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Chapter-3: Perception

 April 23, 2022  Study Notes Nepal  Posted in 3rd Year, BBS  Tagged bbs notes,

bbs solutions, organizational behaviour

Very Short Question and Answer

1. What is the outcome of perception?

The major outcomes of perception are as follows: The behavioural outcome may
come either in term of overt or covert ways. Overt behaviour is physical in
nature. For example, an employee may move rapid or slow. Covert behaviour is
emotional in nature. For example, an employee is making a self-evaluation. At
the organizational level, the outcome of behaviour and performance of
employees may be expected or unexpected, if the behavioural outcome is
unexpected it is necessary to take punitive measures.

2. Define attribution.

Attribution means the action of regarding something as being caused by a
person or thing. In other words, the action of regarding quality or feature as
characteristic of or possessed by a person or thing.

3. What does the term ‘consistency’ mean in attribution theory?

Consistency clarifies that, whether the person being observed behaves the same
way when faced with the same set of circumstances. If a person observes the
same way in a specific situation every time, then the consistency is considered
very high; if they act differently at different times, then consistency is
considered to be below.

4. What does the term ‘distinctiveness’ mean in attribution theory?

As one of the key elements of attribution theory, distinctiveness refers to the

frequency in regard to the similarity of behaviour of a person in different
settings. To simplify it further, distinctiveness is whether the observed person
acts the same way in different types of situations. When a person shows
different behaviour in different settings, the distinctiveness is high.

5. Define perception.

Perception is defined as a process by which an individual selects, organizes and

interprets information inputs to create a meaningful picture of the world. In
other words, perception is a process by which individuals organize and
interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment.

Short Question and Answer

1. What is perception? Describe the attribution theory.

Perception

Perception is a process by which an individual organizes and interprets their

sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment ie obtaining
knowledge of external objects and events by means of sense. The knowledge is
obtained by interpreting the sensory input and the sensory input supplied by

sense organs and other receptors.
Attribution Theory

Attachment of cause and effect explanation by a human to their behaviour is

termed as attribution. The perception of people depends on whether he
attributes the observed behaviour to internal causes or external causes. In this
regard attributions theory has been proposed to develop explanations of the
ways in which we judge people differently, depending on what meaning we
attribute to a given behaviour. Basically, the theory suggests that by observing an
individual’s behaviour; we attempt to determine whether it was internally or
externally caused.

As per this theory, in making attributes people primarily focus on three major
factors explained below:

Consistency: Consistency points out the repetition of the same kind of

behaviour. In other words, consistency explains the extent to which an
individual is perceived to behave in a certain manner on other occasions
when s/he comes up with the same situation.
Distinctiveness: As one of the key elements of attribution theory
distinctiveness refers to the frequency in regard to the similarity of behaviour
of a person in different settings. To simplify it further, distinctiveness is
whether the observed person acts the same way in different types of
situations. When a person shows different behaviour in different settings, the
distinctiveness is high.
Consensus: Consensus refers to the extent to which other individuals in the
same situations behave in the same way as the person under observation. In
other words, consensus represents a scenario when an individual behaves
(in the same way) in a similar situation.

2. Explain the steps involved in the perceptual process.

Steps Involved in Perceptual Process

The perceptual process consists of input and output variables. The output 

variables determine how people show their behaviour. Inputs are the objectives,
events, people, etc. that are received by the perceiver. It begins when
environmental stimuli are received through people’s five sensory organs i.e. ear,
eye, nose, tongue and skin.

The inputs received are processed through three sub-processes explained as

follows:

a) Selection: Human being’s five sensory organs are constantly attached to

stimuli. When people get noticed, they are screened out. And the process of
filtering information received by people’s senses is called selective
perception/attention. People are result-oriented; they can’t perceive all the
inputs. People generally select the information either that is most important or
most threatening.

b) Organization: Perceptual organization is a way of assembling the selected

information into a meaningful whole. The key elements of the organization are;

Grouping: selected information is grouped on the basis of similarity or

proximity.
Closure: Missing parts are filled to make it complete and derive the proper
meaning.
Simplification: Simplification i.e. people just select important information
and reject less important information.

c) Interpretation: In order to give meaningful information, people generally

interpret on a particular event. If there is no interpretation perceived,
information would be meaningless.

The output of perception can be seen in the form of behaviour and emotions. It
may be the feeling, action, attitude, positive, or negative behaviour.

3. What is attribution theory? Explain attribution errors. Concept of

Attribution Theory

Attachment of cause and effect explanation by a human to their behaviour is 

termed attribution. The perception of people depends on whether he attributes

the observed behaviour to internal causes or external causes. In this regard
attributions theory has been proposed to develop explanations of the ways in
which we judge people differently, depending on what meaning we attribute to
a given behaviour. Basically, the theory suggests that we observe an individual’s
behaviour; we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally
caused.

Attribution Errors

An attribution error refers to the tendency of taking credit for success while
blaming others or the environment for failures. Attribution error mainly occurs
from the tendency of the rater to judge the behaviour of others strictly and
judges him loosely. Attribution errors are mainly classified into three types.

Fundamental attribution error: The fundamental attribution error is also

called correspondence bias. It is the tendency to attribute other people’s
behaviour to internal factors such as personality traits, abilities and feelings.
Self-serving bias: The self-serving bias is the tendency for individuals to
attribute their own success to internal factors and failures to situational
factors. Self-serving bias tends to increase as time passes after an event.
Optimistic bias: Optimistic bias is the tendency for individuals to view
themselves as relatively more successful than others. Moreover, they believe
that cause of their success will remain consistent, stable and expand.

4. How does the concept of perception apply in organizations?

Application of Perception in Organization Perception applies to a number of

aspects of an organization. Some of the most common ones are explained
briefly:

Employment interview: Interviewers make perceptual judgements that are

often inaccurate. Different interviewers try to see different things in the same
candidate and thus, arrive at different perceptions about the same candidate.
A good candidate and a bad one may differ markedly. Importantly, an 

impression in the mind of the interviewer weighs in the final selection of the
 candidate. Information elicited early in the interview carries greater weight
than the information elicited later. That is why a good candidate is
characterised more by the absence of unfavourable characteristics than by
the presence of favourable characteristics. In this way, it is clear that where
the interview is an important input into the selection decision, the
perceptual factors influence the decision that is to be selected. This, in turn,
influences the quality of labour forces selected in an organization.

Performance appraisal: Assessment of an employee’s performance very much

depends on the perception of the evaluator about the employee. Promotions,
pay raises and continuation of the job are the most obvious and common
outcomes of the employee’s performance. Performance appraisal is both
objective and subjective. It may be objective when performance can easily be
quantified. For example, a salesman’s performance can be assessed based on
how many rupees of sales he/she generated in his/her territory during a
given period of time. However, many employees’ job is evaluated in
subjective terms. An impressive amount of evidence demonstrates that
subjective measures are more judgemental. And judgement makes one’s
perception more susceptible to distortions.

Performance expectation: New employees during their selection process

acquire a set of expectations both about the organization and about the job. In
case, there is a big difference between what is expected and what actually
acquired, it results in increased employee absenteeism and turnover.

Employee loyalty: While assessing employees, the managers also make

another important decision whether the employees are loyal to the
organization or not. Like effort, assessment of loyalty is also a subjective
aspect susceptible to perceptual distortions and bias. As an example, an
employee looking for greener pastures outside the organization may be
labelled as disloyal to the organization. As a resultant behaviour, the
organization may cut off his future advancement opportunities.


Long Question and Answer

1. Why do the persons’ perceptions differ? Discuss the factors influencing
perception and the barriers to perceptual accuracy.

Reasons for Persons’ Perceptions Differ

Perception is principally a process based on the input people exhibit certain

kinds of behaviour. The input they receive differs on a number of factors. The
objectives, events, people, etc. are connected are a few principal factors that
shape the perception. Every person is associated with their unique surrounding
which provides different objectives, events, and people leading to the difference
in perception. For example, a person who has grown up with parents who
divorced makes a different perception about marriage in regard to the person
who has grown up with his parents happily in love.

Factors Influencing Perception

The factors that influence perceptions can be categorized into three major types

a) Factors in the perceiver: The key factors in the perceiver that affects the
perception are explained briefly.

Attitude: The attitude of individual influences what he/she perceives about

others or events. For example, a teacher who has negative attitudes toward
students (male) with long hair and earring will perceive them in a negative
way.
Motives: What are the urgent needs and desires of an individual? His motive
often plays an important role in determining what he perceives.
Experience: Experience and knowledge serve as a basis for perception. One’s
successful experience enhances the perceptive ability of an individual. On
the contrary, failure erodes self-confidence.
Expectation: Individual often sees what they expect to see. In this regard,
expectation is another key factor that affects perception.

b) Factors in the target: It refers to the factor associated with the target to be

perceived. The key factors in the target are explained briefly.
 Size: The principle of size says that the larger the object, the more is the
probability that it is perceived. Size attracts the attention of the individual. A
full-page spread advertisement attracts more attention than a few lines in a
classified section. The reason is not difficult to see. The size establishes
dominance and enhances perceptual selection.
Intensity: High intensity increases the chances of selection. If the message is
bright, it sentences are underlined. It gets more attention than in normal
cases. The greater the intensity of the stimulus, the more likely, it will be
noticed. An intense stimulus has more power to push itself through our
selection, filters than do a weak stimulus. more
Frequency: The repetition principle states that a repeated external stimulus is
more attention-getting than a single one. It is for this reason that
advertisements go for repetitious advertising to gain the customer’s attention
to their product.
Contrast: As per the contrast principle, the external stimuli, which stand out
against the background will receive more attention. For example, plant safety
signs with black lettering or yellow background or white lettering on a red
background are more attention attractive.
Movement: The movement principle says that people pay more attention to a
moving object than the stationary one. People will be attracted more by a
running train than one standing on the platform.

C)Factors in the situation: The key factors in the situation category that impacts
the perception are explained briefly.

Time: Time associated with the situation is one critical factor that affects
perception. For example, a student that studies deeply from the beginning
understands (perceives) the subject matter easily and quickly.
Work setting: The work setting affects the perception in a major way. A
peaceful work setting enhances the perceptive ability of an individual. On
the contrary, noisy and clumsy work settings may erode the perceptive
ability. 
 Social setting: Social setting also affects perception. Social surroundings
related to individuals, occasion, culture, etc. impact the perception. For
example, drinking alcohol is perceived as a part of life in the Newar
community. While for many other communities, it is perceived as taboo.

2. Explain Barriers to Perceptual Accuracy

The barriers to perceptual accuracy are explained as follows:

a) Selective perception: People often selectively interpret what they see on the
basis of their interests, background, experiences and attitude. It is so because
they cannot observe everything on their own and thus are selective. This
selective perception is often the principal barrier to perceptual accuracy.

b) Halo effect: People often judge a person entirely on the basis of a single trait.
The trait taken into context may be positive or negative. Although it helps to
judge others quickly it may be entirely wrong leading to perceptual errors

c) Stereotyping: To make the task of perception simple we often generalize

people and events into the already well acquainted general categories. These
generalizations on the basis of few known characteristics often stereotype
people and events leading to perceptual errors.

d) Impression: The first impression often turns out to be the last impression and
thus an impression is frequently formed on others at first sight. What if the first
impression is not correct which sometimes leads to perceptual errors.

3. How does perception affect individual decision making? Illustrate with

reference to the various alternative decision-making models.

Effects of Perception on Individual Decision Making

An individual can perceive differently for the same subject in a different

manner, which leads to the best solution. Every decision requires the
interpretation and evaluation of information. Data are typically received from

multiple sources and they need to be screened, processed and interpreted. The
perceptions of the decision-maker will give a solution to that question.
Individual decision making is a crucial part of organizational behaviour. For
instance, top managers determine their organization’s goals. Similarly, non-
managerial employees have to make a lot of decisions during their daily work as
per the different situations at hand. It affects the organization’s long-term plans,
quality, performance and day-to-day operation. This all shows that perception
plays a vital role in an individual’s decision process. It is further illustrated
through a few decision-making models

Alternative Decision-Making Model

The main approaches to decision making may be studied in the following three
dimensions:

a) Classical approach: This is also known as the prescriptive, rational or

normative model. It specifies how decisions should be made to achieve the
desired outcome. Under this approach, decisions are made rationally and are
directed toward a single and stable goal. It is applied in a certainty condition in
which the decision-maker has full information relating to the problem and also
knows all the alternative solutions. It is an ideal way in making a decision. It is
rational in the sense that it is scientific, systematic and a step-by-step process.
This model assumes the manager as a rational economic man who makes
decisions to meet the economic interest of the organization. This model is based
on the following assumptions:

The decision-maker has a clear, well-defined goal to be achieved.

All the problems are precisely defined
All alternative courses of action and their potential consequences are known.
The decision-maker can rank the entire alternatives on the basis of their
preferred consequences.
The decision-maker can select the alternative that maximizes the outcome.
The classical model is supposed to be idealistic and rational but it is rarely
found in practice.

b) Behavioural approach: This approach is also known as the descriptive
approach and administrative model. The theory is proposed by Herbert A Simon,
a well-known economist, which attempts to explain how decisions are made in
real-life situations. Managers have limited and simplified view of problems
because they do not have full information about the problems, do not possess
knowledge of all possible alternative solutions, do not have the ability to process
environmental and technological information and do not have sufficient time
and resources to conduct an exhaustive search for alternative solutions to the
problems. Therefore, this model is based on two concepts:

Bounded rationality: Simon believed that managers are bound by limited

mental capacity and emotion as well as by environmental factors over which
they have no control. Real-life challenges, time and resource limitations,
political pressure and other internal and external factors force the manager to
work under the condition of bounded rationality. Therefore, the manager
cannot make a perfectly rational decision.
Satisfying: It is the selection of a course of action whose consequences are
good enough. Bounded rationality forces managers to accept decisions that
are only ‘good enough, rather than ideal. Such managerial decisions become
rational but within the limits of managers’ ability and availability of
information. Managers make decisions based on alternatives that are
satisfactory. Examples of satisfying decisions are a fair price, reasonable
profit, adequate market share, proper quality products etc.

c) Implicit favourite model/Retrospective approach: This approach is applicable

in non-programmed decisions. In this approach, the manager first chooses an
alternative solution to the problem and highlights its strength, compares it with
other alternatives and then identifies its drawbacks. This is done with a view to
proving that the alternative selected by him is the best solution to the given
problem. However, another alternative which seems to be similar to the implicit
favourite is shortlisted and is taken as the second confirmation candidate. This
approach can be observed in the purchase of various favourite items in which a 

customer gives arguments in favour of his choice on the basis of norms such as
price, quality, appearance, easily availability, after-sales service etc. to reject
other items of the same utility.

4. What is a perceptual set? Discuss the principles of perceptual selection.

Perceptual Set

A perceptual set is an expectation of a perception based on past experience with

the same or similar stimuli. It presents a broad view of the environment and
people which helps to guide an individual’s perception and behaviour at work.
The sources of perceptual sets are past experiences and contents; past
experiences are the factors within a perceiver whereas contents are factors
outside the perceiver, which shape the perception and perpetual relation of a
person.

Principles of Perceptual Selection

People are goal-oriented and they have limited capacity to perceive. Therefore,
they are always selective. They select from among those physical stimuli which
they can grasp at the moment in time. Likewise, they select those stimuli which
satisfy their needs, desires and expectations based on their capacity. Some of
the important principles of perceptual selection are given below:

Intensity: High intensity increases the chances of selection. If the message is

bright, it gets more attention than in a normal cases. The greater the intensity
of the stimulus, the more likely, it will be noticed. An intense stimulus has
more power to push itself through our selection, filters than do a weak
stimulus.
Size: The principle of size says that the larger the object, the more is the
probability that it is perceived. Size attracts the attention of the individual. A
full spread advertisement attracts more attention than a few lines in a
classified section. The reason is not difficult to see. The size establishes
dominance and enhances perceptual selection.

Frequency/Repetition: The repetition principle states that a repeated external
stimulus is more attention-getting than a single one. It is, for this reason,
there is repetitive advertising to gain the customer’s attention.
Contrast: As per the contrast principle, the external stimuli, which stand out
against the background will receive more attention. For example, plant safety
signs with black lettering or yellow background or white lettering on a red
background are more attention attractive.
Status: Status held by an individual also influences his/her perception about
things or events. Researches suggest that people with high status often exert
more influence on the perception of an individual as compared to those
holding low status.
Movement: The movement principle says that people pay more attention to a
moving object than the stationary ones. People will be attracted more by a
running train than one standing on the platform.
Novelty and familiarity: This principle says that either a familiar or a novel
(new) factor in the environment can attract attention, depending on the
circumstances. For example, people would quickly notice an elephant
walking along a city street. Someone is likely to notice the face of a close
friend among a group of approaching people.

 Chapter-2: Unders… Chapter-4: Learnin…

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