FIRST TERM MODULE

BIOLOGY.
S .S .S. ONE.

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK . TOPIC
1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

2 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

3 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
4 THE CELL
5 CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
6 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
7 MID TERM/ TEST
8 NUTRITION IN ANIMAL (FOOD SUBSTANCES)
9 GROWTH
10 EXCRETION
11 NUTRIENT CYCLING
12 REVISION /EXAMINATION
REFERENCES
 College Biology by Idodo Umeh
 Modern Biology for Senior Secondary Schools by S.T. Ramlingam
 Essential Biology by M.C Michael
 New Biology by H. Stone and Cozen
 Practical biology text.

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 WEEK ONE.
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
CONTENT
 MEANING OF SCIENCE/DEFINITION OF BIOLOGY.
 BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
 USEFULLNESS OF SCIENCE OR RELIVANCE OF SCIENCE.
 APPROACHES OF SCIENCE.

MEANING OF SCIENCE/DEFINITION OF BIOLOGY

Science is the study of nature (living and non-living things). Biology is a science that
studies living things in nature. It can also be defined as the study of plants and
animals. Biology was formed from the Greek words "Bio" (meaning life) and logos"
(meaning, study ).
The organisms studied in biology are generally classified into plants and animals.
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY.
Biology is a science subject that can be subdivided into two main branches, namely:
(a) Botany -– the study of plants.
(b) Zoology - the study of animals.
Other branches of biology include Ecology, morphology,Genetics, microbiology,
parasitology, anatomy, physiology, biotechnology, etc.

USEFULLNESS OF SCIENCE/ RELEVANCE OF SCIENCE.

Science has found great applications in many areas of human life, some of which
include:
a. Medicine: Production of drugs and vaccines for preventing and curing many
diseases e.g. penicillin, organ transplant e.g. kidney (renal) transplant, in-vitro
fertilization in infertile couples.
b. Agriculture: Production of hybrid (crops and animals with desired qualities),
use of biological pesticides to control agricultural pests
c. Bioremediation i.e. use of naturally occurring bacteria to clean up oil spills
and toxic chemicals.
d. Biotechnology: Use of genetic engineering to fight genetic diseases.
e. Food production: Production of single cell protein (SCP) to reduce protein
deficiency problem, food storage and preservation
f. Engineering: ship building, skyscraper, bridges, roads, e.t.c have been
designed and constructed due to the knowledge acquired from science.
g. Transportation: Aeroplanes, ships etc had been built with the knowledge of
science.
h. Communication: Television, telephone, etc had been developed with the
knowledge of science.
i. Technology: science has helped in the development of computers.

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 j. Construction: roads, airports, railways etc had been designed from science
knowledge.

APPROACHES,PROCESS OR METHOD OF SCIENCE.

The processes or methods or approaches of science involves the sequence of making
enquires about an object or thing under study in science. . Therefore, the scientific
method is the tool used to unravel the mysteries of life.
SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES OF SCIENCE.
The scientific approaches of science takes the following procedures or steps:
 Observation
 Classification
 Inference
 Measurement
 Identification
 Hypothesis
 Experiment
 Control or Conclusion
 Theory or Law.
The starting point of scientific method is observation which involves the use of the
senses to describe what one has seen or felt about an object. The observation then
leads to classification, then to inference (logical reasoning) and later to
measurement and identification of the existing problem. This is followed by
hypothesis which is a reasonable explanation for an observation made and which can
be tested experimentally. A tested hypothesis may be accepted, rejected or modified
to form a new hypothesis. A tested hypothesis that is found to be repeatedly true
within the limits of available evidence becomes a theory. A theory is therefore an
aggregate of many verified hypotheses. An extensively tested and proven theory
becomes a law or principle which is still subject to change due to continual
experimentation or research. To carry out a successful experiment (void of false
conclusions), a parallel experiment called controlled experiment is usually set up.
This is done by keeping constant all factors affecting the result of the main
experiment and varying the factor being tested.

Experiments should be reported following a generally accepted pattern laid down by

scientists. The pattern includes:
a. Aim: the purpose of the experiment.
b. Apparatus/ materials required.
c. Method /procedure followed
d. Observation made.
e. Conclusion based on observation made and final result got.
Note: Precaution or care that should be taken against dangers/hazards can also feature
during experimentation.

EVALUATION

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1. Define science.
2. Define biology
3. State six branches of biology.
4. State the nine steps in scientific approach.

ASSIGNMENT.
Distinguish among hypothesis, theory and law.

LIVING THINGS AND NON LIVING THINGS

CONTENT
 Characteristics of Living Things
 Differences between Plants and Animals
 Microscope Parts and Functions

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

Everything in nature can be classified into two groups: living and non -living things.
The living things can be distinguished from their nonliving counterparts through the
following characteristics observable in all living things:
1. MOVEMENT: Animals can move from place to place on their own in search
of food. Higher plants move certain parts of their body in response to growth
or external stimuli
2. RESPIRATION: In order to perform the numerous life processes, living
things need much energy. The energy can only be obtained when the organism
respires. Therefore, respiration is the oxidation of food substances in the
presence of oxygen to produce energy with carbon (iv) oxide and water
released as by products.
3. NUTRITION: The act of feeding is called nutrition. All organisms need food
to carry out their biological activities. Green plants can manufacture their
food. Hence, they are autotrophs while animals are dependent on plants for
their food, so they are heterotrophs.
4. IRRITABILITY: Is the ability of living things to respond to external and
internal stimuli in order to survive. External stimuli may be light, heat, water,
sound or chemical substances.
5. GROWTH: this is the tendency of organisms to increase irreversibly and
rapidly in length and size and in mass. The essence of growth is to enable
organisms to repair or replace damaged or old tissues in their bodies. The food
eaten by an organism provides the basis of growth.
6. EXCRETION: Toxic waste products of metabolism & other unwanted
materials have to be eliminated to ensure proper functioning of the bodies of
organisms. Such wastes include water, carbon (iv) oxide etc.

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 7. REPRODUCTION: Is the ability of a living organism to give birth to young
ones (off springs). The essence is to ensure life continuity. Reproduction can
be sexual (involving two organisms) or asexual (involving one organism)
8. LIFE SPAN / DEATH: Every organism has a definite and limited period of
existence.
Life for all organism has five main stages, namely: origin (birth), growth,
maturity, decline and death.
9. COMPETITION: Living things tend to struggle for the basic things of life in
order to survive. Hence, they compete for food, water, light, mates and space.
10. ADAPTATION: To survive, every organism possesses ability to get used to
change in its environment.

EVALUATION
1. State the characteristics that must be possessed by an organism to be
referred to as living things.
2. Which of these characteristics does a virus possess?

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

All living organisms can be generally classified as plants or animals. However, plants
can be distinguished from animals in the following ways:
PLANTS ANIMALS
1. Undergo passive movement. Undergo free or active movement with well-
developed organs of locomotion.
2. Gaseous exchange takes place Gaseous exchange is through special
through the entire body. organs.
3. Green plants photosynthesize i. e. Animals do not photosynthesize i. e. they
they are autotrophs. are heterotrophs.
4. They exhibit slow response to They exhibit fast response to stimuli.
stimuli.
5. Growth is apical and indefinite Growth is uniform and definite (limited).
(continuous).
6. No specialized sense organs. Possess specialized sense organs.
7. No specialized excretory systems. They have special and well developed
excretory systems.
8. Cell has rigid non-living cellulose Have thin, flexible cell membrane.
cell wall which provides Mechanical support is provided by external
mechanical support. exoskeleton or internal endoskeleton.
9. They store food (carbohydrates) They store carbohydrates as glycogen
as starch except fungi which store
food as glycogen.

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EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between autotrophs and heterotrophs
2. State four differences between plants and animals

MICROSCOPE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

A microscope is an instrument used in magnifying and viewing organisms smaller than
0.1mm that is too tiny to be seen by the human eyes. A compound light microscope
consists of the following parts:
a. Revolving nose piece: it is used for selecting lens to be used and to be in line
with the eye piece.
b. Objective lenses (low, medium and high power): for magnification of object
c. Eye piece lens or ocular: for viewing magnified object.
d. Body tube: provides attachment to eyepiece, revolving nose piece, low-power,
medium-power and high-power objective lens.
e. Coarse focus knob: for focusing on object at low power.
f. Fine adjustment knob: for focusing on object at medium and high power
magnification so that object is sharper at focus.
g. Arm: for lifting or carrying the microscope.
h. Clip: for holding glass slide on stage.
i. Stage: for displaying slide and specimens under focus.
j. Condenser: regulates the amount of light rays entering the microscope and
object.
k. Knob: to raise and lower the condenser.
l. Base: for balancing the microscope on the table.
m. Mirror: for collecting light rays and directing them to condenser and object.

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BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
This is the standard system of naming living organisms. Each type of organism is
given two names:
(i) The name of the genus (generic name) to which the organism belongs.
(ii) The name of the species (specific name) to which it belongs.
The generic name is always written first using initial capital letter (underlined or
italicized) e.g. Homosapiens is man’s scientific name.

EVALUATION
1. List five major parts of a microscope and their functions.
2. Mention two other types of microscopes.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What is binomial nomenclature?

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 WEEK TWO AND THREE
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

CONTENT
Modern Classification of Living Organisms
 Kingdom Monera
 Protista
 Fungi
 Kingdom Plantae
 Kingdom Animalia

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISIMS

Nature comprises millions of organisms, hence the need for identification, naming
and classifying them in a meaningful manner. The present and widely accepted
method of classification of organism was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus. The study
of the general principles of classification is called taxonomy or systematic.
Classification is an arrangement of organisms into groups, each group is then split
into smaller groups and the members of each group have certain features in common
which distinguish them from other groups. The largest group of organisms is the
kingdom. The arrangement of living organisms from the highest to the lowest (with
decreasing variety of organisms) is as follows:
KINGDOM PHYLUM OR DIVISION CLASS ORDER FAMILY
GENUS SPECIES

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MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
All organisms cannot be suitably classified as either plants or animals based on
Carolus Linneaus classification. Therefore five kingdoms have been generally
accepted for all living organisms, these include Monera, Protista, fungi, plantae and
animalia.

KINGDOM MONERA (Prokaryotes)

This group consists of simplest living organisms (bacteria, blue-green anabaena).
- They are microscopic single-celled.
- The cell wall does not contain cellulose. It is made up of protein and fatty
materials.
- They have no definite nucleus. Nucleus lack nuclear membrane and DNA are
scattered in the cytoplasm.
- They lack most cell organelles except the ribosome.
- Reproduction is asexual by binary fission.

KINGDOM PROTISTA
- They are unicellular organisms.
- The organisms are all eukaryotes i. e. cell have definite nucleus.
- Most protists are aquatic organisms.
- They move either by cilia, flagella or pseudopodia.
- Some are free living while few are parasitic.
Protists can be broadly divided into two groups;
a. Protozoa: animal-like protists e.g. amoeba, paramecium, plasmodium,
trypanosome.
b. Protophyta: Plant-like protists e. g. Diatoms, chlorella, chlamydomonas.
Note: Euglena is a protist with plant and animal like features.

KINGDOM FUNGI
- They are non-green organisms which do not photosynthesize (lack
chlorophyll).
- All fungi except slime moulds are non-motile.
- They have rigid cell wall made up of chitin and polysaccharides.
- They reproduce asexually by producing spores and sexually as well.
- Most of them are saprophytes while some are parasites.
- They lack true roots, stem and leaves.
- Few are unicellular (yeast) while most are multicellular (rhizopus, mushroom).
Multicellular fungi have filamentous bodies that are made up of a network of fine,
branching filaments called hyphae (singular: hypha). This mass of hyphae is known
as mycelium (plural: mycelia).

EVALUATION
1. Describe the features of a named (a) Animal like protist (b) Fungi (c)
Bacteria

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 2. State the phyla of fungi.

KINGDOM PLANTAE

This consists of organisms with cellulose cell wall and chlorophyll for manufacturing
their food. It consists of three major phyla i. e thallophyta, bryophyta and
tracheophyta.
a. THALLOPHYTA (ALGAE)
Examples include spirogyra, volvox, sargassum and kelp
- These are simple aquatic photosynthetic plants
- They are non-vascular plants
- They lack true root, stem and leaves.
- They are either unicellular or multicellular and may be green, brown or red.
- They reproduce asexually (by cell division, fragmentation, spore) or sexually.
- They exhibit alternation of generation.
b. BRYOPHTA
These include hornworts, liverworts and mosses
- Bryophytes are multicellular, non-vascular plants.
- They also lack true roots, stems and leaves.
- They have chlorophyll as the only photosynthetic pigment.
- They are terrestrial but live in moist place.
- They produce spores asexually and also reproduce sexually. Hence, they also
show a distinct alternation of generation.
c. TRACHEOPHYTA
- They are green multicelluar, terrestrial vascular plants i.e. they have tissues for
conducting water and food.
- They have true roots, stem, and leaves.
It is the largest group of plants and can be subdivided into two i. e. pteridophytes and
spermatophytes.
i. PTERIDOPHYTA (FERNS)
Examples include Dryopteris, platycerium, ferns etc
- They are spore bearing plants.
- They possess well developed vascular tissues and chlorophyll
- Asexual and sexual reproductive organs are referred to as sori and
prothalusrespectively
- The stem grows horizontally and is referred to as rhizome
ii. SPERMATOPHYTA
These are seed bearing plants. They can be grouped into two
(i) GYMNOSPERMS
Examples are cycads (whistling pine, fir), conifers and gingkos

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 - Their seeds are borne naked in special structures called cones. They don’t have
flowers e.g conifers, cycads.
- These are trees or shrubs with needle, broad or scale like leaves.
(ii) ANGIOSPERMS
They form the largest group in the plants kingdom and are adapted to almost every
kind of habitat. Examples are oil palm tree, water leaf, maize plant etc.
- They bear true flowers for sexual reproduction.
- They have more abundant water conducting vessels than gymnosperms.
- They bear seeds enclosed in fruits.
- They show more specialized and complex reproductive mechanism involving
pollination and fertilization.
Angiosperms are grouped into two, monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
Examples include maize, guinea grass, rice, oil palm etc.
- They have seeds with one seed leaf (cotyledon).
- They are generally herbs with scattered vascular bundles in their stem.
- They have leaves with parallel venation and fibrous root system.
- They undergo hypogeal germination (i.e. their cotyledons remain below the
ground at germination.)
- They do not undergo secondary growth.
 DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
Examples include orange, hibiscus plants etc.

- They are more primitive angiosperms having seeds with two seed leaves

- They have tap root system

- They usually undergo secondary growth

- The leaves have veins arranged in branched network

- They undergo epigeal germination (i.e the cotyledons are borne above the
soil).

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between thallophytes and bryophytes
2. Differentiate between angiosperms and gymnosperms

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
This consists of multicellular organisms with no cell wall; they have no chloroplasts
in their cell therefore they feed heterotrophically. Animals can be classified into two
main groups:
a. Invertebrates – animals without backbones.
b. Vertebrates – animals with backbones.

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These two groups can further be divided and subdivided based on body symmetry,
body design and body cavity.

INVERTERBRATES
a. Phylum Porifera (sponges):
- They are primitive multicellular, aquatic animals (colonies of cells)
- They lack true tissues and nervous system
- Reproduce asexually and sexually (hermaphrodites
b. Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria: Hydra, jelly fish, sea anemones):
- They have two layered bodies surrounding a central hollow cavity called
enteron.
- They have tentacles and most of them are marine
- Possession of stinging cells called nematocysts
- There is only one opening called mouth. No anus.
c. Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms: Tapeworm, planaria, liver fluke)
- They have soft, flat, unsegmented elongated bodies
- They lack body cavity.
- They are bilaterally symmetrical and mainly parasites in man and other animals
- They possess alimentary canal. No anus
d. Phylum Nematoda (roundworm, hookworm, guinea worm)
- They have thread like, cylindrical, unsegmented body with no body cavity.
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
- They have alimentary canal with mouth and anus
- Some are parasitic, while others are free living
e. Phylum Annelida (earthworm, leeches)
- They have internal and external segmented bodies which are long and
cylindrical.
- They have true body cavity (ceoloma).
- The appendages (setae) are not jointed
f. Phylum Mollusca (snail, squid, octopus)
- They have soft unsegmented bodies
- Tentacles are present in most members
- Some have shells e.g snails, squid etc while others have no shell e. g. octopus,
slug
g. Phylum Echinodermata (star fish, bristle star, sae lily)
- They possess tough, spiny and calcerous exoskeleton
- The head is not usually distinct
- They are all marine
- Most of them are stay shaped
Examples are brittle star, star fish, sea urchin, sea lily etc
h. Phylum Arthropoda (the largest group in the animal kingdom)
- They have segmented bodies
- They have exoskeleton made up of chitin
- Their appendages are jointed.

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 - They have body divisions
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
They can be subdivided into four classes
i. Insectae.g cockroach, housefly, grasshopper etc.
ii. Arachnida e.g. spider, scorpion, tick etc.
iii. Crustaceans e.g. crab, crayfish, prawns etc.
iv. Myriapoda e.g. centipedes and millipedes.

THE VERTEBRATES (PHYLUM CHORDATA)

All vertebrates have the following features:
a. A bilaterally symmetrical body which is divided into a head, trunk and a tail
with a neck joining the head to the trunk in most vertebrates.
b. An internal skeleton (endoskeleton)
c. Well-developed central nervous system and sense organs.
d. A closed blood system
e. Skin covered with scales, feather or hair.
The phylum chordata (animals with notochord) can be subdivided into five classes.
These include

a. Class Pisces (tilapia, shark, dogfish)

- These are fishes which are aquatic, cold blooded (poikilothermic) i.e. the body
temperature varies with that of the surrounding).
- Their bodies are covered with scales.
- They breathe through their gills
- Fertilization is external
- They possess fins for locomotion
- Their bodies are streamlined in shape
b. Class Amphibians (toad, frog, and newt)
- They are cold blooded animals.
- They spend most of their time on land but reproduce (lay eggs) in water.
- They carry out gaseous exchange using gills, lungs, skin or mouth living.
- They have naked moist skin
- Fertilization is external
- They have two pairs of limbs with webbed toes
c. Class Reptilia (lizards, snakes, crocodiles etc)
- Their skin is covered with dry scales which prevent water loss from the body.
- Gaseous exchange is carried out through their lungs
- Fertilization is internal and eggs are laid on land.
- They are cold-blooded
d. Class Aves (birds)
- They are warm- blooded (homoiothermic) i.e. they are able to keep their body
temperature more or less constant.
- Their body is covered with feathers

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 - They have toothless beak for feeding.
- Fore limbs modified into wings for flight
- Fertilization is internal.
e. Class Mammalia (rats, bats, dogs, whales, monkey, kangaroos, man etc)
- They are warm-blooded
- They have skin covered with hair.
- They possess heterodont teeth i.e. different sets of teeth.
- They have a well-developed brain
- They give birth to their young ones alive (viviparous)
- They use lungs for gaseous exchange.

EVALUATION
1. Define the following in relation to body symmetry (a) asymmetrical
(b) radially symmetrical (c) bilateral symmetrical
ASSIGNMENT.
Discuss virus as animate and inanimate thing.

ORGANIZATION OF LIFE

CONTENT
 Level of organization of life
 Complexity of organization in higher organization

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF LIFE

Every living thing is made up of a cell or a number of cells. A single-celled organism
is called unicellular while a many-celled organism is called multicellular.
Organization of life is therefore the existence of life from a single-celled organism to
a multicellular organism with complex forms that performs different functions. Four
levels of organization of life exist, namely: cell, tissue, organ and system.

1. Cell: A cell is a functional and structural unit of protoplasm bounded by a

membrane and containing nuclear and cytoplasmic materials. Some living things
exist as cells which have cytoplasmic structures such as pseudopodia, cilia,
flagella and vacuoles e.g. Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramecium and Euglena.
Common cells that perform distinct functions in plant and animals include
sperm cells, nerve cells, bone cells, red blood cells, root hair cells etc.
2. Tissues: A tissue is a collection of cells which are similar in structure and
functions. Hydra is an example of an animal that is made up of tissues only.
Examples of tissues in animals and plants are epithelial tissue, blood, nerve
tissue, muscle tissue, xylem and phloem tissues etc.
3. Organ: An organ is a collection of different tissues that perform a common
function or functions e.g. Kidney, heart, brain, stem, roots etc. Example of organ
in plant is onion bulb.

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 4. System: A system is a set of organs which co-operate to carry out one of the
vital functions of life e. g. Digestive system, respiratory system, reproductive
system, transport system etc.

COMPLEXITY OF ORGANIZATION IN HIGHER ORGANISMS

Higher organisms have bodies that are differentiated into specialized parts performing
different functions. The different specialized parts made up of tissues, organs and
systems make higher organisms more complex and efficient to carry out various
activities of life.

Advantages of complexity
1. It leads to division of labour and specialization
2. It has led to the efficiency of the various organs of the body.
3. The complexity of higher organism has led to their survival (adaptation) in
their different habitats.
4. Various systems operate side by side without adversely affecting each other
5. Reproduction in complex organisms does not lead to the disintegration of the
parents

Disadvantages of complexity
1. Individual cells are not capable of existing independently and therefore depend
on one another’s activities to exist
2. With complexity, ability to regenerate lost parts decreases.
3. Difficulties in acquisition of food materials and oxygen and loss of waste
product
4. Difficulties in reproduction
5. It leads to slower rate of diffusion because the surface area to volume ratio is
small and the distance from exterior to the center of the body is great

EVALUATION
1. Why are higher organisms referred to as ‘complex’
2. State the advantages of complexity.

ASSIGNMENT
Read up the next topic.

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 WEEK 4
THE CELLL

CONTENT
 Cell as a living thing
 Definition of cell
 Characteristics of living organisms
 Forms of cellular existence

The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named the biological unit for
its resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, rst
developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all
organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of
structure and function in all living organisms, that all cells come from preexisting
cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating
cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells.
Cell can be defined as the structural and functional unit of life. It could also be
describe as the simplest and basic unit of life in which are living organism are made
of cells. The cell (from Latin cella, meaning “small room”) is the basic structural,
functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest
unit of life that can replicate independently, and cells are often called the “building
blocks of life”. The study of cells is called cell biology. A cell is the smallest unit of
life that can replicate independently, and cells are often called the “building blocks of
life”. The study of cells is called cell biology.
Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many
biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classi ed as
unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria) or multicellular (including
plants and animals). While the number of cells in plants and animals varies from
species to species, humans contain more than 10 trillion (10 12) cells. Most plant and
animal cells are visible only under a microscope, with dimensions between 1 and
100 micrometres.
Classification of Living Organism Based on the Number of Cells
This Includes

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 1. Unicellular Organism: These are organisms which consist of only one cell
e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium.
2. Multi-cellular Organism: These are organisms which consist of two or
many cells [Link] plant, Bird, Hydra.
History of Cell
Many scientist have contributed to the distribution of history of cell which are listed
below;
1. Robert Hooke: He is regarded as the father of cell. He was the rst human
being to discover the honey comb structure of the cell in 1665. In his book,
Micrographic, he described his observation of a slice of a cork of an oak tree.
He established that the cork is made up of thin components or rooms which he
later named the components of cells.

2. Felix Dujardin: He was a French biologist in 1835, which he discovered that

the cell was made up of living substance. He however named the living
substance protoplasm.
3. Matthias Schledien: He is also a German botanist in 1838 revealed that the
bodies of plants are made of cells which were described as units of life.
4. Theodore Schwann: He was also a German zoologist in 1839; He discovered
that the bodies of all animals are composed of cells.
5. Rudolf Von Virchow: He was also a German biologist in 1855, concluded in
his research that all cells come from previously existing cells.

CELL DEFINITION AND FORMS OF CELLULAR

EXISTENCE
The cell is the simplest, smallest, basic, structural and functional unit of life. The cell
can carry out all life activities such as growth, respiration e. t. c.

Cells can exist in four various forms which include

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 a. As a single cell (unicellular forms): This means that organism that possesses
only one cell and is capable of living freely on their own. e. g. Amoeba,
Paramecium, Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Euglena

i. Chlamydomonas(Chlamydomonas rivalries)
Chlamydomonas is a unicellular plant like protist, motile using its flagellum and has a
cup shaped chloroplast. It is sensitive to light using its eye spot. In the presence of
light, starch grains appear in the cytoplasm. These disappear in a dark environment.
Chlamydomonas cells through its flagella (whip like) respond to changes in the
surrounding such as moving from a dark region to a region of light. This organism
disposes off its excess water using its contractile vacuoles. It reproduces asexually and
sexually when it reaches its maximum size
ii. Amoeba (Amoeba proteus)
Amoeba is a unicellular animal like protest and the simplest organism with
heterotrophic mode of feeding. It is shapeless. It digests its complex food with its food
vacuole. The undigested food materials are got rid of with excess water through its
contractile vacuole. Amoeba moves about and captures its food with the aid of its
pseudopodia (‘’false feet’’). At maximum growth, amoeba reproduces asexually by
dividing into two daughter cells (binary fission)

iii. Paramecium

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Paramecium is a more complex unicellular organism compared to Amoeba. It is
slipper- shaped and moves with the aid of its cilia, which also directs food into its
gullet. The undigested food material is removed through the anal pore. Excess water
is got rid of through the anterior and posterior contractile vacuoles. Two types of
nucleus are visible in this organism, the micronucleus and mega nucleus
iv. Euglena (Euglena viridis)
Euglenaviridis is a protist that has both plant and animal features.
As a plant, it has chloroplasts (star shaped) for photosynthesis, pyrenoid for starch
storage and paramylum granules (form in which starch is stored).
As an animal, it has no cellulose cell wall, but a plasma membrane called pellicle, a
gullet, eye spot, contractile vacuole and flagellum for movement.
b. In colonial forms (As a Colony): This means that some organism are made of
many similar cells which are joined or massed together but they cannot be
differentiated from each other e. g. Volvox, Sponges, Pandorina

Volvox
Volvox is made up of severalchlamydomonas- like cells which are arranged in angular
layer to form a hollow ball-like structure. The cells are connected by cytoplasm
strands.
The cell of Volvox moves about through the beating of the flagella. Most cells of
Volvox lose their ability to reproduce. Only a few of them can reproduce to form two
daughter cells

c. In filamentous forms(As a Filament): This simply means that certain cells are
organised into filaments. Each cells functions as an independent living cell. e.
g. Spirogyra, Oscillateria, Oedogonium

Spirogyra
Spirogyra is a filament of identical cells which are joined end to end without
branching. Each cell of spirogyra carries out its function independent of another cell.
Spirogyra has spirally arranged chloroplast for photosynthesis.
The filament grows indefinitely. The break-off cells from the filament have the ability
to reproduce asexually to form a new filament. Spirogyra also has ability to reproduce
sexually.

d. As a part of multicellular organisms

Cells as Part of a Living Organism: This means that in a multi-cellular

19
 organism, a group of numerous, similar cells are arranged together to perform
specific functions and this is called a tissue. A group of similar tissue forming
a layer in an organism which performs a specific function is called an organ
A multicellular organism is made up of interdependent cells carrying out several
special functions. The cells of the multicellular organisms are arranged to perform
similar functions and then form tissues. A group of specialized tissues performing
similar function forms an organ. Organs are further organized to carry out special
functions in form of system or organ system. Ultimately, the interdependent biological
system results in the complex multicellular organisms.

Colonial Organism Filamentous Organism

1. There is absence of intercellular wall. There is presence intercellular
wall.

2. The identical cells forms a mass. The identical cells form end to end
arrangement in linear form.

EVALUATION
1. What is a cell
2. List four forms of cellular existence with examples?
3. Discuss feeding, movement and reproduction in a named unicellular
organism

ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the different forms in which living cell exist
2. State cell theory
3. Read up the next topic

CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

CONTENT
 Cell structure and functions of the cell components
 Similarities and Differences between plant and animal cell
 Cell theory

The study of a cell is called cytology. A cell consists of a living material called
protoplasm, which is surrounded by a membrane called plasma membrane. In
plants, a cell wall (non-living part) is also present surrounding the plasma

20
membrane.

The protoplasm is made up of two major parts which are:

a. cytoplasm b. Nucleus

The cytoplasm contains cell organelles or inclusions, which are cellular

structures with specific functions. The cytoplasms are fluid materials that
consist of cytoplasmic organelles such as Lysosome, golgi bodies, endoplasmic
reticulum, and mitochondria, etc.

The cells which contain a nucleus and organelles are called

eukaryotic cells. These show a high level of cellular organization.

However, some cells lack definite nucleus and organelles. In such cells (prokaryotic
cells e.g. bacteria), materials containing instructions for growth and development are
found in a particular part of the cell and so are not enclosed in any membrane.

Nucleus is the largest cellular organelle enclosed by a double-layered nuclear

membrane with many pores. It contains chromosomes and nucleolus which are rich in
proteins and nucleic acids.

The nucleus performs the following functions:

a. Exchange of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm through the
nuclear pores.
b. Storage of hereditary information by the chromosomes
c. Control centre of cellular activities

21
Structure of a typical animal cell

CELL COMPONENT OR ORGANELLES

Cell nucleus: A cell’s information center, the cell nucleus is the most conspicuous
organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell’s chromosomes, and is the place
where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription) occur. The
nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called
the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell’s DNA from
various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its
processing. The nucleolus is a specialized region within the nucleus where ribosome
subunits are assembled. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm.

 Mitochondria and Chloroplasts: They generate energy for the cell.

Mitochondria are self-
replicating organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. Respiration occurs in the cell mitochondria,
which generate the cell’s energy by oxidative phosphorylation, using oxygen to
release energy stored in cellular nutrients (typically pertaining to glucose) to
generate ATP. Mitochondria multiply by binary fission, like prokaryotes.
Chloroplasts can only be found in plants and algae, and they capture the sun’s
energy to make carbohydrates through photosynthesis.
Chloroplast: They are the site of photosynthesis, which are present in
chlorophyll bacteria,
bluegreen algae.

22
  Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a transport
network for
molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to
molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER,
which has ribosomes on its surface that secrete proteins into the ER, and the smooth
ER, which lacks ribosomes. The smooth ER plays a role in calcium sequestration and
release.
Golgi apparatus: The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to
process and package
the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell.
 Lysosomes and Peroxisomes: Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid
hydrolases).
They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed
viruses or bacteria. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic
peroxides. The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not
contained in a membrane-bound system.
 Centrosome: (The cytoskeleton organizer): The centrosome produces the
microtubules of a cell – a key component of the cytoskeleton. It directs the
transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Centrosomes are
composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division and help in
the formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in the
animal cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.
 Vacuoles: Vacuoles sequester waste products and in plant cells store water.
They are often
described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some
cells, most notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which can pump water
out of the cell if there is too much water. The vacuoles of plant cells and fungal
cells are usually larger than those of animal cells.
 Ribosomes: The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules.
They each
consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA from the
nucleus is used to synthesise proteins from amino acids. Ribosomes can be
found either floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic
reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell
CELL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

CELL FUNCTIONS
COMPONENT/ORGANELLES

23
 i. Mitochondrion Site of cellular respiration for energy
production. It consists of enzymes and
DNA. The enzymes convert ADP to ATP.
ii. Vacuole Surrounded by a membrane called
tonoplast. It contains cell sap mineral salt
and sugar. It act as an osmoregulator
(removing excess water).
iii. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Aids transport of materials within the
cytoplasm. Rough endoplasmic
reticulum(RER) (having ribosome attached)
is for protein synthesis and transportation.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is for
lipids and steroids synthesis and
transportation.
iv. Golgi bodies/apparatus For synthesis, packaging and distribution of
materials.
v. Chloroplast Contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis in
green plants
vi. Lysosomes Site for production of enzymes for
respiration and destruction of worn out
cells.
vii. Ribosome For protein synthesis
viii. Centrioles Active in cell division by producing spindle
fibres to which chromosomes are attached.
(Present only in animal cell).
ix. Cell plasma) membrane This is flexible and selectively permeable.
It controls the materials entering or leaving
the cell
x. Cell wall It protects the cell, thus providing
mechanical support in plants.
xi. Starch granules They store starch for cell.
xi. Chromosome It controls the DNA which stores genetic
traits.
xii. Nucleus It controls all life activities of the cell.
Xiv Nucleolus It produces the ribosome for protein
synthesis.

24
Structure of a typical plant cell

25
Plant Cell

Animal Cell

26
EVALUATION
List five cell organelles and their functions

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

Both plant and animal cells have in common the following organelles;
 Nucleus
 Mitochondria
 Cytoplasm
 Ribosome
 Cell membrane
 Lysosome
 Chromosome
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi bodies
 Nucleolus

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
1 Has chloroplast No chloroplast
2 Rectangular and definite in shape Usually spherical or shapeless
3 Has rigid cellulose cell wall No cell wall
4 Centrioles are absent Centrioles are present for cell division
5 Cytoplasm is less dense Cytoplasm is dense granular
6 Starch granules present Glycogen granules present
7 Presence of large central permanent Vacuoles are absent or small and
vacuole temporary when present
8 It has no flexible cell membrane It has flexible cell membrane

CELL THEORY
This is the summary of research efforts of many scientist like Robert Hooke, Matthias
Schleidein and Theodore Schwann in 1838 and 1839 likewise, Rudolf Virchow (1855)
etc.

27
The cell theory states that:
a. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
b. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms i.e. the
basic organizational unit of life.
c. All existing cells come from pre-existing ones.
d. A cell contains information for its structural and functional development in its
nucleic acids. This information is passed down from the parents to the off
spring

EVALUATION
1. State three similarities and five differences between plants and animals
cell
2. Write short note on the history of the cell
3. Explain cell theory

ASSIGNMENT
1. State the different cell component and their functions
2. State the similarities between plant and animal cell
3. Draw a well label animal cell and plant cell

28
 WEEK 5
CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
CONTENT
 Environment/Nature and state of matter
 Diffusion (Definition, process and significance)
 Osmosis (Definition, process and significance)
 Demonstration of diffusion
 Importance of diffusion in plants and animals
 Osmosis in living and nonliving things
 Relationship between osmosis and diffusion
 Haemolysis and plasmolysis
 Flaccidity and turgidity

Environment/Nature and State of Matter

Living cells are known to be surrounded by a watery environment. This may include:
Fresh/salt water in which the unicellular organisms live, Intercellular fluid that bath
the bodies of cells of higher animals.

The nature of states of matter makes diffusion and osmosis possible.

Matter can be defined as any material that has mass and occupies space. It includes all
the living and non-living things around us. Matter is also made up of tiny particles
which may be molecules or irons and can exist in three forms; solid, liquid, and gas.

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the process by which molecules of substances move from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration (through the medium of air or
liquid) until equilibrium is reached. The difference in the concentration of the
substances in the two regions before diffusion occurs is called concentration/diffusion
gradient, e.g. If KMn04 (Potassium tetraoxomanganate VII) is placed in a beaker of
water and allowed to stand, the purple colour of the KMn04 start to spread outward
from the crystal. Eventually, the colour spread evenly throughout the water medium.

Diffusion is also observed in the spread of odour of perfume, insecticide which is

used to spray a room and also in the release of gases from the anus.

Diffusion is affected by the following factors

a. Change in temperature: The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of
diffusion

29
 b. Molecular size: Diffusion increases with decreasing size of molecule
c. State of matter Diffusion of gases is much faster than that of liquid.
d. Difference in concentration: The greater the difference in concentration of
molecules, the faster the rate of diffusion.

IMPORTANCE OF DIFFUSION IN LIVING ORGANISMS

a. The movement of carbon (IV) oxide through the stomata of leaves during the
process of photosynthesis.
b. Movement of oxygen into the leaves during respiration.
c. Movement of water vapour out of the leaf in the process of transpiration
d. Gaseous exchange in the lungs of mammals
e. Intake of oxygen and nutrients and the removal of waste product by the foetus
from its mother through placenta.
f. Movement of digested and soluble food from the villi of small intestine to the
blood stream.
g. Removal of waste product in small organisms such as amoeba

OSMOSIS
Osmosis can be defined as the movement of water molecules from a region of lower
concentration to the region of higher concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane.
A permeable membrane allows molecules to pass through it freely while a selectively
permeable membrane only allows certain molecules to pass through it. Osmosis will
only occur when a semi-permeable membrane separates weak and strong solutions.
Living cells may find themselves in any of the following situation:
 When the fluid surrounding the cell is more concentrated than the inside of the
cell, the surrounding fluid is said to be hypertonic to the content of the cells.
A net movement of water molecules out of the cell into the surrounding fluid
occurs and causes the cell to shrink. This process is known as Exosmosis.
 When the fluid surrounding the cell is less concentrated than the inside of the
cell, the surrounding fluid is said to be hypotonic to the content of the cell.
There is a net movement of water molecules from the surrounding fluid into
the cells. This process is known as Endosmosis.
 When the surrounding fluid and the cell concentration have the same
concentration, they are said to be Isotonic. A net movement of water molecule
in and out of the cells does not occur.

IMPORTANCE OF OSMOSIS

30
 a. It aids the absorption of water from the soil into the vacuole of the root hairs
b. It aids the movement of water from the root hairs into the cells of other parts
of the plants
c. It helps to control the opening and closing of the stomata pores
d. It gives turgidity to the plant cells i.e. it gives support.
e. It aids intracellular movement of water in animals
f. It aids reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules into the blood
g. It causes haemolysis of red blood cells.

PLASMOLYSIS
Plasmolysis is the shrinkage of the vacuole and pulling away of the cytoplasmic lining
from the cell wall when placed in hypertonic solution. When a plant cell is surrounded
or place in hypertonic solution, exosmosis will occur i.e. water moves out of the cell
into the surrounding fluid leading to the shrinking of the vacuole and pulling the
cytoplasm away from the cell wall. When cells are plasmolysed, it eventually leads to
wilting or death of the plant.

HAEMOLYSIS
This is the process whereby red blood cells (corpuscles) splits and burst as a result of
too much water passing into it. Red blood cells and blood plasma are always isotonic
i.e. having the same osmotic concentration, if for some reasons the concentration of
blood plasma falls; endosmosis will occur (water moves from the plasma into the red
blood cells). Continuous absorption of water into the cell makes it turgid and when
fully stretched, it burst.

TURGIDITY AND BIOLOGY SIGNIFICANCE

Turgidity is the condition in which cell absorbs plenty of water up to a point where the
cell is fully stretched. Turgidity is observed in plants where it makes them erect and
support the stem, leaves and flowers.

FLACCIDITY AND BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Flaccidity is the condition in which plant lose water to their surrounding faster than
they can absorb. When a plant loses more water than it absorbs, it becomes flaccid.
Flaccidity usually occurs when there is no water in the soil, especially where there is
drought. The continuous loss of water can result in the death of the plant.

EVALUATION
1. What is a matter, mention the three state of matter

31
 2. Define diffusion, state the factors that can affect the rate of
diffusion
3. Outline five importance of diffusion
4. What is osmosis, mention three condition necessary for osmosis
5. State three differences between osmosis and diffusion

ASSIGNMENT
 Define plasmolysis and haemolysis
 In a tabular form, differentiate between plasmolysis and
haemolysis
 Differentiate between flaccidity and turgidity
 State two application flaccidity and turgidity

32
 WEEK 5
PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

CONTENT
 Autotrophic nutrition( Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis)
 Heterotrophic nutrition( holozoic, saprophytic e.t.c)
 Modes of Autotrophic Nutrition (Photosynthesis and Chemosynthesis)
 Photosynthesis
 Mechanisms of photosynthesis
 Importance of photosynthesis
 Experiments on photosynthesis
 Chemosynthesis
 Mineral Requirements of Plants

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
Plants are referred to as autotrophs, i.e. being able to manufacture their food (Organic
compound from inorganic materials such as water, carbon dioxide)
Autotrophs generally have two modes of nutrition which are chemosynthesis and
photosynthesis (holophytic).

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
This is a type of nutrition in which organisms depend directly or indirectly on
autotrophs for food. All animals, fungi, protozoa and some bacteria belong to this
group and they are referred to as heterotrophs

HETEROTROPHIC MODES OF FEEDING

(a) Holozoic Nutrition
This is the mode of feeding in which food is ingested in the form of complex
organic substances which is digested and assimilated into the body. Holozoic
organisms are grouped into carnivores, herbivores, omnivores and scavengers.
(b) Parasitic Nutrition
This is the mode of feeding in which certain organisms (parasites) feed on
other organisms (host). Parasites can be endoparasites (tapeworm, liver fluke)
or ectoparasites (lice, ticks) depending on whether they live inside or outside
the host. Plant parasites include dodder, mistletoe. Parasites have special

33
 structures such as haustoria, sucker, hooks, and muscular lips e. t. c.
(c) Saprophytic Nutrition
This is feeding process in which certain organisms (saprophytes) feed on non
living organic matter i. e. plant and animal remains. Saprophytes secrete
digestive enzymes into the dead organic matter to digest the food (extracellular
digestion) and the soluble food substances are then absorbed into their body.
Examples include fungi i.e. mucor, mushroom, yeast and some bacteria
(d) Symbiotic Nutrition
This is a mode of feeding in which two organisms of different species called
symbionts live together and derive mutual benefits e.g. nutrients or food,
shelter, moisture e. t. c from each other. Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria
called Rhizobia, which live in root nodules of legumes, algae and fungi in a
lichen.
(e) Carnivorous / Insectivorous Nutrition
This is a feeding process in which some plants that have special devices trap
and digest insects. These plants grow in poor soil and proteins obtained from
the insects are used to supplement their nitrogenous compound requirement.
These plants secrete enzymes which help in digesting their victim. Examples
include bladderwort (Ultricularia), Pitcher plant, sundew and venus fly trap

MODES OF AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

Plants are referred to as autotrophs, i.e. being able to manufacture their food (Organic
compound from inorganic materials such as water, carbon dioxide)
Autotrophs generally have two modes of nutrition which are chemosynthesis and
photosynthesis

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which green plants synthesize organic compounds from
inorganic raw materials in the presence of chlorophyll and light.
light
6C02 + 6H20 C6H12O6 + 602
(Inorganic materials) Chlorophyll (organic compound) (by product)

The main product of photosynthesis is sugar (carbohydrate) while the oxygen given
up is a by-product which is released into the atmosphere.

FEATURES (CHARACTERISTICS) OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

34
These are as follows:
1. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast of cells in the presence of light.
2. The raw materials required are low energy containing inorganic compound i.e.
CO2 and H2O
3. The final product is a high energy containing compound (C 6H12O6 )n
Photosynthesis, therefore is an anabolic process (metabolic building up
process)
4. The energy required is obtained from solar energy through the chlorophyll (the
green pigment present in the chloroplast of green plants.
5. The carbon dioxide and oxygen diffuse in and out (respectively) between the
surrounding air and leaf passing through the stomata opening on the leaf
surface. These gases are stored in insoluble form until the day is dark. Then,
the sugar is converted and transported to other parts of the plants where it is
needed. The movement of the sugar is called translocation.
6. Leaf is the main photosynthetic organ of the plant although all green parts of
a plant are photosynthetic. The main site of photosynthesis in a leaf is the
pallisade mesophyll.

EVALUATION
1. List five types of heterotrophic nutrition giving two examples of
organisms where each occur
2. What are carnivores, omnivores and herbivores
3. What is photosynthesis?
4. Outline four features of photosynthesis
5. Draw a labeled diagram of the internal structure of a leaf

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis involves two stages
a. Light phase: it takes place during the day. It involves four stages
− Activation of chlorophyll: the chlorophyll trap light energy from the sun
and get energized
− Photolysis of water: splitting of water molecules by light energy
H2O H+ + OH--
OH− H2O
− Hydrogen transfer by NADP (NADP + H+ NADPH2)
Formation of ATP from ADP: this takes place to store energy for the
dark phase reaction

35
 b. Dark phase: In the dark phase of photosynthesis (occurring in the stroma of
chloroplast in the presence of NADPH and ATP), neither light energy nor
chlorophyll is needed. This stage takes place in the dark or at night.
During this phase, hydrogen ion and carbon dioxide molecule combine chemically
under the control of enzymes to form the simple sugar.
4H+ + CO2 CH2O + H2O
Simple sugar forms the chemical structural basis for other carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins

IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYTHESIS
The enzyme-rich product of photosynthesis is used by plants and animals in the
following ways:
1. The source of energy for their metabolic activities
2. It is needed in food cycle being the only process that can trap sun energy.
3. All animals and other heterotrophic plants are directly or indirectly dependent
on green plants for food.
4. Photosynthesis assists in the purification of the environment by removing
carbon (iv) oxide from it while oxygen is released into it.
5. Basis for manufacturing other complex organic compounds such as lipids,
proteins

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between the two stages of photosynthesis
2. State two importance of photosynthesis.

EXPERIMENTS IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The occurrence of photosynthesis in plants can be shown by experiments. Experiment
is carried out to show the importance of carbondioxide, sunlight energy, chlorophyll.
There is the need to prove that oxygen is given off.

Testing a leaf for starch

The leaf to be tested is detached from the plant and put into boiling water for about
10-15mins. This kills the protoplasm of the leaf and makes iodine to easily penetrate
the starch granules.
The boiled leaf is put into alcohol. This is to extract the chlorophyll from the leaf. The
leaf becomes white and brittle. It is then dipped into hot water to soften the tissues.
The bleached leaf is spread on a white tile a few drop of iodine is added to it. The
colour of the leaf is then tested against a light source.

36
If the leaf appears blue-black in colour, it contains starch, if the colour is yellowish-
brown, it contains no starch

To show that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

Two potted plants are kept in darkness or 48-72 hours to make it starch-free or carry
out the above experiment in destarching leaves. One of the potted plants remains in
darkness while the other is exposed to sunlight for 4 hours. Leaves from the potted
plants exposed to light turns blue-black when tested with iodine while the leaves kept
in darkness remains brown. This shows that without light, photosynthesis cannot take
place

To show that oxygen is given off as a by-product of photosynthesis

In this experiment, gas is collected in the test tube placed over the green plant and
tested with a glowing splint. If it re-kindles the glowing splint, it shows that oxygen is
given off because it is the only colourless gas that re-kindles a glowing splint.

Experiment to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

The same experiment in destarching a leaf is carried out here

Experiment to show that carbon (IV) oxide is necessary for photosynthesis

In this experiment, the leaves are destarched. Two potted plants are placed in two bell
jars labeled A and B. Each of the potted plants is place on a Vaseline glass plate to
prevent air containing carbon (iv) oxide from leaking into the bell jar. A dish
containing lime water is placed in one of the jars to absorb carbon (iv) oxide. Both
jars are left exposed to sunlight for about 4 hours and tested for starch.

CONDITIONS (FACTORS) FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The two major conditions necessary for photosynthesis are
a. External factors which include light, water, carbon (iv) oxide and mineral salt.
b. Internal factors include chlorophyll and enzymes.
Temperature is partly external (from sunlight) and partly internal (from the
chemical reactions taking place in plant

CHEMOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which non-green plants (e.g. Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter, iron
bacteria etc) synthesize organic compound from inorganic materials (carbon dioxide
and water). The energy used in this process is got from inorganic substances such as
ammonia and by hydrogen sulphite.

37
H2S + O2 S + H2O + chemical energy
chemical

H2O + CO2 CH2O

energy

MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS

Mineral elements are required for normal growth and development of green plants. In
addition to Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, other mineral requirements are discussed
below. Unlike glucose and other carbohydrates made from carbondioxide and water
by green plants, mineral salts are obtained from the soil.
Macronutrients
These are mineral nutrients that are required by plants in large quantities. They
include the following;
Macronutrients Importance Deficiency
Nitrogen(N) 1. Protein synthesis 1. Stunted growth and chlorosis
2. Nucliec acid synthesis 2. Poor flower and fruit
3. Proper root development formation
4. Component of chlorophyll and
enzymes
Phosphorus(P) 1. Formation of co-enzymes and 1. Poor root development
proteins 2. Stunted growth
2. Formation of DNA, RNA and ATP
3. Stem, root, fruit and seeds
formation
Sulphur(S) Formation of certain proteins in the 1. Stunted growth
protoplasm 2. Chlorosis
Potassium(K) 1. Protein synthesis 1. Premature death
2. Cell membrane formation 2. Leaf margin turns yellow and
3. Activates respiration and brown
photosynthesis
4. Crop maturation
Magnesium(Mg) 1. Formation of chlorophyll 1. Poor growth
2. Helps in cell division 2. Chlorosis
3. Activates many co-enzymes
Calcium(Ca) 1. Formation of cell wall 1. Death of terminal buds
2. Helps in storage of protein and 2. Roots develops poorly
carbohydrates in roots and tubers 3. Stunted growth
3. Gives rigidity to plants

38
Iron(Fe) 1. Formation of chlorophyll 1. Poor growth
2. Formation of protein 2. Yellowing of leaves
MICRO NUTRIENTS
These are mineral nutrients required by plants in small quantities. They include the
following;
Micro nutrients Importance Deficiency
Zinc(Zn) 1. Necessary for the synthesis of the 1. Poor growth
starting material of auxin
2. Activates some enzymes
3. Plays a role in the synthesis of protein
Copper(Cu) Component of respiratory enzymes Poor growth

Manganese(Mn) Activates some enzymes involved in Death of shoot

cellular respiration
Boron(B) Translocation of sugar and calcium Poor growth of pollen tubes
Chlorine(Cl) Necessary for oxygen release during Affects growth
photosynthesis
Molybdenum(Mb) 1. Necessary for nitrogen fixation by Poor growth
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
2. Activates the enzyme that reduces
nitrate to nitrite
EVALUATION
1. List four factors that affects photosynthesis
2. Describe an experiment to show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis
3. What is chemosynthesis
4. Give two examples of chemosynthetic plants

ASSIGNMENT
1. What are macro nutrients
2. list three macro elements that are essential for protein synthesis

WEEK 7

MID TERM BREAK

39
WEEK 8

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

CONTENT

 Food substances

 Classes and sources of food with local example

 Balance diet and its importance

 Digestive enzymes ( characteristics, classes and functions)

All living organisms need food for their survival and daily activities. Plants can
manufacture their own food through a process called photosynthesis, hence they are
called autotrophs. On the other hand, animals cannot manufacture their own food as
they depend on plants directly or indirectly for their food, hence they are called
heterotrophs.

Animals sometimes are classified according to the type of food they eat. On this
basis, they are classified into three groups, namely:

1. Carnivorous animals: These animals feed only on flesh or other animals, e.g

dog, lion, lizard, snake, cat, etc.

2. Herbivorous animals: These animals feed on plants, e.g. goat, sheep, rabbit,
etc.
3. Omnivorous animals: These animals feed on both plants and animals, e.g.

man, pig, etc.

Classes and Sources of Food

There are seven major classes of nutrients –

Carbohydrates, Fats, Fibre, Minerals, Protein, Vitamin, and Water.

40
The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino
acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some
signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used
to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in joules or calories
(sometimes called “kilocalories” and on other rare occasions written with a capital C
to distinguish them from little ‘c’ calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ
approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per
gram. Though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and
digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins,
minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A
third class dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-digestible material such as cellulose),
seems also to be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the
exact reasons
remain unclear.

Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharide (glucose, fructose, galactose) to
complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid
monomers bound to glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in
the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen
atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of
protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the
sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are
convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy
production just as ordinary glucose. By breaking down existing protein, some
glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded,
primarily as urea in urine. This occurs normally only during prolonged starvation.

Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals which are said to

influence (or protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established
as in the case of, for instance, vitamins.

Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes, together with other
substances such as toxins or various sorts. Some nutrients can be stored internally
(e.g., the fat soluble vitamins), while others are required more or less continuously.
Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients or, in extreme cases, too
much of a required nutrient. For example, both salt and water (both absolutely
required) will cause illness or even death in too large amounts.

Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or
polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they

41
 contain.

 They constitute a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other
grain-based products. Monosaccharides – one sugar unit, disaccharides – two
sugar units, and polysaccharides three or more units.

 Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they

are typically long multiple branched chains of sugar units.

 The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and absorb
since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption.

 The spike in blood glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to
be related to some of the heart and vascular diseases which have become more
frequent in recent times.

 Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than formerly, perhaps
leading to more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not
clear, however.

Fat
 A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing
long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol.

 They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one
glycerol backbone.

 Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the detailed

structure of the fatty acids involved.

 Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to
hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms
double-bonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than
a saturated fatty acid of the same length.

 Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-

bond) or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds).

 Furthermore, depending on the location of the double-bond in the fatty acid

chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty
acids.

 Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare

42
 in nature and in foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an
industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation.

Fiber
 Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate (or a polysaccharide) that is incompletely
absorbed in humans and in some animals.

 When metabolized it can produce four calories (kilocalories) of energy per

gram. But in most circumstances it accounts for less than that because of its
limited absorption and digestibility.

 Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is

indigestible because humans do not have the required enzymes to disassemble
it. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fibre. Whole grains,
fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of
dietary fibre.

 Fibre is important to digestive health and is thought to reduce the risk of colon
cancer. [citation needed] For mechanical reasons it can help in alleviating both
constipation and diarrhea.

 Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and insoluble fiber especially
stimulates peristalsis —the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines
which moves along the digestive tract. Some soluble fibers produce a
solution of high viscosity; this is essentially a gel, which slows the movement
of food through the intestines.

 Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, may help lessen
insulin spikes and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.

Protein
 Most meats such as chicken contain all the essential amino acids needed for
humans

 Proteins are the basis of many animal body structures (e.g. muscles, skin, and
hair). They also form the enyzmes which control chemical reactions
throughout the body.

 Each molecule is composed of amino acids which are characterized by

inclusion of nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are
responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in
hair).

43
  The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and
to replace damaged proteins (maintenance). As there is no protein or amino
acid storage provision, amino acids must be present in the diet. Excess amino
acids are discarded, typically in the urine.

 For all animals, some amino acids are essential (an animal cannot produce
them internally) and some are non-essential (the animal can produce them
from other nitrogen-containing compounds).

 About twenty amino acids are found in the human body, and about ten of these
are essential, and therefore must be included in the diet.

 A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially those that are
essential) is particularly important in some situations: during early
development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (a burn, for
instance).

 A complete protein source contains all the essential amino acids; an

incomplete protein source lacks one or more of the essential amino acids.

Minerals
 Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms,
other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are
present in nearly all organic molecules.

 The term “mineral” is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less
common elements in the diet. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned
—including several metals, which often occur as ions in the body.

 Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods in which they
occur naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from
natural inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from ground oyster
shells).

 Some are absorbed much more readily in the ionic forms found in such
sources.

On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as supplements; the
most famous is likely iodine in iodized salt which prevents goiter

Vitamins

44
  Some vitamins are recognized as essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for
good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can alternatively be synthesized in
the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.)

 Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as

carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not
“essential” dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to
produce them from other compounds.

 Thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food

(particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties
including antioxidant activity (see below); experimental demonstration has
been suggestive but inconclusive.

 Other essential nutrients not classed as vitamins include essential amino acids
(see above), choline, essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals
discussed in the preceding section.

 Vitamin deficiencies may result in disease conditions: goitre, scurvy,

osteoporosis, impaired immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain
forms of cancer , symptoms of premature aging, and poor psychological health
(including eating disorders), among many others.

 Excess of some vitamins is also dangerous to health (notably vitamin A), and
for at least one vitamin, B6, toxicity begins at levels not far above the required
amount. Deficiency or excess of minerals can also have serious health
consequences.

Water

 About 70% of the non-fat mass of the human body is made of water. Analysis
of Adipose Tissue in Relation to Body Weight Loss in Man.

 To function properly, the body requires between one and seven liters of water
per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of
activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors.

 With physical exertion and heat exposure, water loss increases and daily fluid
needs will eventually increase as well.

 It is not fully clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people,
although some experts assert that 8–10 glasses of water (approximately 2
liters) daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration.

45
  The notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot
be traced to a credible scientific source. The effect of, greater or lesser, water
intake on weight loss and on constipation is also still unclear.

 Water aids digestion and is needed by the body to also wash away toxic
materials.

Balanced Diet

Balanced diet is a diet containing the correct proportion or the right amount of all
the six food substances required by an organism or man. The balanced diet must
contain the six food substances such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oil,
minerals, vitamins and water.

Importance of Balanced Diet:

Balanced diet is important to the body in the following ways:

1. Balanced diet makes us healthy and by so doing, makes us to be resistance to

diseases.
2. It encourages growth and normal development of the body.

3. It also provides energy required for normal activities.

4. Balanced diet prevents malnutrition, deficiency or diseases. Lack of some food

substances, e.g protein in a diet can cause a nutritional disease called

kwashiokor in children which is characterised by a very big head, narrow
neck, big, swollen and shiny stomach, flat buttock, and very slender and
narrow legs.

Digestive Enzymes

An enzyme is an organic catalyst usually proteinous in nature, which promotes or

speeds up chemical changes in living cells but are not themselves used up in the
process.
Enzymes accelerate metabolic reactions without changing their composition in the
process.

46
Characteristics

1. All enzymes are proteins in nature.

2. Enzymes are usually involved in reversible reactions.

3. Enzymes are affected by the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of their surrounding.

They are destroyed by strong acids or alkali.

4. Enzymes accelerate the rate of chemical reaction.

5. Each enzyme is specific in action, i.e., an enzyme or a group of enzymes deals

with only one process.

Classes of Enzymes

The new method of classifying enzymes is based on the nature of chemical changes
brought about on a substrate. Such changes may involve oxidation in which case the
enzyme will be called an oxidase.

It is important to note that the earlier classification based on the substrate enzyme
works on, e.g.
Amylases for maltose, proteases for protein or lipases for lipids are no longer correct
or biochemically acceptable.

From the above classification, it is clear that all digestive enzymes belong to the
class called hydrolases. The class, hydrolases generally refer to enzymes that
break up various bonds (i.e. breaking large molecules into smaller particles) in
the presence of water.

EVALUATION

1. Explain the different classes of food and their sources

2. Define Balance diet

3. State the importance of Balance diet

4. State the characteristics of digestive enzymes

47
 ASSIGNMENT

LIST ALL THE MEMBERS OF VIT. B COMPLEX, WITH THEIR NAMES IN

BREAKETS
MODE OF NUTRITION

CONTENT

 Autotrophic nutrition

 Heterotrophic nutrition ( holozoic, parasitic, symbiotic, saprophytic,

carnivorous plants etc)

INTRODUCTION

All living organisms are capable of carrying out different modes of nutrition.
However, the mode of nutrition can be grouped into two major classes referred to as
autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
Autotrophic Nutrition

This is the type of nutrition in which organisms are able to manufacture their food.
Organisms which can manufacture their food are called autotrophs.

Autotrophic nutrition is further divided into two groups. These are holophytic or
photosynthetic nutrition and chemosynthetic nutrition.

i. Holophytic (Photosynthetic) Nutrition: Holophytic nutrition is the type if

nutrition in which all green plants are able to manufacture their own food making
use of of carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight. This process is called
photosynthesis.

The green plants derive their energy for making this food from the sunlight. This
energy is usually trapped by chlorophyll.
Popular examples of organisms that carry out or exhibit photosynthetic nutrition are
all green plants such as flowering plants, Spirogyra, Euglena, blue-green alga (nostoc)
etc.

48
ii. Chemosynthetic Nutrition: Chemosynthetic nutrition is another is another
mode of nutrition in which certain bacteria are able to synthesize organic
compounds from simple inorganic materials such as carbon (iv) oxide. Ammonia,
water or nitrite to manufacture their food. The energy used for the synthesis comes
from the oxidation of the inorganic materials or chemicals, hence the process is
called chemosynthesis. Examples of the organisms or bacteria that exhibit
chemosynthetic nutrition are:

a. Nitrosomonas which converts ammonia to nitrate.

b. Nitrobacter which converts nitrites to nitrate.

Heterotrophic Nutrition:

Thus is the type of nutrition in which organisms cannot manufacture their food but
depend directly or indirectly on plants (autotrophs) for their food.
Organisms which cannot manufacture their own food are called heterotrophs. Most
animals, fungi, protozoa and some bacteria belong to this group.

Heterotrophic nutrition is also sub-divided into the following groups or types:

1). Holozoic Nutrition: Holozoic nutrition involves the feeding on other organisms or
solid organic substances synthesised by green plants.
The organisms ingest, digest and assimilate these food into their bodies. Examples of
organisms that exhibit holozoic mode of nutrition are:
(a). Carnivores like cats, dogs, lions etc that feed on flesh.
(b). Herbivores like sheep, goat, rabbits, etc that feed on plants.
(c). Omnivores like man, pig etc that feed on both flesh and vegetables or plants.
(d.) Scavengers like vulture that feed on dead animals.

2) Parasitic Nutrition: This is the type of nutrition in which certain organisms feed
on another organism in order to derive nourishment from it. This mode of nutrition is
called parasitic nutrition while the association is called parasitism. Parasitism is an
association between two organisms, usually of different species in which one called
the parasite gains from the association while the other called the host is harmed or
suffer losses. Examples if parasites are:

49
(a.) Animal Parasites like Tapeworm (Taenia Solium), plasmodium, roundworms,
liver flukes, ticks, fleas, bugs, leeches, Aphids, body louse, guinea worm, hookworm,
etc.

(b.) Plant Parasites like Doder (Cassytha filiformis) and mistletoe. Animal parasites
are classified as endoparasites and ectoparasites.

i.) Ectoparasites: These are parasites which live on the body of their hosts. In other
words, they live outside the body of the host where they derive food and shelter from,
e.g. flea, body louse, bed bug, Aphid and tick. Ticks are usually found in cattle and
sheep. Ticks and fleas may be found on dogs, chickens and rats also carry lic on their
bodies. Aphids and cotton stainers are ectoparasites on plants.

ii). Endoparasites: These are parasites which live inside the body of their hosts such
as man and other animals. Examples include:

a). Tapeworm (Taenia Solium): Tapeworm is associated with pigs which are the
secondary host and man which is the primary host. It has a flattened tape-like body. It
has a head called scolex on which are found rostellum, hook and sucker which enable
it to fasten itself to the lining of the host’s intestine. It also has a body cuticle which
resists digestive enzymes of the host. Tapeworm has a flat body surface which ensures
a large surface area for absorption of already digested food. The entire body consists
of numerous proglottids which aids the absorption of digested food from its host.

50
b.) Liver Fluke (Fasciola hepatica): This is a small endoparasite associated with
sheep. It is common with the liver of the sheep.

c.) Filaria worm (Wucheraria bancrofti): This is another endoparasite associated

with cattle, sheep and goat. It causes elephantiasis.
d.) Roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides): This is another endoparasite commonly
found in the alimentary canal of human beings and pigs. It deprives its host of the
food which it eats.

e.) Guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis): This is an endoparasite commonly

found in the subcutaneous tissues from which it pushes out its head through a blister
caused by it on the foot or leg of its host.

3.) Saprophytic Nutrition: This is the type of nutrition in which certain organisms
called, the saprophytes feed on dead and decaying organic materials. This type of
nutrition is called saprophytism. The saprophytes, generally, can secrete enzymes
into the substrate of dead and decaying organic materials on which they grow. The
enzymes so secreted are able to digest some portions of the substrate outside the body
of the saprophyte by a process called extracellular digestion. The digested food
material on the substance is then absorbed into the body through the rhizoids.
Examples of organisms which exhibit saprophytic mode of nutrition are the fungi
such as rhizopus, mushroom, mucor, toad stool and penicillium.

4.) Symbiotic Nutrition: This is the type of nutrition in which two organisms of
different species called symbionts live together and derive nutrients or food from
each other. In this case, both organisms gain from such association and none is
harmed. This type of nutrition is called symbiotic nutrition while the association
between the two organisms in which both derive benefits is called symbiosis. Apart
from nutritional benefits, the symbionts can derive other benefits like protection,
shelter and reproduction during such association.

Examples of organisms that exhibit symbiotic nutrition are:

a.) Nitrogen fixing bacteria and root nodules of leguminous plants: An example
of a symbiotic association is the one between the nitrogen fixing bacteria, Rhizobium
spp and the root nodules of leguminous plant. The bacteria is able to fix atmospheric
nitrogen directly into the plant while the plant in turn provides shelter and food for the
bacteria.

b.) Algae and fungi in a lichen: A lichen is usually made up of two organisms, a
fungus and a unicellular alga, living closely together. The thallus or plant body of a
lichen consists mostly of fungal hyphae, with alga cells embedded in them. The alga
cells are arranged in a definite layer. The green alga manufactures food for both
plants, while the fungus protects the alga and absorbs water from the surroundings.

51
c.) Sea anemones and hermit crabs: The sea anemone is known to attach itself to
the empty shell in which the hermit crab is found. Pieces of food left by the crab are
eaten by the sea anemone while the crab obtains its benefit by way of protection
against predators that would have attacked or eaten it as the sting of the sea anemone
keep them away from the hermit crab.

d.) Termites and protozoa living in the gut: This is another example of symbiotic
nutrition. In this case, the protozoa in the gut of termite helps the termite to digest
cellulose while the termite provides protection and food for the protozoa.

5. Carnivorous or Insectivorous plants: Carnivorous or insectivorous plants are

equipped with devices for trapping, digesting and absorbing nutritive compounds
from the bodies of insects and other small organisms. They have green leaves to help
them carry out photosynthetic nutrition.
Carnivorous plants usually grow in places with little nitrogenous salts and they then

use insects or other smaller animals as their sources of nitrogen.

Examples of carnivorous or insectivorous plants are:

a.) Sundew (Drosera): The Drosera plant possesses leaves capable of forming an
organ to trap and digest insects. The upper surface of the leaf has a number of
glandular hairs or tentacles. The leaf surface is sticky as a result of digestive gland in
the plant. The ends of the tentacles secrete enzymes capable of digesting insects
caught. The presence of an insect on the leaf stimulates the leaf to fold over and turn
all the tentacles inwards. The insect gests enmeshed and caught. Secretions from the
glands then pour out and cover the insect.

b.) Bladderwort (Utricularia): These are aquatic plants without roots. Some of the
leaves are modified to form hair-like bladders. Each bladder has a trap door hinged on
only one edge, so that it can only open inward and tends to remain closed. In this
arrangement, a trapped insect finds it difficult to escape. The captured insect
eventually dies of starvation and its nutrients are then absorbed by the plant.

c.) Pitcher-plant of the Nepenthes and Sarracenia: The pitcher is formed from the
modified leaf while the whole leaf of Serracenia is modified into the pitcher plant,
only the terminal leaf of Nepenthes forms the pitcher plant.
The pitcher of Nepenthes contains a watery fluid secreted by glands in the lower

half. The wall of the rest of the pitcher above this secretion is smooth, being covered

by little waxy scales. The pitcher has a lid, whose sugary secretion attracts insects.

Once at the lid, the insect falls over the rim of the pitcher into the fluid at the

52
bottom. Enzymes secreted by the pitcher aid the digestion after which the required

nutrients are absorbed by the plant. Other examples of Carnivorous plants are:

d.) Venus-fly trap (Dionaea muscipula)

e.) The butterwort (Pinguicula).

EVALUATION

Explain the different mode of nutrition

ASSIGNMENT

 State different example of carnivorous or insectivorous plants

 What is holozoic nutrition and parasitic nutrition.

WEEK 9

GROWTH

CONTENT
 Basis of growth
 Aspects of growth, apical, axillary etc
 Regulation of growth by hormones
 Movement

GROWTH
Growth is the irreversible increase in dry mass, size and complexity of an organism
brought about by the synthesis of new protoplasm.
For growth to be effective, building up of materials (anabolism) must exceed the rate
of breaking down (catabolism).
In plants, growth is indefinite and apical while it is definite and uniform in animals.

BASIS OF GROWTH
The basis of growth involves three major phases i.e. cell division (mitosis), cell
enlargement and cell differentiation.

Life begins as a single fertilized cell, continuous as the cell divides into two daughter
cells then into four and so on. After cell division, the daughter cells increase in mass
and size (enlargement). Eventually, each cell develops into a special type of cell

53
(specialization) by changing its shape and structure to carry out a particular function.
Most specialized cells, at maturity lose their ability to divide.

CELL DIVISION
Types of Cell Division: For an embryo to grow or a tissue to regenerate, its cells
must divide. There are two types of cell division – mitosis and meiosis.

1. Meiosis: It is a form of division which brings about halving of the

chromosome number as well as interchange of genetic material between

homologous chromosomes. In animals meiosis takes place at the formation of
gametes and in diploid plants at the formation of pores.

2. Mitosis (karyokinesis): is the process in cell division by which the nucleus

divides, typically consisting of four stages and normally resulting in two new
identical daughter cell, each of which contains a complete copy of the parental
chromosomes. Tissue repair and binary fission (asexual reproduction) are
all mitotic divisions. The period between mitotic divisions is called
interphase (resting period), and mitosis itself occurs in four phases: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

During interphase the chromosomes are extended long threads that cannot be
visibly identified. The DNA of the chromosomes is replicated during this
phase, resulting in duplication of the genetic material.

During prophase the chromosomes coil up and contract, becoming short rods.
Each chromosome consists of a pair of strands, called chromatids, held
together at the centromere. At the same time the nuclear envelope disappears,
and the centriole divides and the two daughter centrioles move toward
opposite poles of the cell.

During metaphase the chromosomes move so that their centromeres are

aligned in the equatorial plane of the cell (the metaphase plate), and the
mitotic spindle forms. The mitotic spindle is formed of fibers composed of

54
 microtubules, which extend from the centrioles to the metaphase plate and to
the centromeres of the chromosomes.

During anaphase the chromatids of each chromosome separate, becoming

new daughter chromosomes, which are drawn to opposite poles of the cell by
the spindle fibers.

During telophase the daughter chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell,
where they are surrounded by two new nuclear envelopes as they begin to
uncoil and extend. During this phase, cytokinesis, division of the cytoplasm,
occurs. A furrow forms around the cell in the equatorial plane and deepens
until the two daughter cells are separated.

There are two types of cell division: (a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis

Mitosis
Mitosis is a cell division to produce two daughter cells with the same number of
chromosomes and characteristics as those of the parent cell. This cell division takes
place only in somatic cells (i.e. body cells that are not involved in the production of

55
gametes) such as skin, bone marrow and meristematic tissues in plants.
Mitotic cell division involve five main stages
a. Interphase: This is referred to as the resting stage where the chromosomes
becomes elongated and form a network of fine threads called chromatids

b. Prophase: in early prophase chromosomes become visible, nucleolus shrinks,

centrioles start moving away from each other in opposite direction and the
formation of spindle fibres begins. During the late prophase, chromosomes
become shorter, thicker and visible. Each chromosome now forms two distinct
chromatids joined by a centromere. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane
disappear entirely.

c. Metaphase: paired chromatids arrange themselves along the equator of the

spindle and are attached to the spindle at the centromere.

d. Anaphase: sister chromatids separate and start migrating to the opposite poles
of the cell and eventually reach the poles.

e. Telophase: the cell starts dividing into two by constricting at the equator,
nucleolus and nuclear membrane are reform in each daughter cell, spindle
fibres degenerates and chromosomes eventually regain their threadlike form

Importance of mitosis
a. It brings about growth, development and specialization especially in
multicellular organisms.
b. Asexual reproduction binary and multiple fissions in protozoa, budding in
yeasts are result of mitosis.
c. It ensures the diploid condition of the cells is retained from generation to
generation
d. It aids the repair of damaged cells

Life processes involved in mitosis

a. Formation of new cells in Malpighian layer of the skin
b. Production of red and white blood cells in the bone marrow
c. Healing of wounds
d. Growth in meristem
e. Binary fission

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS

MEIOSIS MITOSIS

56
 Haploid number of chromosomes Diploid number of chromosomes are
result after division formed after division

Two stage of division Only a stage of division

Four daughter cells formed Two daughter cells formed
Occur only in sex cells Occur in body or somatic cells
Exchange of genetic materials is due No crossing over as well as exchange
to crossing over of materials

Cell Enlargement: After the formation of new daughter cells, there is tendency for
them to increase in size.

Cell Differentiation: In the process of growth, the formerly undifferentiated cells

begin to grow to the extent that they start becoming specialized for a particular
function due to structural changes. Examples are organs like xylem which initial
function is to transport mineral salts and water, it start to grow lignin on its walls.
Making it to play the role of strengthening of the stem.

EVALUATION
1. Define growth
2. What is mitosis, state three importance of mitosis

ASPECTS OF GROWTH
Growth varies from one organism to another. To measure growth, the following
parameters are used:
a. Man: the dry mass is more accurate and reliable than the wet mass
b. size and length e.g. height of man
c. increase in number of cells e.g. budding in yeast cell

REGIONS OF FASTEST GROWTH IN PLANTS

The regions of fastest growth in plants are the root and stem apices. Since growth in
plants is apical, the root and stem apices can be divided into
a. Region of cell division (called the apical meritstem) brings about primary
growth of a plant

57
 b. Region of elongation
c. Region of cell maturation/specialization

REGULATION OF GROWTH BY HORMONE

Organisms produce growth hormones in small quantities which have profound

effects on other parts of their body where they are needed for some form of growth.

Examples are plant hormones like auxins, gibberellins, cytokinin, abscisic acid and
florigens which help the plants in the following:

PLANT HORMONES FUNCTION

Cell elongation, apical dominance, tropism,
Auxin lateral bud development, lateral root initiation,
fruit growth, leaf abscission and control of cell
differentiation
.

Cell elongation, apical dominance,

apical
division, flower buds, flower sex,
fruit growth,
tropism and seed germination
Gibberellin
.

Apical division and protein

synthesis, fruit growth and control
of cell differentiation in culture.

Cytokinin
Florigens Flower buds
growth

Abscisic acid Apical division and protein

stnthesis

58
Animal hormones include adrenalin, insulin, thyroxine, pituitrin, testosterone,
oestrogen, progesterone and are secreted for the following:

 During fright
 For body metabolism
 In reproductive functions
 Growth of long bones etc.

GROWTH CURVE
The growth rate of a living organism is measured using a growth a curve. The growth
pattern of man shows a sigmoid curve. The growth pattern consists of three phase:
1. Lag phase: This is the initial stage where slow growth is experienced. At this
stage, the cell is still accumulating the necessary material to begin the
process.
2. Log or exponential phase: This is the phase of rapid of rapid growth.
3. Stationary phase: This is a stage where no observable growth is
experienced.
The growth curve of insect is like a step. Each growth phase (instar) is interrupted by
a period of molting (ecdysis)

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH

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 1. External factors it include availability of nutrients, humidity, light,
temperature, PH and accumulation of metabolic products.

2. Internal factors are mainly hormones. The two major growth hormones in
plant are auxin and gibberellins. In animals, the hormones concerned with
growth are secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, thyroid gland and the
gonads. Over or under secretion of any of these hormones leads to abnormal
growth.

EVALUATION
1. How can growth be measured
2. List four external factors that can affect growth
3. Mention two growth hormones each in plants and animals

ASSIGNMENT
 Discuss the stages involved in mitotic cell division
 Outline four life processes involved in mitosis
 List four places where mitosis takes place in organisms

WEEK 10
TOPIC: EXCRETION

CONTENT/OBJECTIVE
 Definition
 Structures or Features
 Waste product of metabolism
 Forms in which waste products are excreted

EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
Excretion is the removal of waste products which are produced during metabolic
reactions. Waste products from metabolic activities are always produced by the body
and their removal is carried out by special excretory systems or organs.
However, egestion and secretion should never be confused with excretion.

Egestion is the removal of solid undigested food substances which are not by-
products of metabolism, e.g the removal of faeces from the anus.

Secretion is the production of useful substances such as enzymes and hormones by

metabolic processes in the body.

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IMPORTANCE OF EXCRETION
Waste products produced in the body by metabolic activities must not be allowed to
remain in the body because of the following reasons:
 The excretory products are harmful to the body and so must be removed
 Some are poisonous and must never be allowed to accumulate within the body
 Excretion helps to maintain water balance in the body
 Excretion also helps to maintain salt balance, e.g homeostasis in the body
 Waste products when not removed can interfere with normal metabolic
activities of the body.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM OR ORGANS OF SOME ORGANISMS

ORGANISMS EXCRETORY SYSTEMS
OR ORGANS
1 Protozoa, e.g Amoeba Contractile vacuole, by
diffusion
2 Flatworms, e.g tapeworm Flame cells
3 Annelida, e.g earthworms Nephridia
4 Insects Malphighian tubules
5 Crustaceans Green glands
6 Fishes Kidneys
7 Amphibians, e.g toad Kidneys
8 Reptiles Kidneys
9 Birds Kidneys and lungs
10 Mammals Kidneys, skin, liver, lungs
11 Flowering plants Stomata and lenticels

FORMS IN WHICH WASTE PRODUCTS ARE EXCRETED

Different excretory organs or systems have different excretory products they remove.
This depends on the complexity of the animal concerned. The excretory organs or
systems and the waste products they remove are stated in the table below.

EXCRETORY ORGANS WASTE PRODUCTS

OR SYSTEMS EXCRETED
1 Contractile vacuole Carbon dioxide, ammonia
and water
2 Flame cells Carbon dioxide, ammonia
and water
3 Nephridia Carbon dioxide,
nitrogeneous waste, urea
and water
4 Malphighian tubules Carbon dioxide, uric acid

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 and water
5 Green glands Carbon dioxide, ammonia
salts, urea and water
6 Gills Carbon dioxide, urea and
water
7 Skin Sweat containing urea, salts
and water
8 Liver Bile salts, urea and water
9 Lungs Carbon dioxide and water
vapour
10 Kidneys Urine containing urea,
salts, hormones, uric
acidand water
11 Stomata and Lenticels Carbon dioxide, oxygen
and water
12 Bark of trees Tannins, mucillage, gum,
crystals, anthocyanin,
alkaloid, resin, oil and
latex.

EXCRETION IN MAMMALS
There are four types of excretory organs used by mammals. These are; lungs, skin,
liver and kidneys. The lungs excrete water vapour and carbon dioxide, the liver
excretes bile pigments called bilirubin ( derived from the decomposition of
haemoglobin ), the skin excretes water, salts and urea through sweat while the kidney
excretes water, mineral salts, urea, uric acid and creatinine. In mammals, kidneys are
the major excretory organs.

STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY

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The mammalian kidney is a bean-shaped, reddish brown organ located in the posterior
end of the abdomen. The right kidney is slightly lower in the body than the left.
Cutting a kidney longitudinally, two distinct regions are observed; an outer cortex
and an inner medulla. Several narrow tubules called urinary tubules (nephrons) pass
through the two regions stated above. The tubules open at the tips of triangular –
shaped masses of tissues called pyramids. The pyramids open into a funnel-shaped
cavity called the pelvis. The kidney has many tiny capillaries which are branches of
the renal artery and the renal vein. The pelvis continues as ureter, a long narrow tube
connecting the kidney to the urinary bladder.
FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY
The kidney serves as the chief osmoregulator and excretory organ in the body of
mammals, performing the following functions:
a. It removes toxic wastes and harmful substances.
b. It produces heat during cold.
c. It excretes nitrogenous wastes like urea.
d. It regulates water level in the body
e. It assists to regulate pH of the body.
f. It maintains salt or ion-balance in the body.
The first three are excretory functions while the last three are osmoregulatory
functions of kidney
EVALUATION
 State 10 excretory organs and the waste product each organ excreted

 State 5 functions of kidney in man

 Explain excretion in mammals

 State 5 functions of excretion

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ASSIGNMENT
 State and explain the different types of skeleton

 State 5 functions of skeleton

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WEEK :ELEVEN
NUTRIENT CYCLING IN NATURE

CONTENT

 Carbon and Oxygen cycle ( Definition, process of cycling, importance,

carbon-oxygen balance)

 Water cycle ( Definition, process of cycling)

Definition

Nutrient Cycle is the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter back
into the production of living matter. Nutrient cycles look at how important molecules
in an ecosystem are transferred. Like energy, these nutrients are never lost from the
cycle, merely stored in a different form – be it fossil fuels, living organisms or CO2.
A very important role played by microorganisms is that they feed on dead material by
saprotrophic nutrition, and convert complex organic molecules to simple ones.

The Carbon Cycle

All life is based on carbon; it is contained in proteins, carbohydrates; indeed all
organic molecules contain carbon. So it is the most important nutrient in an
ecosystem. The carbon cycle involves several stages of carbon being fixed
(incorporated as part of) by plants from the atmosphere. This carbon is transferred to
consumers by eating, or it becomes fossil fuel in fossilisation.

Below is an example of a carbon cycle. They cycles can be represented a number of

ways, and this is just one example.

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Although much is said about rising carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, only 0.04% of
air is CO2, indeed most is in the ocean as hydrogen carbonate (HCO3-), and this is
where most photosynthesis occurs.
That isn’t to say carbon dioxide rising in the atmosphere isn’t a very important global
problem, just that it only comprises a small aspect of our atmosphere.

The Process of Carbon Cycle

The atmospheric carbon dioxide is virtually the only source of carbon which is the
basic constituent of all the organic compounds.

This gas is used by all plants in photosynthesis and the end products (organic
substances) of this complex process are used in two ways.
One fraction is used in the construction of more living matter. The carbon and oxygen
so supplied by CO2 remain in living matter until death.
Decay subsequently returns CO2 to the atmosphere, and this completes one possible
carbon cycle.
Another fraction of the organic substances is used as fuel in respiration by both plants
and animals.
This process releases CO2 as a by-product. Such CO2 may now be used in
photosynthesis again, or it may return to the environment, completing the second

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possible carbon cycle (Fig. 5.6). Thus, photosynthesis and respiration are the two
major processes that drive the global Carbon Cycle, with CO2 as the main vehicle of
flux between atmosphere, hydrosphere and biota.
The CO2 content of the atmosphere is replenished not only through biological
oxidation (respiration), but also through non-living combustion i.e., forest fires and
burning of industrial fuels release CO2 into the air. Occasionally volcanic eruptions
also add CO2 to the atmosphere.
It is clear that terrestrial plants utilize atmospheric CO2 as their carbon source for
photosynthesis, whereas aquatic plants use hydrosphere carbon i.e., dissolved
carbonates.

Oxygen Cycle

The oxygen cycle elaborates how oxygen circulates in various forms through nature.
Oxygen occurs freely in the air, trapped in the earth crust as chemical compounds, or
dissolved in water. Oxygen in the atmosphere is about 21%, and it is the second most
abundant gas after nitrogen. It is mostly utilized by living organisms, especially man
and animals in respiration. Oxygen is also the most common element of human body.
Oxygen is also used during combustion, decomposition, and oxidation. The
circulation of oxygen is through three main flow systems including the (air)
atmosphere, the biosphere, and the earth’s crust. In the oxygen cycle, the main
driving factor is photosynthesis which is the process whereby green plants and algae
make their own food by use of solar energy, water, and carbon dioxide to gives off
oxygen as a by-product.
Hence, for oxygen to remain in the atmosphere, it has to circulate through various
forms of nature which is essentially termed as the oxygen cycle. The circulation
depends on the various activities on Earth.

Process of Oxygen Cycle

The Atmosphere (air)

The atmosphere carries a small quantity of all oxygen, only about 0.35% of the entire
earth’s oxygen. In the atmosphere, oxygen is released by the process known as
photolysis. Photolysis happens when the ultraviolet radiation of sunlight breaks apart
oxygen-containing molecules such as nitrous oxide and atmospheric water to release
free oxygen. The surplus oxygen recombines with other oxygen molecules to form
ozone while the rest is freed into the atmosphere. Ozone is the layer that helps to
shield the Earth from the dangerous ultra violet rays.

Biosphere

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The biosphere carries the smallest quantity of all earth’s oxygen, about 0.01%. In the
biosphere, the major oxygen cycles are photosynthesis and respiration. In these two
processes of the oxygen cycle, it is interconnected with the carbon cycle and the water
cycle. During photosynthesis, plants and planktons use sunlight energy, water, and
carbon dioxide to make food (carbohydrates) and release oxygen as a by-product. As
such, plants and planktons are the main producers of oxygen in the ecosystem. They
take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. Plants are estimated to replace about 99%
of all the oxygen used.
On the other hand, respiration happens when humans and animals breathe in oxygen
which is used during metabolism to break down carbohydrates and exhale carbon
dioxide as a by-product. Such free carbon dioxide is then released into the
environment and is used by plants and planktons during photosynthesis to give out
molecular atmospheric oxygen, thus completing the oxygen cycle. Therefore, suffice
is to say that oxygen enters organisms in the biosphere through respiration and is
expelled through photosynthesis in a process that is interconnected with the carbon
cycle plus the water cycle.
However, the continued release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere by burning
fossil fuels and automobile pollution affects the oxygen cycle.

The Lithosphere (Earth’s Crust)

The lithosphere carries the largest quantity of all earth’s oxygen, about 99.5%,
because it is a constituent of the earth’s lands, soils, organic matter, biomass, water,
and rocks. Mostly, these constituents of the earth fix oxygen in mineral chemicals
compounds such as oxides and silicates. The process is natural and happens
automatically as the pure mineral elements absorb or react with the free oxygen. It
happens similar to the manner in which iron picks up oxygen from the air, resulting
in the formation of rust (iron oxides).
As such, during chemical reactions and some weathering processes, a portion of the
trapped oxygen in the minerals is released into the atmosphere. Also, as animals and
plants draw nutrient minerals from rocks, organic matter, or biomass, some of the
trapped oxygen is freed in the process. Dissolved oxygen is also present in water
system which is essential for the survival of aquatic life forms. As a result, these
processes combined gives rise to oxygen cycle in the biosphere and lithosphere.

Processes that Use Oxygen are

1. Respiration: When we breather, we use oxygen and release carbon dioxide.

Similarly, animals and plants also use oxygen when they breathe.

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 2. Combustion: When you burn something let’s say a paper, you need three

things for combustion to take place i.e. oxygen, fuel and heat. So, when you
burn a paper, it uses oxygen and releases carbon dioxide and may be some
other gases.

3. Decomposition: Decomposition occurs when plants and animals die. When

this happens, they decompose and such process uses oxygen and releases
carbon dioxide.

4. Rusting: When things rust, they use oxygen. This is also called as oxidation.

Processes that Produce Oxygen are

1. Plants: Plants produce oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. During

the process of photosynthesis,

Plants use carbon dioxide, sunlight, and water to create energy.
2. Sunlight: Some oxygen also gets produced when sunlight reacts with water

vapor in the atmosphere.

Water Cycle
The water cycle explains the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the
surface of the earth. It is also referred to as the Hydrological Cycle. The cycle
describes the properties of water that make it undergo the various movements on the
planet. The water cycle has nine main physical processes that create a continuous
water movement on the planet.
Intricate sequences include the transition of water from the gaseous composition of
the atmosphere; through the water bodies such as oceans, lakes, rivers; passage
through the soil, rocks and underground waters; and later returns into the
atmosphere. Simply put, the hydrological cycle has neither a beginning nor an end,
it’s an incessant process.

Process of Water Cycle

The water cycle processes involve evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
interception, infiltration, percolation, transpiration, runoff, and storage.

1. Evaporation

Evaporation takes place when water changes from its liquid state to vapor or gaseous

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state. A substantial heat amount is exchanged during the process, roughly 600 calories
of energy per gram of water. In most cases, the solar radiation and additional causes
such as the wind, vapor pressure, atmospheric pressure, and air temperature influence
the amount of natural evaporation in different geographical regions.
Evaporation occurs over the surfaces of the water bodies such as oceans, streams, and
lakes. It can also occur on raindrops, rocks, snow, soil or vegetation. When
evaporation happens, anything present in the water such as salts and minerals is left
behind. Thus, evaporation purifies the water. The evaporated moisture then rises into
the atmosphere from the evaporation sources as water vapor or in a gaseous state. At
any particular moment, some water vapor is present in the atmosphere.

2. Condensation

Condensation is the process whereby the water vapor changes from its gaseous
physical state to liquid or crystal solid. The water vapor condenses on minute air
particles due to the cooling of the air, freezing temperatures, or increased vapor
amounts to the point of saturation in the upper stratospheres.
The condensed vapor then forms fog, dew or clouds. When the condensed clouds,
dew, and fogs become too large and heavy to remain suspended in the atmosphere,
they fall back on earth as precipitation due to gravity. The 600 calories of energy per
gram of water needed during evaporations are released into the environment.

3. Precipitation

Precipitation takes place whenever any or all forms of water particles fall from the
atmosphere and reach the earth surface. Precipitation occurs when the liquid or solid
particles in the clouds, dew, and fog drops to the ground because of frictional drag and
gravity.
One falling particle leaves behind a turbulent wake, causing faster and continued
drops. The crystallized ice may reach the ground as ice pellets or snow or may melt
and change into raindrops before reaching the surface of the earth depending on the
atmospheric temperatures.
Precipitation falls on water bodies or on ground surface where it disperses in various
ways. For sometime, precipitation can remain on the surface as runoff or overland
flow. It may be carried into waterways, intercepted by plants, or infiltrate into the soil.
A good percentage of precipitation goes back to the atmosphere as evaporation.

4. Interception

Interception is whereby the water movement is interrupted in the various paths during
transportation events over the land surface. Interception takes place when the water is
absorbed by vegetation cover and trees, absorbed into the ground, or stored in puddles
and land formations such as furrows and streamlets. These waters can either infiltrate

70
into the soil or return to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration or evaporation.

5. Infiltration

Infiltration is the physical process involving the slow passage of water through the
soil. This phenomenon is influenced by the soil surface conditions such as
permeability and porosity of the soil profile. Other factors include soil texture, soil
moisture content, and soil structure. The infiltrated water is stored in the soil and can
later return to the atmosphere via evaporation.

6. Percolation

Percolation is the flow of water through the soil and rocks by the influence of
capillary and gravity forces. All water on the earth’s surface move by the forces of
gravity and capillarity to rest beneath the earth as groundwater. Once beneath the
earth, below the water table, the water mostly moves horizontally rather than
downwards based on the geologic boundary formations.
This area normally acts as reservoirs for storing water. Some geologic formations may
conduct this water back to the surface such as springs.

7. Transpiration
Transpiration is a process in all plants that normally takes place during the day, giving
off water vapor from the leaves openings. Plants transpire to move nutrients to the
upper sections of the plant and to cool the plants. Most of the water absorbed by the
plants are transpired into the atmosphere until a water deficit point is reached whereby
the plant resorts to releasing water vapor at a much slower rate. Transpiration is
important in the water cycle because plants absorb the moisture from the soil and
releases it into the atmosphere as water vapor.

8. Runoff

Runoff is the occurrence of excess water from watershed or drainage basin that flows
on the surface. The flow is as a result of precipitation above waterways, groundwater
runoff from deep percolations, subsurface runoff that infiltrates the surface soils, and
surface runoff that flows on the land surface. As the water flows, it can be used for
agricultural and domestic purposes, it may seep into the ground, stored in reservoirs
or water bodies, or evaporate into the atmosphere.

9. Storage

Storage refers to the various water reservoirs in the planetary water or hydrological

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cycle. The water is primarily stored in the atmosphere, the surface of the earth, and in
the ground. Storage in the atmosphere is in the form of water vapor. Storage on the
surface of the earth includes lakes, oceans, rivers, glaciers, and reservoirs. Storage in
the ground pertains to the soils, rock formations, and aquifers.

EVALUATION
1. explain carbon-oxygen cycles
2. Explain the process of carbon, oxygen and water cycling

ASSIGNMENT.
Read up the next topic.

GOODLUCK IN YOUR EXAM.

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