Prepared by: Dr MISSOUM N
CHEMISTRY-01
(Structure of matter)
Table of contents.
• Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts.
• Chapter 2: Main Constituents of Matter.
• Chapter 3: Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions.
• Chapter 4: Electronic Structure of the Atom.
• Chapter 5: Periodic Classification.
• Chapter 6: Chemical Bonds.
Introduction
• Radioactivity is the spontaneous
emission of radiation from unstable
nuclei that seek stability by releasing
energy as alpha, beta, or gamma rays.
It can be natural, occurring in
elements like uranium, or artificial,
produced by bombarding stable nuclei
to create radioactive isotopes.
• This process was first discovered by
Henri Becquerel in 1896 and later
studied extensively by Marie and
Pierre Curie..
Spontaneous Nuclear Decay (natural radioactivity)
• Radioactivity, or radioactive decay, is the spontaneous process by which an unstable atomic
nucleus (radionuclide) loses energy by emitting radiation from a heavy nuclei, driving the nucleus
toward a more stable configuration.
• Whatever the type of radiation considered, several conservation laws (Charges, Nucleons and
energy )are satisfied
Alpha decay: is a type of radioactive decay where an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle
helieum nucleus 42He
General formula: A X ----->A-4Z-2 Y + 42He(α)
Z
Example: 238 U -----> 23490Th + 42He
92
Beta decay: Beta decay is a type of radioactive decay where an unstable nucleus transforms a
neutron or proton into another particle and emits a beta particle (an electron or positron).
Types of Beta Decay:
Beta minus : A neutron changes into a proton, and an electron (β -) and an antineutrino are emitted.
General formula: A X -----> A Y + e-(β-)
Z Z+1
Example: 14 C -----> 14 N + e-
6 7
Beta plus: A proton changes into a neutron, emitting a positron (β +) and a neutrino
General formula: A X -----> A Y + e+(β +)
Z Z-1
Example: 18 F -----> 18 O + e+
9 8
Gamma decay: is a type of radioactive decay in which a nucleus emits gamma radiation
high-energy electromagnetic waves (photons). In gamma decay, The nucleus only moves from
an excited state to a lower-energy (stable) state. No particles are emitted, So mass number
(A) and atomic number (Z) do not change.
General formula: A X* -----> A X + (γ)
Z Z
Example: 60 Ni* -----> 60 Ni*+ γ
28 28
Provoked (Artificial) Radioactivity
(Nuclear Reactions)
While natural radioactivity occurs spontaneously, it is also possible to induce
radioactivity artificially. This phenomenon, known as provoked or artificial radioactivity,
was discovered in 1934 by Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie. They demonstrated that a
stable nucleus can become radioactive when bombarded with subatomic particles such
as neutrons, protons, or alpha particles. This is called Transmutation
27 Al + 42He -----> 30 P + 10n
13 15
This reaction can be written in abbreviated notation 2713 Al (α, n) 3015P
Nuclear fission: is a reaction in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two or more smaller
nuclei, releasing energy, neutrons, and gamma radiation. This process can be spontaneous or
induced by bombarding the nucleus with a neutron.
238 U + 10n -----> 14156Ba+ 9236Kr + 3 10n + Energy
92
Nuclear fusion: is the process by which two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus,
releasing a tremendous amount of energy. Fusion reactions power the Sun and other stars.
2 H + 31H -----> 42He + 10n + Energy
1
kinetics of radioactive decay:
It describes how the number of radioactive nuclei decreases over time.
Law of Radioactive Decay: Half-Life : is the time required for half of the
The rate at which a radioactive radioactive atoms in a sample to decay.
substance decays is proportional to the It is related to the decay constant by:
number of undecayed nuclei (N) present
Nt = N0/2 ….. (1)
at any given time
(1) in (*) => 1/2 = e- λ t
dN/dt = -λN => Ln (Nt /N0) = - λ t => T = Ln2/ λ
=> Nt = N0e- λ t ….(*)
Nt: number of nuclei remaining at time 𝑡
N0: initial number of nuclei at 𝑡 = 0
λ: decay constant
N=(m/M)NA => mt= m0 e- λ t
m: the mass of the nuclei
Activity (A)
The activity of a radioactive sample is the number of disintegrations per unit time:
𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁
Like 𝑁, activity also decreases exponentially with time:
𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
Activity is measured in becquerels (Bq), where
1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second (dps).
1Ci = 3.7 x 10 10 Bq = 37 GBq