The Research Proposal

The research proposal.

 First part of the research process = the Research Proposal.

 “Ideas” document.
 Provides some light on a number of questions:
 What is the proposed research about?
 What is it trying to find out/achieve?
 How will this be done?
 What will we learn from the work?
 Is it worth learning?
 “Asking a Question”
 Research is a process that seeks to answer a question in an organised and
consistent way.
 This usually starts rather broad and narrows down to something quite specific.
 This process of narrowing is rather important as a woolly question is really difficult
to use in planning how you are going to actually go about answering it.
 There are a number of ways that you can use to go about generating a research
question.
 Obviously experience is a good one, but at this time most of you will not be in that
fortunate position.
 Elements & format of the research proposal.

1. Identify topic/ Proposed working title.

2. Research Question(s).
3. Rationale / Introduction.
 Achieved with a short literature review.
4. Aims & Objectives.
5. Possible methodology.
 Method, resources, feasibility,timeline.
6. References.
 [Link] topic

Review the literature

Identify concepts & theory Elements covered in the research proposal.

Develop/refine RQ

Consider research design

2. Potential research question.

Develop/refine RQ

 What is your RESEARCH QUESTION?

 The research question should:

 Address a need or problem.
 Be “do-able” in the timeframe available.
 Inspire your interest (both now and in the future).
 Not too general but not too narrow.
 3. Rationale / Introduction
Identify concepts & theory Review the literature

 What is the problem and why is it important? – clear assessment of the issues.
 Back this up with a “mini” literature review - summarise and critically analyse important
topics.
 Literature discussed must provide relevant information to support the research question,
the rationale for the methodology and justification for the study.
 Final paragraph is a statement of the aim(s) of the study ending in the research question
 Statement of research question most important.
 Provide logical progression from identification of the problem through to the research
question
 4. Aims & objectives.
Aims. Objectives.
➢ Broad statements of desired ➢ Steps taken to answer your research
outcome or general intentions question or specific list of tasks necessary
of research. to accomplish the goal
 “paint the picture” of your research.  Emphasise how aims are to be
accomplished
 Emphasise what is to be done, not  Must be highly focused and achievable
how it isto be done.  Address the more immediate project
 Address the long-term outcome, outcomes
reflecting the aspiration of the  Make accurate use of concepts and be
research project. precise.
 Each objective reads as an 'individual'
statement to convey your intention.
 5. Possible methodology

Overview the potential approaches for the Consider the methods?

project.  RCT.
 Experimental.  Cohort.
 Observational.  Survey.
 Qualitative.  Review.
 Library-based.  Interview/focus groups.
 Important aspects along with methodology.
 Subjects (participants).
 Method of recruitment, estimate of number and justification of sample size (power analysiswhere
applicable),randomisation,where applicable.
 Inclusion/exclusion criteria

 Feasibility.
 How “easy” is the project to undertake.
 Where are potential problem areas.

 Identification of resources and budget

 List all resources required for the project,including costs where appropriate.
 Only if funding is being pursued.

 Timetable for proposed research

 Dates for each stage of the process.
 Timelines for communication of findings in verbal,poster or written format.
 Also consider…

 Variables.
 Operational definitions of independent, dependent variables & confoundingvariables.
 Materials.
 Equipment, instruments or measurement instruments.
 Calibration, validity and reliability.
 Data Management.
 Where will the study take place.
 What are you collecting – outcome measures.
 Method of storage of data and access
 Proposed method for data analysis
 Ethical considerations
 Clear statements of ethical considerations.
 6. References

 Should start on a new page (as should each new section).

 Must contain ALL of the references contained in the text but NO
references not contained in the text
 Must follow APA reference style.

 Consider use of electronic reference tracking.

 So, to sum up…

Ask yourself 5 questions…………

1. What am I doing? Topic idea/RQ.

2. Why am I doing it? Introduction & rationale
3. What am I hoping to get out of it? Literature review.
4. How am I going to do it? Possible methodology.
5. Is it likely to work? Feasibility.
Research Ethics
 Major approaches to ethics

Deontological Approach

This approach states that we should identify and use a Universal code when
making ethical decisions. An action is either ethical or not ethical, without
exception.

Ethical skepticism

This is the relativist viewpoint, stating that ethical standards are not universal
but are relative to one's particular culture and time.
 Major approaches to ethics

Utilitarianism

This is a very practical viewpoint, stating that decisions about the

ethics of a study should depend on the balance of the consequences
and benefits for the research participants and the larger society.

The utilitarian approach is used by most people in academia (such as

Institutional Review Boards).

"Do the potential benefits outweigh the risks associated with this
research?"
Making Decisions to Maximize Benefit and Minimize
Risk

Think about the consequences of doing a given study as opposed to not

doing the study.
Consider all options and methods to find a research strategy that balances
being ethical, being practical, with the likelihood of obtaining good quality
data.
Ethical Concerns to the Research Community

1. The relationship between society and science.

Many research ideas come from areas considered important in society.

Governments and other funding agencies use grants to affect the areas
researchers choose to examine.
Ethical Concerns to the Research Community

2. Professional issues.
The primary ethical concern here is fraudulent activity by scientists. Cheating or lying are never
defensible.
Two related issues are partial publication (publishing several articles from the data collected in
one large study) and duplicate publication (publishing the same results in more than one
publication).
Partial publication is usually not unethical for large research studies where partial reports of
data are likely.
Duplicate publication is sometimes acceptable when the results are being reported to different
audiences in publications tailored to those particular audiences.
Ethical Concerns to the Research Community

3. Treatment of research participants.

This is probably the most fundamental ethical issue.

It involves ensuring that research participants are not harmed physically

or psychologically.
 How could you harm research participants?

Physically

By damaging their development or self-esteem

By causing stress

By hurting their career prospects or employment opportunities

By breaking confidentiality

By revealing their identity

 Informed Consent
This is the process of providing the research participants with information enables them
to make an informed decision as to whether they want to participate in the research
study.

State the purpose of the research and describe the procedures to be followed.

Describe any potential risks or discomforts the participant may encounter.

Describe any potential benefits from participation.

Describe extent to which results will be kept confidential.

Give a list of names the participants may contact with any questions they have.

State that participant is voluntary and that they are free to withdraw from the study at
any time.
 Invasion of privacy

Privacy is very much linked to the notion of informed consent

The research participant does not abrogate the right to privacy entirely by
providing informed consent

Covert methods are usually deemed to be violations of the privacy principle

The issue of privacy is invariably linked to issues of anonymity and

confidentiality in the research process
 Deception
Providing false information to the participant about the nature and/or purpose of
the study

Deception in Research
(a) Psychologists do not conduct a study involving deception unless they have determined that
the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study's significant prospective scientific,
educational, or applied value and that effective nondeceptive alternative procedures are not
feasible.
(b) Psychologists do not deceive prospective participants about research that is reasonably
expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress.
(c) Psychologists explain any deception that is an integral feature of the design and conduct of an
experiment to participants as early as is feasible, preferably at the conclusion of their
participation, but no later than at the conclusion of the data collection, and permit participants to
withdraw their data.
Debriefing
(a) Psychologists provide a prompt opportunity for participants to obtain
appropriate information about the nature, results, and conclusions of the research,
and they take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions that participants may
have of which the psychologists are aware.
(b) If scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this information,
psychologists take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm.
(c) When psychologists become aware that research procedures have harmed a
participant, they take reasonable steps to minimize the harm.
 Is there any good way to avoid deception?

Simulation Studies

Participants are fully informed about the nature of the

research and asked to behave “as if” they were in a

social setting of interest.

 Freedom to Withdraw

Participants must be informed that they are free to withdraw from the
study at any time without penalty.
If you have a power relationship with the participants, you must be extra
careful to make sure that they really do feel free to withdraw.
 Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct.
American Psychological Association, 2013.
Principle A states that psychologists must take care of those they work with and thus cause them no
harm.

Principle B states that psychologists must uphold professional standards of conduct.

Principle C: Integrity

Principle D states that psychologists must recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons to access
to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to equal quality in the processes, procedures
and services conducted by psychologists.

Principle E states that psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people and allow the individuals
to have privacy and confidentiality.
 There are three ways, and three ways only, to encourage
participation ethically (Senese 1997):

Anonymity: Promise and keep your promises of anonymity. After identifying your
sampling frame, try to forget about taking names or any other unique identifiers.
Reassure people that you won't go to the media. Fill them in on what journal outlet
you have planned.

Confidentiality: This is what you should promise if you can't keep anonymity. In other
words, use confidentiality if you can't guarantee anonymity. It requires that you
guarantee that no one will be individually identifiable in any way by you, that all your
tables, reports, and publications will only discuss findings in the aggregate.

Informed Consent: Be honest and fair with your subjects. Tell them everything they
want to know about your research. Be aware of any hidden power differentials that
might be pressuring them to participate.
 Writing up the research

❑ Plagiarism
❑ Fabrication and falsification
❑ Non-publication of data
❑ Faulty data-gathering procedures
❑ Poor data storage and retention
❑ Misleading authorship
❑ Sneaky publication practices
 Summary

Protect research participants from harm

Get informed consent
Be sure the study participants have not been pressured into volunteering
Collect data anonymously or keep data confidential
Submit the research proposal to a review board
Provide accurate research findings
Consider responsibilities to research colleagues and the general public
Maximize benefits and minimize risks