10 V = 54.819
mV = 1370◦ C.
In the automaton 0 = 0 V = 0◦ C and 4095 = 10 V = 1370◦ C.

8.2.6 Solution #37

#37 a)
The calculation is based on the SteinHart-Hart equation:
1
=A+Bln 960 +Cln3960
0 + 273.16 (8.11)
0.003661 = A + 6.86693B + 323.809C
1
=A+Bln 320 +Cln3320
25 + 273.16 (8.12)
0.003354 = A + 5.76832B + 191.932C
1
=A+Bln 110 +Cln3110
80 + 273.16 (8.13)
0.002832 =A+ 4.70048B+ 103.855C
By solving these three equations, we find that A = -0.0010528,
B= 9.4977×10−4 , etC=-5.58459×10 −6 .
2. Abdalla Bsata, Op. cit., page 165
8.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 87

#37 b)
For a resistance of 444 Ohms, we calculate:
1
-0.0010528 + 9.4977×10−4ln 444
T ( ◦ C) + 273.16
(8.14)
-5.58459×10−6ln3444
0.003472

which leads me to = 14.8584◦ C.

88 CHAPTER 8. TEMPERATURE SENSORS ´
Chapter 9

Regulating valves

9.1 The questions

9.1.1 Question #38
Let there be a liquid with the following characteristics:
The density is 0.42;
The viscosity is 1.21 centipoise;
◦
The inlet temperature of the liquid is 40 F.
This liquid flows at a rate of up to 800 GPM (flow)
turbulent). The pressure upstream of the valve is 75 psia and the pressure at
The pressure is 60 psia. The 8-inch pipe is made of steel. schedule 40.
What should be the size of a double seated globe valve having
a coefficient Cdof 13 and a coefficient FS of 0.85?

9.1.2 Question #39

Consider glycerol, which is a liquid with the following characteristics:
The specific gravity is 1.26;
The viscosity is 1070 centipoises;
◦
The inlet liquid temperature is 70 F.
The flow rate of glycerol can reach up to 55 GPM. The pressure upstream of
the valve is at 55 psia and the downstream pressure is at 50 psia. The pipe is 3
inches are made of steel schedule 40.
What should be the size of a standard ball valve having a
coefficient Cdof 30 and a coefficient FSof 1.28?

89
90 ´
CHAPTER 9. CONTROL VALVES

9.1.3 Question #40

Let there be saturated steam flowing in a 12-inch pipe
Steel schedule 40. The maximum mass flow rate passing through the valve is
250,000 pounds per hour, the upstream pressure of 350 psia and the pressure in
pressure of 300 psia.
What should be the size of a standard ball valve having a
coefficientCdof 30 and a coefficient xTof 0.15?

Index: the flow equation for saturated steam is:

x √x
w=FPCVp13− (9.1)
xT

9.1.4 Question #41

Soit de l’eau ayant les caract´eristiques suivantes :
The specific gravity is 1;
The viscosity is 1 centipoise;
◦
The inlet temperature of the liquid is 55 F.
This water flows at a rate of up to 6,000 GPM. The pressure
upstream of the valve is 50 psig and the pressure downstream is 10 psig. The
12-inch duct is made of steel schedule 40. What should it be
dimension of a ball valve characterized by a coefficient Cdfrom 25 and one
coefficient FSof 1.25?

9.1.5 Question #42

Consider water with the following characteristics:
The specific gravity is 1;
The viscosity is 1 centipoise;
◦
The inlet temperature of the liquid is 55 F.
This water flows at a rate of up to 600 GPM. The pressure
upstream of the valve is 25 psig and the pressure downstream is 20 psig.
4-inch pipe is made of steel. schedule 40.
What should be the size of a characterized ball valve that has a
coefficient Cdof 25 and a coefficient Fsof 1.25?
9.1. THE QUESTIONS 91

9.1.6 Question #43

Let it be water with the following characteristics:
The specific gravity is 1;
The viscosity is 1 centipoise.
◦
The inlet temperature of the liquid is 55 F.
This water flows at a rate of up to 100 GPM. The pressure
the pressure upstream of the valve is 50 psig and the pressure downstream is 40 psig.
2-inch pipe is made of steel schedule 40.
What should be the dimension of a characterized ball valve having a
coefficient Cd of 25 and a coefficient Fs of 1.25?

9.1.7 Question #44

Let it be saturated steam flowing through a 4-inch steel pipe
schedule 40. The maximum mass flow rate passing through the valve is 6,000.
books per hour, the upstream pressure of 50 psig and the downstream pressure of 10
psig.
What should be the dimension of a cage globe valve with a
coefficient Cdof 14 and a coefficient xTof 0.70?

Index: the flow equation for saturated steam is:

x √x
w=FPCVp13− (9.2)
xT

9.1.8 Question #45

Let air at 70 F flow
◦ through an 8-inch steel pipe.
schedule 40 upstream of the valve and 6 inches downstream. The maximum flow rate
The flow through the valve is 60,000 standard cubic feet per hour (scfh), the
upstream pressure of 50 psig and downstream pressure of 49.6 inches of water.
What should be the size of a globe valve with a cage having a
coefficient Cdof 14 and a coefficient xTof 0.70?

Indices: The characteristics of air are: molar mass M = 29, factor

The compressibility Z = 1.0, and the specific heat ratio k = 1.4.
92 ´
CHAPTER 9. CONTROL VALVES

9.2 The solution manual

9.2.1 Solution #38
Śtep #1 First, gather the necessary information to measure
shut the valve:
Nature of the liquid:
◦Densit´e du liquideG= 0.62 ;
Viscosity of the liquid µ = 1.21 cP;
Upstream and downstream pressures: P1= 75 psia etP2= 60 psia.
Maximal liquid flow rate Q = 800 GPM;
Diameter of the pipe D = 8 inches.
Information about the chosen valve (globe valve):
Coefficient Cd= 13 ;
Coefficient FS0.85.
Śtep #2 Calculate the CVassuming that the flow regime is turbulent
bulent :
CIn T = r G = 800 r 0.42 = 133.87 (9.3)
∆P 75−60
Śtep #3 Calculate the CVassuming that the flow regime is
seminar :
2/3 2/3
1 Qµ 1 800×1.21
CV S = = = 1.36 (9.4)
FS52 Delta P 0.85 52 ×(75−60)

´
Step ´
#4 Establish what the flow regime is by calculating the coefficient.
FRas follows :
0.615 0.615
CV S 1.36
FR= 1.034−0.353 = 1.034 - 0.353 = 1.013
CV T 133.87
(9.5)
and since it is greater than 1.0, the flow is in turbulent regime
800 GPM.
Thus, theCVrequest= 133.87.
Śtep #5 Calculate the required diameter for the valve:

CVrequest r 133.87
d= r = 3.21 inches (9.6)
Cd 13
9.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 93

The standard dimension that follows is d = 3.5 inches and the CVof this
valve is:
CV=d2 Cd= 3.52×13 = 159.25 (9.7)
Śtep #6 Since the valve is smaller than the pipe, it is necessary to
calculate the effect of the connections. The sum of the losses Kest :
P
2 2
d2 3.52
X K= 1.5 1 − = 1.5 1 − 0.98 (9.8)
D2 82

Śtep #7 The geometric factor FPeast

-1 -1
r P KC d + 1 ! r 0.98×13
2 2
F P= = +1! = 0.92 (9.9)
890 890

´
Step #8LeFPCVof the chosen valve is: FPCV= 0.92×159.25 = 146.51
who is superior to FPCVrequiem= 133.87.
Śtep #9 The opening percentage of the 3.5 inch valve at 800 GPM
east
FPCVrequis 133.87
n= ×100 % = (9.10)
F PC V 146.51 ×100 % = 91.37 %
that is very high. One must then opt for a valve of size
superior.
The standard size that follows 3.5 inches is 4 inches. For a valve of
4 inches, the following sequence of calculations is made:

CV=d2 Cd= 42x13 = 208 (9.11)

2 2
d2 42
X K= 1.5 1 − D2
= 1.5 1 −
82
0.84 (9.12)

-1 -1
r P KC d + 1 ! r 0.84×13
2 2
FP= = +1! = 0.93 (9.13)
890 890
what leads mePCV0.93×208 = 193.44 and the percentage of open-
your is:
FPCVrequest 133.87
n= ×100 % = (9.14)
F PC V 193.44 ×100 % = 69.21 %
So, the 4-inch valve is selected.
94 ´
CHAPTER 9. CONTROL VALVES

9.2.2 Solution #39

Śtep #1 First, gather the necessary information for measuring
close the valve:
Nature of the liquid (glycerol):
Density of liquid G = 1.26;
Viscosity of the liquid = 1070 cP;
Upstream and downstream pressures: P1= 55 psia etP2= 50 psia.
•Maximum liquid flow rate Q = 55 GPM;
•Diameter of the pipe D= 3 inches.
Data on the chosen valve (ball valve):
Coefficient Cd= 30 ;
Coefficient FS= 1.28.
Śtep #2 Calculate the CVassuming that the flow regime is tur-
bulent :
G 1.26
CV T =Q r = 55 r = 27.61 (9.15)
∆P 5
Śtep #3 Calculate the CVassuming that the flow regime is the
seminar :
2/3 2/3
1 Qµ 1 55×1070
CV S = = = 29.02 (9.16)
FS52∆P 1.28 52 ×(55−50)
´
Step ´
#4 Establish what the flow regime is by calculating the coefficient
FRas follows:
0.615 0.615
CV S 29.02
FR= 1.034−0.353 = 1.034−0.353 0.67
CV T 27.61
(9.17)
and since it is between 0.5 and 1.0, the flow is in transitional regime
G
5PM
à.
Thus, leCVrequestest :

Qr G 55 r 1.26
CVrequired = = 41.21 9.18
FR∆P 0.67 55 -50
Śtep #5 Calculate the required diameter for the valve:
CVrequired r 41.21
d= r = 1.17 inch (9.19)
Cd 30
9.2. THE SOLUTIONAIRE 95

The standard dimension that follows is d = 1.25 inches and the CVof this
valve is:
CV=d2 Cdequal to 1.252×30 = 46.875 9.20
Śtep #6 Since the valve is smaller than the pipe, it is necessary to
calculate the effect of the connections. The sum of the losses Kest:
P
2 2
d2 1.252
X K= 1.5 1 - D2
= 1.5 1 −
32
= 1.02 (9.21)

Śtep #7 The geometric factor FPeast

-1 -1
r P KC d + 1 ! r 1.02 times 30
2 2
FP= = +1! = 0.70 (9.22)
890 890

Śtep #8LeFPCVthe chosen valve is: FPCV= 0.70×46.875 = 32.81

who is inferior to FPCVrequirement= 41.21. Therefore, a valve must be chosen.
higher size.
The standard size following 1.25 inches is 1.5 inches. For a valve
of 1.5 inches, the following sequence of calculations is made:

CV=d2 Cd= 1.52×30 = 67.50 (9.23)

2 2
d2 1.52
X K = 1.5 1 - D2
= 1.5 1 −
32
0.84 (9.24)

-1 -1
r P KC d + 1 ! r 0.84×30
2 2
FP= = +1! = 0.74 (9.25)
890 890
what leads mePCV= 0.74×67.50 = 49.95 which is now
superiorFPCVrequired= 41.21.
Śtep #9 The opening percentage of the 1.5-inch valve at 55 GPM
est :
FPCVrequis 41.21
n= ×100 % = (9.26)
F PC V 49.95 ×100 % = 82.5 %

So, the 1.5-inch valve is selected.

96 ´
CHAPTER 9. CONTROL VALVES

9.2.3 Solution #40

Nature of the gas (vapor):
Upstream and downstream pressures1= 350 psia etP2300 psia.
Maximum steam flow rate Q = 250,000 pounds per hour;
Diameter of the pipe D = 12 inches.
Data on the chosen valve (ball valve):
Coefficient Cd= 30 ;
Coefficient xT0.15.
Calcul dex:
∆p 350−300
x= = p1−p2 = 0.143 (9.27)
p1 p1 350
Using the vapor equation:
x √x
w=FPCVp13− (9.28)
xT
with the parameters:
0.143 √
250000 = FPCV350 3 - 0.143 (9.29)
0.15
we findPCVrequirement= 922.91.
This gives a valve dimension:

CV requirement r 922.91
d= r = 5.55 inches (9:30)
Cd 30
The standard dimension that follows is 6 inches. A valve with d = 6 has
unCVcalculated as follows:

CV=d2 Cd= 62×30 = 1080 (9.31)

what is above FPCVrequisof 922.91.

But since the valve is 6 inches and the pipe is 12 inches, it
must add fittings.
Thus:
2 2
d2 62
X K= 1.5 1 − D2
= 1.5 1 −
122
0.84 (9.32)
9.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 97

-1 -1
r P KC d + 1 ! r 0.84×30
2 2
F P= = +1! = 0.74 (9.33)
890 890
what leads meP CV= 0.74×1080 = 799.2. As this value is
now lower than FPCVrequiredone must consider the valve of the size to
above, either that of 8 inches.
LeCVof an 8-inch valve is:

CV=d2 Cd= 82×30 = 1920 9.34

then:
2 2
d2 82
X K= 1.5 1 − D2
= 1.5 1 −
122
0.46 (9.35)

-1 -1
r P KC d + 1 ! r 0.46×30
2 2
F P= = +1! 0.83 (9.36)
890 890
what leads mePCV= 0.83×1920 = 1593.60 which is greater than the
FPCVrequired .
The opening percentage of the 8-inch valve at 250,000 GPM is:
FPCVrequire 922.91
n= ×100 % = (9.37)
FPCV 1593.60 ×100 % = 57.91 %
This value is a bit low, but we stick with the 8-inch valve.
So, the 8-inch valve is selected.

9.2.4 Solution #41

Śtep #1 First, gather the necessary information for measuring
shut off the valve:
Nature of the liquid (water):
Density of the liquid G = 1.00;
◦Viscosit´e du liquideµ= 1.00 cP ;
Upstream and downstream pressures: P150 psia etP2= 10 psia.
Maximum liquid flow rate Q = 6000 GPM;
Diameter of the pipe D = 12 inches.
Data on the chosen valve (ball valve):
Coefficient Cd= 25 ;
Coefficient FS= 1.25.
98 ´
CHAPTER 9. CONTROL VALVES

Śtep #2 Calculate the CVassuming that the flow regime is tur-

bulent :
G 1.0
CV T =Q r 6000 r = 948.68 (9.38)
∆P 50−10
Śtep #3 Calculate the CVassuming that the flow regime is the
ministry:
2/3 2/3
1 Qµ 1 6000×1.0
CV S = = = 1.62 (9.39)
FS 52∆P 1.25 52 × (50 - 10)

´
Step ´
#4 Establish what the flow regime is by calculating the coefficient
FRas follows:
0.615 0.615
CV S 1.62
FR1.034−0.353 = 1.034−0.353 = 1.03
CIn T 948.68
(9.40)
and since it is greater than 1.0, the flow is in turbulent regime
6000 GPM.
Thus, theCVrequestis 948.68.
Śtep #5 Calculate the required diameter for the valve:

CVrequired r 948.68
d= r = 6.16 inches (9.41)
Cd 25
The standard dimension that follows is d= 8 inches and the CV from this valve
east
CV=d2 Cd= 82×25 = 1600 9.42
Śtep #6 Since the valve is smaller than the pipe, it is necessary to
calculate the effect of the connections. The sum of the losses Kest:
P
2 2
d2 82
X K= 1.5 1 − D2
= 1.5 1 −
122
= 0.46 (9.43)

Śtep #7 The geometric factor FPeast

-1 -1
r P KC d + 1 ! r 0.46×25
2 2
FP= = +1! = 0.87 (9.44)
890 890
9.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 99

´
Step #8LeFPCVthe chosen valve is: FPCV= 0.87×1600 = 1392
who is superior to FPCVrequest= 948.68.
Śtep #9 The opening percentage of the 8-inch valve at 6000 GPM
east
FPCVrequired 948.68
n= ×100 % = 9.45
F PC V 1392 ×100 % = 68.15 %
So, the 8-inch valve is selected.

9.2.5 Solution #42

Śtep #1 First, gather the necessary information to measure
tune the valve
Nature of the liquid (water):
Density of the liquid G = 1.00 ;
Viscosity of the liquid µ = 1.00 cP;
Upstream and downstream pressures:1= 25 psia etP2= 20 psia.
Maximal liquid flow rate Q = 600 GPM;
Diameter of the pipe D = 4 inches.
•Information on the chosen valve (ball valve):
Coefficient Cd= 25 ;
Coefficient FS1.25.
Śtep #2 Calculate the CVassuming that the flow regime is turbulent
bulent :
G 1.0
CIn T =Q r = 600 r = 268.33 (9.46)
∆P 5
Śtep #3 Calculate the CVassuming that the flow regime is the
seminar:
2/3 600 times 1.0 2/3
1 Qµ 1
CV S = = = 1.40 (9.47)
FS52∆P 1.25 52 ×(25−20)

´
Step ´
#4 Establish what the flow regime is by calculating the coefficient
FRas follows:
0.615 0.615
CV S 1.40
FR= 1.034−0.353 = 1.034 - 0.353 1.02
CV T 268.33
(9.48)
100 ´
CHAPTER 9. CONTROL VALVES

and since it is greater than 1.0, the flow is in turbulent regime

600 GPM.
Thus, theCVrequisiteis 268.33.
Śtep #5 Calculate the required diameter for the valve:

CVrequired r 268.33
d= r = 3.28 inches 9.49
Cd 25
The standard dimension that follows is d = 3.5 inches and the CVfrom this
valve is :
CV=d2 Cdequals 3.52×25 = 306.25 9.50
Śtep #6 As the valve is smaller than the pipe, it needs to
calculate the effect of connections. The sum of losses Kest:
P
2 2
d2 3.52
X K = 1.5 1 - D2
= 1.5 1 −
42
= 0.08 (9.51)

Śtep #7 The geometric factor FPeast

-1 -1
r P KC d + 1 ! r 0.08×25
2 2
FP= = +1! 0.97 (9.52)
890 890

´
Step #8LeFPCVthe chosen valve is: FPCV= 0.97×306.25 = 297.06
who is superior to FPCVrequirements= 268.33.
Śtep #9 The opening percentage of the 3.5-inch valve at 600 GPM
east
FPCVrequis 268.33
n= ×100 % = (9.53)
FPCV 297.06 ×100 % = 90.33 %
It is a high value, and we will choose the standard valve that comes after.
the 3.5-inch one.
So, the 4-inch valve is selected.

9.2.6 Solution #43

Śtep #1 First, gather the necessary information to measure
to close the valve:
9.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 101

Nature of the liquid (water):

Density of the liquid G = 1.00 ;
Viscosity of the liquid µ = 1.00 cP;
Upstream and downstream pressures: P1= 50 psia etP2= 40 psia.
Maximum liquid flow rate Q = 100 GPM;
Diameter of the pipe D = 2 inches.
Data on the selected valve (ball valve):
Coefficient Cd= 25 ;
Coefficient FS= 1.25.
Śtep #2 Calculate the CVassuming that the flow regime is tur-
bulent :
G 1.0
CV T =Q r = 100 r = 31.62 (9.54)
∆P 10

Śtep #3 Calculate the CVassuming that the flow regime is there

seminar :
2/3 2/3
1 Qµ 1 100×1.0
CV S = = = 0.27 (9.55)
FS52∆P 1.25 52 ×(50−40)

´
Step ´
#4 Establish what the flow regime is by calculating the coefficient
FRas follows:
0.615 0.615
CV S 0.27
FR= 1.034−0.353 = 1.034-0.353 = 1.02
CV T 31.62
(9.56)
And since it is greater than 1.0, the flow is in turbulent regime.
100 GPM.
Thus, theCVrequestis 31.62.
Śtep #5 Calculate the required diameter for the valve:

CVrequired r 31.62
d= r = 1.12 inches (9.57)
Cd 25

The standard dimension that follows is d = 1.25 inches and the CVof this
valve is:
CV=d2 Cd1.252×25 = 39.06 (9.58)
102 ´
CHAPTER 9. CONTROL VALVES

Śtep #6 Since the valve is smaller than the pipe, it is necessary to

calculate the effect of joints. The sum of losses Kest:
P
2 2
d2 1.252
X K = 1.5 1 - D2
1.5 1 -
22
= 0.56 9.59

Śtep #7 The geometric factor FPeast

-1 -1
r P KC d + 1 ! r 0.56×25
2 2
FP= = +1! = 0.73 (9.60)
890 890

Śtep #8LeFPCVthe chosen valve is :FPCV= 0.73×39.06 = 28.51

who is inferior to FPCVrequirementof 31.62. Therefore, a valve must be chosen
of larger size.
The standard size that follows 1.25 inches is 1.5 inches. For a valve
of 1.5 inches, the following sequence of calculations is made:

CV=d2 Cd= 1.52×25 = 56.25 (9.61)

2 2
d2 1.52
X K= 1.5 1 - D2
= 1.5 1 −
22
0.29 9.62

-1 -1
r P KC d + 1 ! r 0.29×25
2 2
FP= = +1! = 0.91 (9.63)
890 890
what leads mePCV= 0.91×56.25 = 51.19 which is now
superiorFPCVrequiring .
Śtep #9 The opening percentage of the 1.5-inch valve at 100 GPM
east
FPCVrequired 31.62
n= ×100 % = (9.64)
F PC V 51.19 ×100 % = 61.77 %
So, the 1.5-inch valve is selected.

9.2.7 Solution #44

Nature of the gas (steam):
Upstream and downstream pressures:1= 50 psia etP2= 10 psia.
9.2. THE SOLUTIONARY 103

Maximum steam output Q = 6000 pounds per hour;

•Diameter of the pipe D = 4 inches.
Data on the chosen valve (globe valve with cage):
Coefficient Cd= 14 ;
Coefficient xT= 0.70.
Calculation dex:

∆p 50−10
x= = p1−p2 = = 0.8 (9.65)
p1 p1 50
Using the vapor equation:

x √x
w=FPCVp13− (9.66)
xT
with the parameters:

0.8 √
6000 =FPCV50 3 - 0.8 (9.67)
0.7
we findPCVrequirement= 72.24.
This gives a valve dimension:

CVrequired r 72.24
d= r = 2.27 inches (9.68)
Cd 14
The standard dimension that follows is 2.5 inches. A valve with d = 2.5.
possess a CVcalculated as follows:

CV=d2 Cd= 2.52×14 = 87.50 (9.69)

what is higher than FPCVrequirementfrom 72.24.

But since the valve is 2.5 inches and the pipe is 4 inches, it
we need to add joints.
Thus:
2 2
d2 2.52
X K= 1.5 1 − D2
= 1.5 1 −
42
0.56 (9.70)

-1 -1
r P KC d + 1 ! r 0.56×14
2 2
F P= = +1! 0.94 (9.71)
890 890
104 ´
CHAPTER 9. CONTROL VALVES

what leads me to aFPCV0.94 × 87.50 = 82.25 which is greater than

FPCVrequirement
.
The percentage of opening of the 2.5-inch valve at 6000 GPM is:

FPCVrequirements 72.24
n= ×100 % = (9.72)
F P CV 82.25 ×100 % = 87.83 %

So, the 2.5-inch valve is selected.

9.2.8 Solution #45

Nature of the gas (air):
◦Densit´eG= 1.0 ;
◦Temp´eratureT= 70 ◦ F ;
◦Poids molaireM= 29 ;
Compressibility factor Z = 1.0;
Specific heat ratio k = 1.4;
Upstream and downstream pressures: P150 psia etP249.6 inches
water.
Maximal steam flow rate Q = 60,000 standard cubic feet per hour
(scfh) ;
•Diam`etre de la conduite : en amontD8
1 inches downstream2= 6
inches.
Data on the chosen valve (globe valve with cage):
Coefficient Cd= 14 ;
Coefficient xT= 0.70.
A pressure of 49.6 inches of water corresponds to 1.79 psig or 16.49 psia.
Calculation dex:
∆p 33.51
x= = p1-p2 = = 0.67 (9.73)
p1 p1 50
The parameterFk it is equal to 1.0, since this factor corrects for cases where
Gas is not air.
The expansion factor is:

x 0.67
Y = 1 - = 1− 0.68 (9.74)
3Fk xT 3×1.0×0.70

and is just a bit higher 2/3.

9.2. THE SOLVER 105

The volumetric flow rate equation is:

x
Q= 1360FPCVp1 Y r 9.75
GT1 Z

with the parameters:

s 0.67
60000 = 1360FPCV×50×0.68 (9.76)
1.0 × (70 + 459.67) × 1.0

we findPCVrequirement= 36.48.
This gives a dimension of valve:

CVrequired r 36.48
d= r = 1.61 inches (9.77)
Cd 14
The standard dimension that follows is 2 inches. A valve with d = 2 has
unCVcalculated as follows:

CV=d2 Cd = 22×14 = 56 (9.78)

what is superior to FPCVrequirementof 36.48.

But since the valve is 2 inches and the pipe is larger, it is necessary to
add joints.
Thus:
2
d2 d4 d2 2 d4
X K= 0.5 1 − D12
+ 1 − 4
D1
+ 1 − 2
D2 -1- D24
2 2
22 24 22 24 9.79
0.5 1 − + 1 − 4 + 1 − 2 −1−
82 8 6 64
= 1.24

-1 -1
r P KC d + 1 ! r 1.24×14
2 2
F P= = +1! = 0.89 (9.80)
890 890
what leads mePCV= 0.89×56 = 49.84 which is greater than FP CVrequirements .
The opening percentage of the 2-inch valve at 60000 scfh is:
FPCVrequirement 36.48
n= ×100 % = (9.81)
F P CV 49.84 ×100 % = 73.19 %
106 ´
CHAPTER 9. CONTROL VALVES

So, the 2-inch valve is selected.

Although the sizing problem is complete, it is necessary to
ask the question about the gas flow rate. The coefficient
the gas expansion was very close to 2/3 and the downstream pipe is more
smaller than the upstream driving, which may be a bad idea in this
situation.
The acoustic speed of the gas is:

kT 1.4×(70 + 459.67)
va= 223 r = 223 r 1127.65 feet/second (9.82)
M 29
The upstream gas velocity is:

QT 60000 × (70 + 459.67)

v 1= = 14.31 feet/second (9.83)
694p1 D1
2 694×50×82

the downstream gas one is:

QT 60000 × (70 + 459.67)

v 2= = 77.14 feet/second (9.84)
694p2 D2
2 694×16.49×62

Since these speeds are low, there are therefore not too many problems in the
conducts.
Let us therefore stick to our choice of a 2-inch valve.
Chapter 10

Electric motors

10.1 The questions

10.1.1 Question #46
Suppose we have a DC motor at hand with an inertia-
tie of 2.5×10−4once-inch-sec2who must carry a load having a
inertia of 7.5×10−3once-ounce-second2 . The engine develops a maximum torque-
mal of 2 ounces-inches at a speed of 750 RPM. The motor is connected to the
charge via a gear mechanism. The motor shaft has a gear.
with 12 teeth. An intermediate gear has 36 teeth, and the gear
The tree carrying the load has 90 teeth. The load requires a torque.
of 15 inches whatever the speed of the engine.

#46 a)
What will be the rotation speed of the load driven by the motor?
750 RPM) ?

#46 b)
What will be the available torque at the load (at 750 RPM)?

#46 c)
What will be the reflected moment of inertia seen by the motor (at 750 RPM)?

107
 108 ´
CHAPTER 10. ELECTRIC MOTORS

#46 d)
If the unloaded engine ran at 1500 RPM and the torque relationship-
If the speed is linear, what will be the motor's acceleration at startup?

10.1.2 Question #47

I have a DC motor with integrated gears (gear motor) having the
the following characteristics (linear):
Starting couple = 4 ounce-inches;
Empty speed = 8000 RPM.
The gear ratio, between the motor and the load, can be: 10,
20, 30, 40, 50, 80, 100, 120.

#47 a)
What are the gear ratios that allow for driving a load?
requiring a couple of 40 ounce-inches at a speed of 100 RPM?

#47 b)
What is the gear ratio that allows for an acceleration torque?
the highest speed of the charge is 100 RPM?

#47 c)
What is the maximum acceleration of the load at a charging speed of
100 RPM, with the gear set chosen in b) if the moment of inertia reflects
2c
espo?-on-15sigerhachet

10.1.3 Question #48

Consider the following conveyor system:
10.2. THE SOLUTION PROVIDER 109

This system has 5 rollers, 1 of which is driven by the motor. Each

a roller with a moment of inertia of 3 kg-m 2and each box contains 10 kg of
product. The rug holds a maximum of 5 boxes.
The outer radius of the rollers is 0.205 m. The conveyor belt must move forward.
at a maximum speed of 10 meters per minute. The nominal speed of
the engine is 225 RPM. The moment of inertia of the engine and its system
the gear is 8 kg-m 2 We assume a yield of 85%.

#48 a)
What is the gear ratio that will ensure that at nominal speed,
The speed of the belt is 10 m/min?

#48 b)
What is the total moment of inertia as seen by the engine?

#48 c)
What is the couple necessary to accelerate the conveyor from 0 to 10 m/min?
6 seconds? What is the power required for this engine?

10.2 The solution manual

10.2.1 Solution #46
#46 a)
The gear ratio will be:
90 36
N= = 7.5 (10.1)
36 × 12
So, if the engine runs at 750 RPM, the load speed will be 7.5 times.
slower and will be at 100 RPM.

#46 b)
The engine torque will be increased by a factor of 7.5 and will be the load
of 15 inches.
110 ´
CHAPTER 10. ELECTRIC MOTORS

#46 c)
The moment of inertia reflected is: Jm+Jl /N23.8333×10−4once
inch per second2 .

#46 d)
According to the problem data:
1. For a couple motorTM= 0 on.-po, the engine runs at a speed
at 1500 RPM.
2. For a motor coupleM At 2 on.-po, the speed is 750 RPM.
Thus, since the couple/speed relationship is linear, the speed will be 0.
RPM, for an engine torqueM= 4 on.-po.
Or, as the load requires 15 on-po (which gives 2 on-po on the side of the
engine) regardless of the speed, then the torque available at the load for
The startup acceleration is 15 on-po (or 2 ounce-inches on the side of the
motor). Since the moment of inertia reflects from the side of the motor is of
3.8333 times 10−4once-inch-sec2 so the angular acceleration of the motor will be
of 15 on-po/3.8333×10 −4once-inch-sec2 or 39130.4 rd/sec2 .

10.2.2 Solution #47

#47 a)
We can fill in the following table for the engine with the various gears
gear

Ratio Couple d´emarrage Vitesse `a vide Couple`a la charge

at the expense of the charge RP
10M
10 40 ounces-inches 800 RPM 35 inches
20 80 inches 400 RPM 60 inches
30 120 inches 266.7 RPM 75 inches
40 160 inches 200 RPM 80 inches
50 200 ounces-inches 160 RPM 75 inches
80 320 ounces-inches 100 RPM 0 ounces-inches
100 400 inches 80 RPM N.A.
120 480 inches 66.7 RPM N.A.
10.2. THE SOLVER 111

Thus, it will be enough to reduce the tension to make the motor run.
good speed, because in all cases considered, the torque exceeds 40 ounce-inches.

#47 b)
It is the gear that has a ratio of 40. Margin of 40 ounce-inches...
available to accelerate.

#47 c)
The acceleration will be 40 ounce-inches/15 on-po-sec22.667 rad/sec2 .

10.2.3 Solution #48

#48 a)
The circumference of the roller driving the conveyor is 2πR = 1.2881
For a speed of 10 m/min, this implies a rotational speed of
roll of: 7.764 RPM.
The gear ratio is N = 225 RPM / 7.764 RPM = 28.98.

#48 b)
Moment of inertia of rotating elements:

3 kg m2
Jr= 5× + 8 kg m28.0179 kg m2 . (10.2)
28.982

Moment of inertia of elements in translation:

2
10/60 m/s
Jm = 5×10 kg× 0.0025 kg m2 . 10.3
23.56 rad/s

The total moment of inertia Jt 8.0204 kg m as seen by the engine2 .

#48 c)
The motor speed corresponding to a speed of 10 m/min is 225.
RPM, which gives 23.56 rad/s.
112 ´
CHAPTER 10. ELECTRIC MOTORS

If we accelerate in 6 seconds, it implies that the angular acceleration of the

engine is:
23.56 rad/s
θ̈= = 3.927 rad/s2 (10.4)
6s
The couple required to achieve this acceleration is:

T=Jt θ =¨ 8.0204 kg m × 3.927

2 2
rd/s = 31.496 Nm 10.5

The corresponding power is:

T×ω 31.496 Nm×23.56 rad/s

P= = 873.068 Watts (10.6)
η 0.85

which gives about 1.171 HP (1 HP≈746 Watts).

Since we do not have information on the friction that would allow us to evaluate
the power at constant speed, it is difficult to know if the motor is on-
dimensioned. Due to lack of information, we will choose a motor of power
superior 1.171 HP (or 873.1 W).