Chapter

Physicochemical Properties of
Sugarcane Industry Residues
Aiming at Their Use in Energy
Processes
Julia M. de O. Camargo, Jhuliana Marcela Gallego Ríos,
Graziella C. Antonio and Juliana T.C. Leite

Abstract

According to the US Department of Agriculture, sugarcane global production

for marketing year (MY) 2020/21 will forecast up 22 million tons in comparison
with 2019/2020 MY, reaching 188 million tons (raw value), due to higher produc-
tion in Brazil, India and Thailand. These countries alternate sugarcane uses for
obtaining sugar, ethanol and other products, generating near to 152 million tons of
residues. In a circular economy context, the reuse of the sugarcane industry by-
products is desired. Nowadays, bagasse and, sometimes, straw are used for energy
recovery through combustion, while filter cake and vinasse are commonly used for
soil fertilization. However, while bagasse and straw present potential for energy
recovery through the thermochemical route, vinasse and filter cake are better
applied in anaerobic digestion processes to produce biogas and biofertilizer. These
treatments, when correctly employed, can improve the performance of sugarcane
industry by diversifying its energy sources and products. For this, the correct design
of equipment and processes is essential, which requires the knowledge of physical
and chemical properties of sugarcane industry’s by-products. In this context, the
chapter goal is to present an updated literature review for these properties, consid-
ering their use in energy recovery processes.

Keywords: waste-to-energy, agricultural wastes, physicochemical characterization,

bagasse, sugarcane straw, vinasse, filter cake

1. Introduction

According to the United States Department of Agriculture, sugarcane global

production for marketing year (MY) 2020/21 will forecast up 22 million tons in
comparison with 2019/2020 MY, reaching 188 million tons (raw value), due to
higher production in Brazil, India, and Thailand [1]. These countries alternate
sugarcane uses for obtaining sugar, ethanol and other products, generating near to
152 million tons of residues.
It is estimated that only one-third of the energy potential of sugarcane is derived
from its juice [2, 3], which has been efficiently used in the production of sugar and

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first-generation ethanol. The remainder of the energy potential is associated with

the sugarcane bagasse and straw, which represent approximately two thirds of the
crop energy potential [2–4].
In this context, Brazil is a world leader in renewable electricity generation and
increased the focus on electricity generation from sugarcane biomass over the
last few decades, driven especially by the increasing price of electricity sold to the
grid, public–private initiatives and specific policies to encourage sales of surplus
electricity [5].
Initially, electricity was generated only to meet the self-consumption supply
of the sugarcane mills, but with a modernization of cogeneration systems and
the growing use of bagasse and, in some cases, straw, many sugarcane mills have
become net exporters of electricity [6]. In fact, cogeneration has become one of
the most efficient technologies for the realistic use of primary fuel to produce
electricity and heat [7]. Thus, since 2013, surplus electricity offered to the grid
by the sugarcane sector has been greater than that used for self-consumption
(i.e., in 2019, about 61% exported to the grid versus 39% for self-consumption;
Figure 1).
However, although Brazilian mills already recover energy from bagasse trough
cogeneration systems, there are other residues from sugar and ethanol production
process that can also be valorized by recovering their energy: straw, vinasse, and
filter cake. They can be used in energy conversion processes, such as the production
of biofuels or in cogeneration processes, and also as a source of carbohydrates from
other biomolecules of commercial interest, such as second generation ethanol,
xylitol, enzymes, organic acids, proteins, and other bioproducts of industrial
interest [8].
Nowadays, bagasse and, sometimes, straw are used for energy recovery through
combustion, while filter cake and vinasse are commonly used for soil fertilization.
The use of these residues as energy sources depends on their chemical and physical
properties. In this context, this chapter has the main objective of presenting an
updated literature review for these properties of the main sugar and alcohol indus-
try’s by-products, considering their use in energy recovery processes.

Figure 1.
Bioelectricity generation from sugarcane residues (terawatt hour – TWh) in Brazil from 2010 to 2019 [6].

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2. Sugar and alcohol production process and its by-products

The main residues from sugar and alcohol production are straw, bagasse, vinasse
and filter cake. A simplified scheme of sugar and ethanol production from sugar-
cane is shown in Figure 2, where the generation of each residue can be seen.
The straw, also called trash, is an agricultural waste composed by tops and leaves
of the sugarcane. Sugarcane straw comes from its mechanized harvest, as shown in
Figure 2, and its production (on a mass basis) depends on some factors such as the
harvesting system, the height of the tips, the sugarcane variety, the age of the crop
(cutting stage) besides soil and climate conditions, among others [9]. Some authors
reported that straw production varies between 10 and 18 ton/ha (dry basis) and the
ratio straw (dry basis)/stalk (wet basis) between 11 and 17% [4].
The straw used to be burned during the manual harvest, but, since the
2010/2011 harvest, the mechanization started to be disseminated. In this process,
the green and dry leaves and the tips of the sugarcane are cut and mixed in the
extractor. With this, part of the straw is left at the field, for soil protection, and part
of it is carried to the mills, together with the sugarcane with levels of impurity that
vary according to the harvesting system used [10].
Several studies indicate that sugarcane fields contain an average of 8–30 ton·ha−1
dry mass of straw and its production varies according to crop variety, vegetative stage,
edaphoclimatic conditions and management practices [5]. Straw has similar properties

Figure 2.
Simplified scheme of sugar and ethanol production from sugarcane.

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to bagasse, which makes it a good fuel to supplement bagasse for surplus power genera-
tion at mill through the burn system. However, considering that straw is also necessary
in field for soil protection, it is only partially available for energy recovery. The amount
of straw left in the field in relation to the total production of sugarcane taken to the
mill can vary from 10 to 60% in Colombia and from 20 to 35% in South Africa [9].
According to [11], an average of 140 kg of straw is generated for each ton of har-
vested cane (dry basis). This represents nearly the same amount of bagasse available
at the end of the juice extraction process. Some authors estimated the total electric-
ity surplus when 40–50% of the straw available in the field is used as additional fuel
to bagasse and showed results between 130 and 185 kWh per ton of cane [12, 13].
In the work of [9], it was estimated that the amount of straw left in the field per
sugarcane hectare is 10 tons/ha in India. In other hand, the same author presents
that 39 tons of straw/sugarcane ha are left on the soil and its productivity is of
81.49 t/ha in the region of the Rio Grande Valley, Texas in the United States. The
authors report some benefits of keeping sugarcane residue in the field, such as:

• Protection of the wind surface of the soil against erosion caused by rain and hair;

• Reduction of variations in soil temperature, as the soil is protected from the

direct action of solar radiation;

• Increased biological activity in the soil;

• More water available, due to reduced water evaporation from the soil surface;

• Weed control.

After the harvesting, the sugarcane cleaning is required, which can be carried by
dry system or by cane washing. The dry-cleaning system residue, or simply DCR, is
produced from the dry cleaning of the sugarcane right after its mechanized harvest
in the field, as shown in Figure 2. That is, the sugarcane goes through a cleaning
process without the use of water (sugarcane washing) to remove soil and impurities
(leaves and straw).
The cleaning system has the advantage of reducing water consumption by
plants, however, as its use is not yet very diffused, the cleaning residue properties
are still unknown and, in most cases, it ends up being discarded.
As it can be seen in Figure 2, after sugarcane cleaning, the next step is to extract
the juice through mills or diffusers, from which the bagasse, another by-product of
the process, comes from.
The bagasse is the fiber that results from juice extraction process in the mills.
It is estimated that 135 kg of bagasse are generated for each ton of clean cane [11].
According to [10, 14], one ton of harvested sugar cane (wet basis) originates about
250–270 kg of bagasse containing 50% moisture, 48% fibers and 2% soluble solids.
Bagasse properties can vary according to the process for juice extraction [15].
Sugar and alcohol plants use the bagasse resulting from the ethanol production
process in cogeneration systems, converting their chemical energy into thermal and
electrical energy for their own plant. Sugarcane facilities currently use a cogenera-
tion system based on the Rankine cycle, in which sugarcane bagasse is burnt in a
boiler, producing steam that is expanded in turbines coupled with electric genera-
tors; turbines exhaust steam is used as thermal energy source for the various unit
operations of the sugar and ethanol production process. Most facilities use only
back-pressure steam turbines, which limit the amount of fuel that can be burnt to
supply the steam demand of the process [16].

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After sugarcane juice extraction, the next steps are to filtrate and to treat it, from
which filter cake, or press mud, comes out as residue (Figure 2). It is a compound
from the clarification and filtration of the juice extracted from the mills in the rotat-
ing filters, consisting in a solid fibrous residue that represents about 3–4% (w/w) of
the crushed sugar cane [17].
Sugarcane filter cake is a semi-solid material composed of fiber, crude protein,
sugar, wax, fat, and ash [18, 19]. It is a rich source of phosphorus and organic mat-
ter, with a moisture content, reasons why it has been used as a complete or partial
substitute for mineral fertilizers in sugar cane or other crops cultivation. This using
has been widespread in several countries, including Brazil, India, Australia, Cuba,
Pakistan, Taiwan, South Africa, and Argentina [20].
Vinasse is produced from the distillation of wine during the hydrated ethanol
production process. It is an aqueous effluent and a problem to the sector due to
the large quantities produced and its potential effects as an environmental pol-
lutant. It is largely composed of water, organic matter, and mineral elements. The
environmental damage caused by discarding it into the soil or running waters was
an incentive to studies aiming to find alternative, economic applications for this
residue. Results from such studies indicate that, when properly applied, vinasse
contributes to improvements in soil quality and agricultural productivity [20],
while others, show that sue to vinasse and the filter-cake residues show considerable
K and P concentrations, they are used as fertilizer [21–24].
According to [25], the vinasse generation is directly proportional to the alcohol
production, obtaining between 11 and 15 liters of vinasse for each liters of ethanol
[25, 26]. The study of [27, 28] state that, for autonomous distillery, approximately
910 liters of vinasse are obtained for each ton of processed sugarcane with 250 kg of
bagasse and 30 kg of filter cake.
Among the residues from the alcohol production process, vinasse is considered
to have the greatest polluting potential, since it has a solids content of around 7%, of
which 75% is organic and biodegradable, in addition to having high COD (Chemical
Oxygen Demand) and BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) [29]. According to
[30], the vinasse BOD and COD can varies, respectively, from 6,000 to 25,000
and 15,000 to 65,000 mgO2/L, depending on whether it is derived directly from
the juice or from the cane syrup. In addition, this residue has a corrosive character
due to the fact that it is a buffered solution with a pH around 4.3 obtained at high
temperature [29].
There are processes by which the polluting potential of vinasse and filter cake is
minimized. Nowadays, both are directly applied as fertilizers, reducing the demand
for irrigation and mining in the cultivation of sugarcane. However, according to
[31], the anaerobic biodigestion process can be used in the treatment of these resi-
due. This process has the advantage of treating the vinasse and the filter cake, keep-
ing their fertilizing properties, while produces the biogas, composed of a mixture of
methane gas (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in different proportions, depending
on the substrate contained in wastewater. Biogas is an environmentally friendly
alternative fuel that is, thus the liquid waste vinasse is utilized commercially [32].

3. Physicochemical characterization of sugarcane industry by-products

and their use in energy processes (straw, bagasse, filter cake, vinasse)

3.1 Heating value

There are two variations for heating value. The higher heating value (HHV)
which refers to the heat released during combustion per unit mass of the fuel,

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considering that the water formed in the combustion is in a liquid phase, in which
the temperature of the gases and water produced is equal to the temperature of
fuel before combustion. The lower heating value (LHV) is the heat released during
combustion per unit mass of the fuel, considering that the water formed during
combustion is in a gaseous phase, in which the temperature of the gases and water
produced is the same as that of the fuel before combustion [33].
The HHV can be determined experimentally, using the methodology described
in ASTM D2015–00 Standard test method for gross heating value of coal and coke
by adiabatic bomb calorimeter by means of a calorimetric pump [34].
Normally, the heating value of solid fuels is determined in a calorimetric pump,
that is, the higher heating value is calculated on a dry basis (zero moisture content),
from which the lower heating value can be calculated, which is used, for example, in
the design of boilers.
The study of [33] present an equation for calculating the lower heating value on
a wet basis, from the higher heating value on a dry basis, both in MJ·kg−1, according
to Eq. (1):

 H O HO h  H O (1)
LHV
= HHV ⋅  1 − 2  − 2.444 ⋅ 2 − 2.444 ⋅ ⋅ 8.936 ⋅  1 − 2 
 100  100 100  100 

Where:
LHV = lower heating value on a wet basis (MJ·kg−1);
HHV = higher heating value on a dry basis (MJ·kg−1);
H2O = moisture content of the fuel on a wet basis (% mass);
h = Hydrogen concentration on a dry basis (% mass).
The first term of the equation converts the HHV from dry to wet basis, the
second term corresponds to the latent heat of water vaporization contained in
the biomass (the latent heat of water vaporization at 25°C and constant pressure
is 2.444 MJ·kg−1). Finally, the third term refers to the vaporization of the water
produced when the hydrogen contained in the biomass is combusted.
The author in [33] also refer to other empirical equations for calculating higher
heating value, as shown in Eq. (2), described by [35].

HHV
= 0.3491 ∗ X C + 1.1783 ∗ X H + 0.1005 ∗ X s − 0.0151 ∗ X N
− 0.1034 ∗ X O − 0.0211 ∗ X ash (2)

Where:
Xi: dry mass fraction of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Sulfur (S), Nitrogen (N),
Oxygen (O) and Ash.
HHV = higher heating value on a dry basis (MJ·kg−1);
Through empirical Eq. (2), it is observed that the levels of carbon, hydrogen and
sulfur will contribute to the higher heating value of the material, while the levels
of nitrogen, ash and oxygen contribute negatively. Although it reduces the higher
heating value of solid fuel, organic oxygen is released during thermal decomposi-
tion and thus supplies part of the oxygen needed for combustion reactions, thus
decreasing the amount of air required in the process.
In Tables 1 and 2, data of the heating value of bagasse and sugarcane straw are
shown, both lower and higher, respectively, reported in several studies carried out
with samples from different countries of origin.
From the data in Table 1, it is observed that the values for the higher heating
value of bagasse vary from 15.98 to 19.17 MJ·kg−1, while for straw is about 17 MJ·kg−1.
It is interesting to highlight the differentiation made by [5] in relation to the ther-
mochemical properties relevant to the different constituent parts of the straw.

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HHV (MJ·kg−1) LHV (MJ·kg−1) Base Author

15.98 14.67 Wet base 9.22% [36]

17.0 — — [37]

18.65 — — [38]

18.1 — Dry base [9]

16.88 — Dry base [39]

18.89 17.32 — [40]

18.90 — — [15]

18.61 — Dry base [41]

17.23 — Dry base [42]

18.59 — Dry Base [43]

18.43 — Dry Base [43]a

a
Bagasse resultant from a process with dry cleaning system of sugarcane.

Table 1.
Literature review of the heating value of sugarcane bagasse.

Biomass HHV (MJ·kg−1) LHV (MJ·kg−1) Author

Green leaves 17.4 — [9]

Dry leaves 17.4 — [9]

Tips 16.4 — [9]

Straw 17.74 16.50 [44]

Dry leaves 16.0 14.8 [41]

Straw 16.347 — [45]

a
Straw 16.54 — [43]

Straw 17.1 — [10]

a
Straw resultant from a process with dry cleaning system of sugarcane.

Table 2.
Literature review of the heating value on dry basis of sugarcane straw.

In the work of [36], states to the fact that the viability of using sugarcane resi-
dues as a fuel in cogeneration processes is directly related to their moisture content,
since the heating value is intrinsically linked to fuel’s elemental composition and
moisture.
As a comparison criterion for this important thermochemical property for
the biomass combustion process, the heating value of the wood can be taken as a
reference. For this, [46] shows that this traditional biomass can present HHV very
close to that found for bagasse and straw, being 18.49 MJ·kg−1 for sawdust from
Eucalyptus sp.
On the other hand, [37] shows that coal has a calorific value of 29 MJ·kg−1, that
is, a heating value about 49% higher than that found for bagasse and straw, mainly
due to its greater constituent carbon content.
According to the Table 3, vinasse high heating value fluctuates from 12.7 MJ·kg−1
to 15.07 MJ·kg−1, when moisture is around 4% and, takes a value of 6.4 MJ·kg−1 with
68% of moisture [47, 51]. Hence, vinasse high heating value decreases notably with
the increase in moisture content, which must be considered when a thermochemical
route is used for energy recovery [52].

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HHV (MJ·kg−1) LHV (MJ·kg−1) Author

13.59 — [47]
14.40 — [48]
6.4 4.5 [49]a
13.0 14.0 [50]
12.7 12.6 [51]
a
When moisture around 68%.

Table 3.
Literature review of the heating value on dry basis of sugarcane vinasse.

As showed in Table 4, sugarcane Filter-cake have around 17 MJ·kg−1 of high

heating value, which is proximate to the results reported for straw and bagasse in
Tables 1 and 2. This indicates a high energy potential in filter cake, which could
be related to a high content of proteins, sugar and fibers, giving a possibility to use
this by-product for energy as with other sugarcane and woody biomasses which is
normally used for thermochemical processes [56, 57].
Taking into account the energy potential of the sugarcane industry residues,
there is a possibility to use it as the coal. One favorable way to increase residues
potential could be to use a blend of them. Residues as the vinasse and filter cake,
which have a high availability, would present more heating value compensate by add
straw and bagasse [51].

3.2 Ultimate analysis

An ultimate analysis of biomass offers the contents of Carbon, Nitrogen,

Hydrogen, Oxygen and Sulfur, which together with moisture and ash, are the main
components of biomass. With the results of this analysis, it is possible to estimate
the amount of products that will generated in combustion or gasification, as well
as the amount of oxidant needed. The nitrogen content is useful for assessing the
amount of nitrogen oxide (NOx) transport in combustion or ammonium (NH4) in
gasification. The sulfur content is necessary to calculate the possible dates of sulfur
dioxide (SO2) or hydrogen sulphide (SH2) and with chlorine, to assess corrosion of
the equipment [54].
The elementary analyses of sugarcane bagasse and straw found in the literature
of recent years are summarized in Tables 3 and 4.
Regarding the properties of wood, the sawdust of Eucalyptus sp., it has a
carbon content of 46.80%, oxygen of 46.61% and hydrogen oxygen of 6.59% [46].
Therefore, it can be noted that bagasse and cane straw have an ultimate composition
similar to wood, ancient biomass used in thermochemical processes.
In addition, bagasse and sugarcane straw have a 39% lower carbon content
compared to coal [37]. Even so, it can be said that these by-products of the sugar
and alcohol sector have combustible characteristics, since carbon and hydrogen are
responsible for more than 50% of their composition, which will undergo oxidation
in the presence of air during combustion, releasing heat.
In addition, from the results showed in Table 5 and form other authors [60–63],
bagasse and straw have a high oxygen content (from 39 to 50%), when compared
to coal, which may have 7.4% oxygen content, according to [37], which implies low
heating value of bagasse and straw compared to coal. However, the high content of
constituent oxygen reduces the amount of oxygen required in the combustion pro-
cess, since organic oxygen is released during thermal decomposition and provides
part of the oxygen needed for combustion reactions (Tables 6 and 7) [33].

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HHV (MJ·kg−1) LHV (MJ·kg−1) Author

17.05 14.6 [53]

17.0 — [54]

17.1 — [55]

14.9 13.8 [50]a

8.57 7.79 [56]

a
Wet basis.

Table 4.
Literature review of the heating value on dry basis of sugarcane filter cake.

C (%) H (%) O (%) N (%) S (%) Cl (%) Author

44.8 5.40 39.60 0.4 0.01 — [58]

44.8 5.4 38.1 0.4 0.03 0.02 [37]

50.3 6.3 43.1 0.3 0.07 — [38]

44.6 5.8 44.5 0.6 0.1 0.02 [9]

44.31 5.73 49.11 0.63 <0.1 0.13 [39]

43.6 5.52 50.63 0.25 0.07 — [59]

45.48 5.70 45.21 0.40 0.06 — [15]

Table 5.
Ultimate composition of sugarcane bagasse reported by different authors.

Biomass C (%) H (%) O (%) N (%) S (%) Cl (%) Author

Green leaves 45.7 6.2 42.8 1.0 0.1 0.4 [9]

Dry leaves 46.2 6.2 43.0 0.5 0.1 0.1 [9]

Tips 43.9 6.1 44.0 0.8 0.1 0.7 [9]

Straw 44.7 5.8 — 0.45 0.08 — [44]

Straw 43.42 5.71 49.64 1.23 — — [10]

Straw 42.5 6.02 50.2 0.6 0.24 0.44 [10]

Table 6.
Ultimate composition of sugarcane straw reported by different authors.

Considering that sugarcane vinasse is obtained in the final stages of bioethanol

production, their composition is highly heterogeneous, which may explain why the
nitrogen content is approximately three times higher than in straw and bagasse. The
high Carbon and Oxygen content verify residual sugars and acids from the sugar-
cane process. On the other hand, sulfur content can be explained by the presence of
SO2 residue from sulphitation in cane juice treatment [57].
According to Table 8, the high content of oxygen and carbon suggests the
presence of organic groups characteristic of lignocellulosic materials, which may
indicate their use as solid biofuel or for obtaining bio-oil [68]. In addition, as an
important part of the filter cake is obtained in the sulfite and clarification processes,
a high sulfur content may result when compared to other sugar cane residues.
Although the presence of Nitrogen and Sulfur in most of the residues studied is low,
when compared to other biomasses, they are undesirable because they can reduce

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C (%) H (%) O (%) N (%) S (%) Cl (%) Author

41.2 5,0 20.8 5.0 5.0 — [49]

32.9 4.5 36.4 1.0 2.7 6.2 [50]

31.87 6.13 28.26 1.69 2.32 — [51]

39.7 8.6 — 1.65 0.12 — [64]

Table 7.
Ultimate composition of sugarcane vinasse in dry basis reported by different authors.

C (%) H (%) O (%) N (%) S (%) Cl (%) Author

32.5 2.2 — 2.2 — — [65]a

42.9 5.3 24.99 1.8 3.1 — [53]

33.73 3.92 — 2.36 0 — [54]

37.1 — — 2.3 — — [66]

29.6 3.9 46.0 0.9 0.5 0.3 [50]

21.5 3.33 18.34 0.81 0.13 — [56]

34.4 — — 2.07 9.93 — [67]b

a
Wet basis.
b
Dry basis.

Table 8.
Ultimate composition of sugarcane filter cake reported by different authors.

the calorific value, at the same time as they decrease combustion efficiency by
promoting the formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur oxides (SOx) [51, 57].
It is also important to take into account that the chemical composition of
sugarcane residues depends on the locality, cane variety, land conditions, nutrients
applied to the field, milling efficiency and method of clarification [54, 57].

3.3 Proximate analysis

The proximate analysis establishes the contents of moisture, ash, volatile mate-
rial and fixed carbon of the fuels, with which it is possible to estimate the behavior
of the biomass during the combustion process.
The moisture content can determine the most suitable energy conversion process
for biomass, since for materials with moisture content greater than 50%, biological
routes are generally applied, such as anaerobic decomposition, while for biomasses
with moisture content of up to 50% (wet basis), thermochemical processes are
more used [69–72].
The fixed carbon indicates the carbon content that still remains in the biomass
used as fuel, after the volatilization of the volatile compounds. An indicative
relationship can be established between these two levels, in which materials with a
higher volatile content in relation to the fixed carbon content will be combustible
with greater ignition ease. Finally, ash is the inert material that results from com-
bustion, so the higher the ash content, the less energy is available in the fuel [69].
The moisture content of straw depends, in general, on the time that this material
is deposited in the field. At the time of harvest, the straw can contain up to 50%
moisture (w.b.). This moisture content can drop to 30% (w.b.) in 2 to 3 days and to
15% (w.b.) in two weeks, which can represent an energy gain in its burning [9]. For
bagasse, the moisture content in the juice extraction outlet at the plants, whether by
milling or diffusion, is in the range of 47 to 52% (w.b.) [33].
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The values of the contents of fixed carbon, volatile matter and ash for bagasse
and straw, determined by different authors, are shown in Tables 9 and 10.
The proximate analysis data for the bagasse and straw are somewhat similar in
terms of variation: the fixed carbon is within the range of 6.9–18% and the volatile
material is 73–89%. These variations in values may be related to the varieties of
sugar cane, as well as the presence of impurities.
Fixed carbon terminology refers to the fuel fraction of coal or any bituminous
material after removal of moisture, volatile and ash content. Or it can also be
defined as the elemental carbon content constituting coal and bituminous materials
added to the fraction of carbonaceous residue formed under the rate of heating of
the material [75]. In the case of the methodology described by ASTM E872–82, this
heating is done at 950°C for 7 minutes [76].
However, according to [75], biomass does not have elemental carbon, unlike
coal, since its carbon fixation occurs through photosynthetic fixation to form the
main macromolecules that make up biomass, such as carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins. Thus, the term fixed carbon is not adequately used in biomass and its
corresponding fraction refers more to a content of pyrolytic carbon (carbon formed
at a temperature of approximately 100°C). In addition, the pyrolytic carbon content
will directly depend on the temperature rate used for the determination of volatile
material in the biomass, as already described.
The content of volatile materials, in turn, refers to the amount of material that
will detach from the fuel in gaseous form, undergoing combustion first. Thus, the
higher the content of volatile materials in biomass, the better its combustion. In
relation to this, it is observed that both straw and bagasse have a high content of

Fixed carbon (%) Volatile matter (%) Ash (%) Author

11.95 85.61 2.44 [73]

14.9 73.8 11.3 [51]

18.0 79.9 2.2 [20]

13.1 86.0 0.9 [54]

9.3 88.7 2.0 [33]

— — 3.1 [74]

— — 2.4 [74]

12.4 81.8 5.8 [74]

Table 9.
Proximate analysis for sugarcane bagasse on a dry basis reported by different studies.

Biomass Fixed carbon (%) volatile matter (%) Ash (%) Moisture (%) Author

Green leaves 15.7 80.6 3.7 67.7* [9]

Dry leaves 11.6 84.5 2.7 13.5* [9]

Tips 16.4 79.3 4.3 82.3* [9]

Straw 6.9 81.55 11.57 9.92 [44]

Straw 17.46 78.64 4.32 — [45]

Straw 10.1 82.5 7.5 — [10]

*Moisture of fresh samples.

Table 10.
Proximate analysis for sugarcane straw reported by different studies.

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Sugarcane - Biotechnology for Biofuels

volatile materials (about 80%), when compared to coal (34%), which indicates that
they are easily combustible fuels [36, 37].
On the other hand, wood residues present volatile material contents of 88.27%
(sawdust from Eucalyptus sp.) And 80.73% (sawdust from Pinus sp). Therefore, it
is noted that the residues of the sugar and alcohol sector show similar behavior to
wood during direct combustion, considering the high content of volatiles [46].
Regarding the ash content, it is noted that the sugarcane straw has a higher ash
content compared to the bagasse, since for the bagasse the ash content is between
0.9 and 11.57% and for the straw this variation ranges from 2.7% to 11.3%.
The analysis of the ash content of the sugarcane residues at the sugar and alcohol
plant is of paramount importance as regards the use of these materials in thermo-
chemical conversion processes, considering that the lower the ash content, the less
the problems in the boilers such as scale, deposits and corrosion.
In this sense, the ash values found for bagasse and straw are close to those
found for wood sawdust, which may vary from 0.46% for sawdust from
Eucalyptus sp. to 7.88% for sawdust from Pinus sp. Regarding mineral coal, both
straw and bagasse have much lower ash contents, which can reach a difference of
13.8%, according to [37].
Tables 11 and 12 reports the proximate composition of vinasse and filter cake,
respectively, according to different studies from literature.
Considering Tables 11 and 12, information for filter-cake and vinasse moisture
fluctuate according to the sample utilized for the study, but normally the sample
need to be dried. In natura conditions, these by-products have a moisture around
90%, which may imply low yields in thermochemical transformation processes, but
is an important design parameter for assessing the need for a previous drying step
and estimating the energy consumption involved [72].
Analyzing the volatile material, it can be observed that the vinasse and the filter
cake have a lower content, compared to the bagasse and straw, indicating a lower
reactivity and the need of high temperatures to achieve its thermal degradation.
Considering the diversity in the composition of vinasse and filter cake, the content
of volatile materials probably corresponds to the evaporation of low molecular
weight compounds such as lactic acid, phenolic compounds and, finally, to the par-
tial release of combustible (CxHy gas, CO and H2) and non-combustible (CO2, SOx,
NOx H2O) products as well as straw and bagasse. Thus, the organic composition
(Volatile Material) of vinasse and filter-cake and the predominance of inorganic
composition (Ashes), reduces the energy that can be released [51, 52, 73, 78].
In Table 11, fixed carbon presented for vinasse may indicates longer combustion
and a higher thermochemical conversion rate compared with filter-cake, as showed
in Table 12. Considering the ash content, vinasse has a value in the range of feedstock
material normally used for pyrolysis and gasification processes [50]. On the other
hand, filter-cake present highest ash content than vinasse, which may adversely affect

Fixed carbon (%) Volatile matter (%) Ash (%) Moisture(%) Author

18.95 69.31 11.73 — [74]

— 32,3 9,7 58 [49]

— — 34.1 — [50]

3.55 63.06 29.35 4.05 [51]

12.18 61.66 20.56 5.6 [56]

Table 11.
Proximate analysis for sugarcane vinasse reported by different studies.

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Physicochemical Properties of Sugarcane Industry Residues Aiming at Their Use in Energy Processes
DOI: [Link]

Fixed carbon (%) Volatile matter (%) Ash (%) Moisture(%) Author

25.95 56 15.55 — [53]

— 61.2 25.9 3.52 [54]
— — 23.32 73.13 [77]
— — 42.6 — [50]
— 80.8 19.2 73.3 [75]
3.45 40.67 45.83 2.06 [56]
— — 20.6 10.5 [67]

Table 12.
Proximate analysis for sugarcane filter cake reported by different studies.

the high heating value, important in a thermochemical process, but this high mineral
measure and possibly sugar and protein content, according ultimate analysis, indicates
filter cake can be used in the biogas production [79]. Likewise, these ash contents in
sugarcane waste increase the sintering potential and the possibility of fouling and
corrosion in combustion reactors or boilers, as well as operating costs [80].

4. Conclusions

Sugarcane industry residues presents a feasibility to be used in energy conver-

sion process, as indicated by the physicochemical properties showed in this chapter.
The high heating value is the principal parameter to analyze the energy that
can be liberated by a biomass in a thermochemical process. Most of the uncommon
sugarcane residues heating values were proximate, which if compared with woody
biomass or bagasse, normally used in a combustion process, allows to demonstrate
the potential for energy recovery in the sugarcane industry.
However, vinasse and filter cake present high moisture and ash contents, which
indicates that these residues must present better yield in biochemical processes of
energy conversion instead of the thermochemical ones. The high ash concentra-
tion is related to a good performance of the biofertilizer obtained after the biogas
production, which can be used for fertilizing sugarcane crops. The high concentra-
tion of carbon, in appropriated ratio with nitrogen, indicates that good yields of
methane gas can be obtained.
On the other hand, the production of biogas requires the construction of an
appropriate system for anaerobic biodigestion, which requires investment by
the plants in new facilities and processes. In this case, the joint use of residues in
thermochemical processes can be considered, causing a compensatory effect of the
straw and bagasse with the properties of the vinasse and filter cake, mainly when
it is required to improve the negative effects related to the ultimate and proximate
composition, to increase the energy potential of the waste.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge to UFABC, CAPES, CNPq and FAPESP (Processes

number and 2011/51902-9) for the financial support. Also, the authors would like
to thank the UFABC Multi-user Experimental Center (CEM) for support in experi-
mental activities. The opinions, hypotheses and conclusions or recommendations
expressed in this material are of authors responsibility and do not necessarily reflect
FAPESP vision.

13
Sugarcane - Biotechnology for Biofuels

Appendices and nomenclature

MY marketing year
TWh terawatt hour
DCR dry cleaning system residue
COD chemical oxygen demand
BOD biological oxygen demand
LHV lower heating value
HHV higher heating value
w.b. wet basis

Author details

Julia M. de O. Camargo, Jhuliana Marcela Gallego Ríos*, Graziella C. Antonio and

Juliana T.C. Leite
Federal University of ABC (Universidade Federal do ABC), Santo André, Brazil

*Address all correspondence to: [Link]@[Link]

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License ([Link]
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

14
Physicochemical Properties of Sugarcane Industry Residues Aiming at Their Use in Energy Processes
DOI: [Link]

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