🌞 Chapter 9: Ray Optics and Optical

Instruments (NCERT-Based Notes)

🔹 1. Introduction

 Light is a form of energy that enables vision.

 It shows rectilinear propagation — travels in straight lines in

homogeneous media.

 Ray Optics (Geometrical Optics): Describes propagation of light

as rays, neglecting wave effects like interference and diffraction.

🔹 2. Reflection of Light

👉 Laws of Reflection

1. The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal at the point of incidence
all lie in the same plane.

2. The angle of incidence (i) = angle of reflection (r).

👉 Plane Mirror

 Image is virtual, erect, and same size as the object.

 Image distance = object distance.

 Produces lateral inversion (left-right reversal).

👉 Spherical Mirrors

 Concave mirror: converges parallel rays.

 Convex mirror: diverges parallel rays.

Important Terms

Term Definition

Pole (P) Center of the mirror surface

Center of curvature
Center of the sphere of which the mirror is a part
(C)

Principal axis Line joining P and C

Focus (F) Point where rays parallel to principal axis meet/appear

Term Definition

to diverge

Focal length (f) Distance between P and F

Radius of curvature
Distance between P and C; R=2 f
(R)

👉 Mirror Formula
1 1 1
= +
f v u
Where:

 u: object distance

 v : image distance

 f : focal length

Sign Convention (Cartesian System):

 All distances measured from the pole (P).

 Distances along the incident light: positive.

 Opposite direction: negative.

 Heights measured upward: positive, downward: negative.

🔹 3. Refraction of Light

👉 Laws of Refraction

1. The incident ray, refracted ray, and normal lie in the same plane.

2. Given by Snell’s Law:

n1 sin ⁡i=n 2 sin ⁡r

Where n1 , n2are refractive indices of the two media.

👉 Refractive Index
c
n=
v
 c : speed of light in vacuum (3 × 10⁸ m/s)

 v : speed of light in the medium

 It shows how much the medium slows down light.

👉 Refraction through a Rectangular Slab

 When a ray passes through a glass slab, it emerges parallel to the

incident ray but is laterally displaced.

👉 Apparent Depth
Real depth
Apparent depth=
n
Example: Coin appears raised when viewed from above water.

🔹 4. Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

Occurs when:

1. Light travels from denser → rarer medium.

2. Angle of incidence > Critical angle (C).

👉 Critical Angle
n2
sin ⁡C=
n1

(where n1 >n 2)

👉 Applications of TIR

 Sparkling of diamonds.

 Mirage formation in deserts.

 Optical fibers for communication.

🔹 5. Refraction at a Spherical Surface

For a spherical refracting surface separating media of refractive indices n1

and n2 :

n2 n1 n2 −n1
− =
v u R
Where R is the radius of curvature.

🔹 6. Refraction Through a Lens

👉 Lens Types

 Convex (Converging)

 Concave (Diverging)

👉 Lens Formula
1 1 1
= −
f v u
👉 Magnification (m)
'
h v
m= =
h u
👉 Lens Maker’s Formula
1 1 1
=(n−1)( − )
f R1 R2

Where R1 , R 2are radii of curvature of lens surfaces.

🔹 7. Combination of Lenses

For two thin lenses in contact:

1 1 1
= +
f f1 f 2

Effective power:
P=P1 + P2

(where P=1 /f , focal length in meters)

🔹 8. Power of a Lens
1
P=
f (in m)

 Unit: Dioptre (D)

 Convex lens: positive power

 Concave lens: negative power

🔹 9. Refraction Through Prism

👉 Angle of Deviation (δ)

 δ=(i 1+i 2 )−A

At minimum deviation:
A +δ m
sin ( )
2
n=
A
sin( )
2

Where A = prism angle, δ m= minimum deviation angle.

🔹 10. Dispersion of Light

 Splitting of white light into its component colours (VIBGYOR).

 Caused by wavelength dependence of refractive index.

 Violet deviates most; Red least.

👉 Angular Dispersion
Δ θ=δ V −δ R

🔹 11. Optical Instruments

🧿 (a) Human Eye

 Acts as a camera with lens and retina.

 Ciliary muscles adjust focal length for near/far vision

(accommodation).

 Near point: 25 cm; Far point: ∞.

Defects of Vision:

Defect Cause Correction

Eye lens too strong / eyeball Concave

Myopia (short-sightedness)
too long lens

Hypermetropia (long- Eye lens too weak / eyeball too

Convex lens
sightedness) short

Bifocal
Presbyopia Aging → loss of flexibility
lenses

🧭 (b) Simple Microscope

  Single convex lens used for magnifying small objects.

 Magnification:
D
M =1+
f

where D=25 cm .

🔬 (c) Compound Microscope

 Two lenses: Objective (short f) and Eyepiece (large f).

 Magnification:
vo D
M= ×(1+ )
uo fe

 Provides high magnification of small objects.

🔭 (d) Astronomical Telescope

 Used to view distant objects.

 Two lenses: Objective and Eyepiece.

 Magnification (normal adjustment):

fo
M=
fe

 For relaxed eye, final image at infinity.

🔹 12. Scattering of Light

 Light is scattered by particles smaller than its wavelength.

 Rayleigh’s law:

Intensity ∝ 4
1
λ
 Explains:

o Blue colour of sky (shorter wavelengths scatter more).

o Red colour of sunset/sunrise (longer wavelengths

dominate when sun is low).
🔹 13. Important Formulas Summary

Concept Formula

1 1 1
Mirror formula = +
f v u

1 1 1
Lens formula = −
f v u

1 1 1
Lens maker’s formula =(n−1)( − )
f R1 R2

Refraction at spherical n2 n1 n2 −n1

− =
surface v u R

1
Power of a lens P=
f (m)

sin ⁡(( A +δ m)/2)

Prism (min deviation) n=
sin ⁡( A /2)

Magnification vo
M= (1+ D /f e )
(microscope) uo

fo
Magnification (telescope) M=
fe

Simple microscope M =1+ D /f

Snell’s Law n1 sin ⁡i=n 2 sin ⁡r

Concave Mirror Characteristics

The following are the qualities of a concave mirror:

Because they converge light to a single focal point, concave mirrors are
also known as converging mirrors. A magnified or virtual image is
generated when the object is put very close to the concave mirror. When
an object is put far away from a mirror, the size of the picture shrinks,
resulting in a genuine image.

Concave Mirror Image Formation

In a concave mirror, different types of images are created depending on
the distance between the mirror and the object. The object can be placed
in one of the following ways:

a. When the object is positioned at an indefinite distance

b. When the object is placed outside of the centre of curvature

c. When the object is perfectly placed on the centre of curvature

d. When the object is positioned between the principal focus and the
centre of curvature

a. When the object is on the principal focus.

f. When an object is positioned between the pole and the primary focus

Diagram of a Concave Mirror

The following is a ray diagram of concave mirrors based on the above-

mentioned object placement:

Concave Mirror’s Applications

The following are some of the applications for concave mirrors:

a. Torches, car headlights, flashlights, and searchlights all use concave
mirrors.

b. Concave mirrors are used in shaving mirrors to see a larger image of

the face.

c. Concave mirrors are also used by dentists to see a larger image of the
patient’s teeth.

d. Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight in solar

furnaces to produce heat.

2. Mirrors that are convex

The convex mirror is a curved mirror with a reflective surface that bulges
out towards the light source’s position. Convex mirrors are not utilised for
focusing light since they tend to reflect light in an outwards direction,
diverging light beams. The picture is upright, fictitious, and smaller than
the thing, but as the object approaches the mirror, it grows larger.
Diverging mirrors are another name for these mirrors.

Convex Mirror Characteristics

The following are the properties of convex mirrors:

a. Because they reflect light outwards, convex mirrors are also known as
diverging mirrors.

b. They don’t focus light on a single focal point.

c. The convex mirror always generates virtual, reduced, and erect

pictures, regardless of the distance between the item and the mirror.

Convex Mirror Image Formation

Convex mirrors always produce a virtual and upright image. The following
are the several sorts of object placement in a convex mirror:

–> When a thing is put at infinity, it is said to be infinite.

–> When an object is put between the pole and infinity, it is said to be
between the pole and infinity.

Diagram of a Convex Mirror

The following are the convex mirror ray diagrams based on the image
positioning indicated above:
Convex Mirror’s Applications

The following are some of the applications of the convex mirror:

a. Convex mirrors are commonly used in vehicles as rear-view (wing)

mirrors.

b. Convex mirrors are typically seen on the sides of automobiles, allowing

the driver to view traffic or vehicles approaching from behind.

c. We can see a considerably greater area or object in a convex mirror

than we can in a plane mirror.