EARTHQUAKE
JAYNEL E. BARZO
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
List the Compare Compare how
different types fractures and mountains
of stresses that faults and form and at
changes rock define how they what types of
are related to plate
earthquakes boundaries
1 2 3
Stress on Rocks
When plates are
pushed or pulled, the
rock is subjected to
stress. Stress can
cause a rock to change
shape or to break.
Fracture = rock breaks Fold = rock bends
due to stress without breaking
Confining Stress
▪ comes from the
weight of all the
overlying rock
▪ rock is being
pushed in from
all sides
Compression Stress
▪ squeezes rocks
together
▪ rocks fold or
fracture
▪ at convergent
boundaries
Tension Stress
▪ pulls rocks
apart
▪ rocks lengthen
or break apart
▪ at divergent
boundaries
Shear Stress
▪ rocks slide past
each other in
opposite
directions
▪ at transform
boundaries
RESPONSES
TO STRESS
Folds and
Fractures
Monocline
▪ simple
“one step“
bend in the
rock layers
Anticline
▪ fold that
arches upward
▪ rocks dip away
from the center
Syncline
▪ fold that bends
downward
▪ youngest rocks
at the center
Joint
▪ a fracture where
there is no
movement
▪ e.g. basalt rocks
in Asia with
horizontal and
vertical joints
Fault
▪ a fracture where
there is
movement
▪ e.g. San Andreas
Fault between the
Pacific and North
American plates
Normal Fault ▪ upper block of
rock (hanging
wall) moves
downward
relative to the
lower block
(footwall)
▪ e.g. divergent
plate boundary
Reverse Fault ▪ the upper
block of rock
(hanging wall)
slides over on
top of the
lower block
(footwall)
▪ e.g. convergent
plate boundary
Thrust fault is a low-angle reverse fault.
Strike-Slip Fault ▪ two blocks of
rock moves
with horizontal
motion
towards
opposite
direction
▪ e.g. transform
plate boundary
Most mountains form along plate boundaries. A few
mountains may form in the middle of a plate.
Earthquake
▪ a sudden ground
movement
▪ caused by the sudden
release of energy
stored in rocks
▪ transmitted by seismic
waves
Elastic
rebound
theory
describes
how an
earthquake
occurs.
Focus (Hypocenter)
▪ the point where the
rock ruptures
▪ below Earth’s surface
▪ ~75% of earthquakes
is in the top 10 to 15
kilometers of the
crust
Epicenter
▪ the area just above
the focus
▪ towns or cities near
the epicenter are
strongly affected
▪ shallow earthquakes
cause large damages
Nearly 95% of all earthquakes take place in plate boundaries in the
Pacific belt and Mediterranean-Asiatic belt.
The remaining 5% are scattered around other plate boundaries or as
intraplate earthquakes.
About 80% of all
earthquakes
strike around the
Pacific Ocean
basin (Pacific
Ring of Fire or
circum-Pacific
seismic belt).
About 15% of all
earthquakes take
place in the
Mediterranean-Asiatic
Belt. The convergence
is causing the Indian
Plate to run into the
Eurasian Plate.
Transform plate
boundaries
produce enormous
and deadly
earthquakes.
These quakes at
transform faults
have shallow focus
(e.g. San Andreas
Fault in California).
Ocean-Ocean
convergence
caused a magnitude
9.1 earthquake in
Japan in 2011. The
quake generated a
tsunami that
rendered 25,000
people either dead
or missing.
Ocean-Continent
convergence poses a
risk from a potentially
massive earthquake.
The subduction of
three small plates
beneath North
America produces
active volcanoes, the
Cascades.
Continent-Continent
convergence, which
created the Himalayas
mountain range, caused a
magnitude 7.7 earthquake
in Gujarat, India in 2001.
The earthquake resulted
to about 20,000 deaths,
with many more people
injured or made homeless.
Intraplate
earthquakes are
caused by stresses
within a plate. An
example of this is
the intraplate
magnitude 5.8
earthquake near
Mineral, Virginia in
2011.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Explain how EQ Describe how
waves provide tsunamis are
information about caused by
the interior of the earthquakes
earth
1 2
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Explain the Explain how to find
information an earthquake
seismograms epicenter
provide
3 4
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Identify an Identify Explain how
earthquake earthquake earthquake
focus and its zones and what waves provide
epicenter makes some information
regions prone about the Earth
to earthquakes interior
5 6 7
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Describe how Explain the Explain how to
tsunamis are information find an
caused by seismograms earthquake
earthquakes provide epicenter
8 9 10
Are seismic waves like ocean waves?
Yes, in some ways.
Seismic Waves
energy from earthquakes
move outward in all directions away
from the source (focus)
travels at different speeds in different
materials/medium
All seismic
waves travel
through rock,
but not all
travel
through
liquid or gas.
Wave Structure
WAVELENGTH
WAVELENGTH
Crest – high point of a wave
WAVELENGTH
Trough – low point of a wave
WAVELENGTH
Amplitude – height of a wave from the center
line to its crest (or trough)
WAVELENGTH
Wavelength – horizontal distance from crest
to crest (or trough to trough)
Types of Seismic Waves
travel through the Earth’s
BODY interior; away from the focus
WAVES
causes sharp jolts
travel along the ground
SURFACE surface; away from epicenter
WAVES
causes rolling motions
Body Waves
Primary waves
(P-waves)
Secondary waves
(S-waves)
Primary (P) Waves
faster (~6 to 7 kilometers/second)
first to reach a seismometer
squeeze and release rocks as it travels
travel through solids, liquids, and gases
Primary (P) Waves
Secondary (S) Waves
slower (~3.5 kilometers/second)
second to reach a seismometer
move up and down and change the
rock’s shape as it travels
travel through solids only
Secondary (S) Waves
S-waves can’t pass in the P-waves can travel in the
liquid outer core crust, mantle, and core
P-waves can travel in the
Refraction crust, mantle, and core
Surface Waves
Love waves
Rayleigh waves
slowest of all
seismic waves
(2.5 km/s)
Love Waves
move side-to-side
named after A. E. H. Love
Rayleigh Waves
rolling motion as it move up & backward
named after Lord Rayleigh
Tsunami
Tsunami
Earthquakes can
cause tsunamis. It
can also be caused
by meteorite impact,
landslide, or a
nuclear explosion.
Tsunami Formation
1
1 The movement of the crust displaces water.
2
2 The displacement forms a set of waves.
3
3 The tsunami waves grow in size.
3 4
4
The waves are compressed and pushed
upward by the shore.
3 4 5
5
Tsunamis grow to enormous wave heights
and cause destruction and loss of life.
Measuring Seismic Waves
Seismic waves are
measured on a
seismograph. A
seismograph is a
machine that records
seismic waves.
Measuring Seismic Waves
Seismographs create
a seismogram. A
seismogram is a paper
record of the seismic
waves received by a
seismograph.
Measuring Seismic Waves
Modern seismometers
record ground motions
using electronic motion
detectors and keep digital
data on a computer.
Earthquake Magnitude Scale
Intensity
A measure of an
earthquake based on
the effects of the
shaking on people,
manmade structures,
and landscape.
Mercalli Scale
It describes earthquake
intensity in terms of
what people felt and the
damage that was done
to buildings.
Magnitude
A measure of an
earthquake based on
the energy released
during the quake
Richter Magnitude Scale
It measures the
magnitude of an
earthquake's
largest jolt of energy
using the height of
the seismic waves.
Richter Magnitude Scale
It is logarithmic. The
height of the largest
wave of magnitude 5
quake is 10 times that
of a magnitude 4 quake
and 100 times that of a
magnitude 3 quake.
Moment Magnitude Scale
It measures the total
energy released by an
earthquake using the
length of the fault
break and the
distance the ground
moves along the fault.
Predicting Earthquakes
❑ Predicting Where
Earthquakes take place
at plate boundaries.
Earthquakes tend to
happen where they’ve
happened before.
Predicting Earthquakes
❑ Predicting When
Earthquakes should
occur at regular
intervals. But, so far,
scientists cannot predict
when quakes will occur.
Earthquake Signs
❑ Foreshocks – small quakes
before a major quake
❑ Ground tilting – caused by
buildup of stress in the rocks
❑ Water fluctuation – water
levels in wells may fluctuate
Staying Safe in an Earthquake
Before the Earthquake
1 •No heavy objects in high places
2 •Bolt heavy furniture onto walls
3 •Prepare an earthquake kit with 3-day supply
4 •Prepare first aid kit and learn basic first aid
5 •Create in advance an evacuation plan
During the Earthquake
1 •Get under a sturdy table, cover, and hold on
2 •Stay away from windows, mirrors and furniture
3 •Get outside of an unsafe building ASAP
4 •Run to an open area away from building/tree
5 •Stay in the car and stay away from structures
After the Earthquake
1 •Beware of aftershocks
2 •Avoid dangerous areas like hillsides
3 •Turn off water and power at home
4 •Wait for help or instructions
5 • Assist others as necessary
Measuring Seismic Waves
Seismograms show
an earthquake’s
strength, length, and
distance. Wave height
is used to determine
the magnitude of the
earthquake.
Measuring Seismic Waves
Seismograms
show the different
arrival times of
the seismic waves
(P-waves, then the
S-waves, followed
by surface waves).
Finding the Epicenter
The longer the time is
between the P-and S-
wave arrivals, the
farther away the
earthquake was from
the seismograph.
Finding the Epicenter
If a quake is near,
S-waves arrive
shortly after the
P-waves. If it is
far, P-waves
arrive long before
the S-waves.
Triangulation Method
Seismologists try to
determine the location
of the epicenter using
the distances to the
epicenter from at least
three seismographs.