Comprehensive Physics Notes

Fundamental Concepts in Physics

Table of Contents
1. Mass, Density, and Specific Gravity
2. Weight and Force

3. Pressure
4. Torque

5. Electric Field
6. Magnetic Field and Magnetic Lines of Force
7. Electromagnetic Force and Induced EMF

8. Temperature, Humidity, and Pressure

9. Pascal's Law

10. Gravitational Force and Acceleration due to Gravity

11. Principle of Moments and Levers
12. Archimedes's Principle and Buoyancy

13. Hooke's Law

14. Ohm's Law

15. Thermometry and Thermal Expansion

16. Electrical Energy

1. MASS, DENSITY, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

1.1 Mass
Definition: Mass is the measure of the amount of matter in an object. It is a scalar quantity and remains
constant regardless of location.

Key Points:

Mass is an intrinsic property of matter

SI Unit: kilogram (kg)

Does not change with location (same on Earth, Moon, or in space)

Related to inertia - resistance to change in motion
Types of Mass:

1. Inertial Mass: Resistance to acceleration when force is applied (F = ma)

2. Gravitational Mass: Response to gravitational force

Measurement:

Balance scales
Electronic balances
Triple beam balance

Important Concepts:

Mass is conserved in chemical reactions (Law of Conservation of Mass)

Mass and energy are related: E = mc² (Einstein's equation)

1.2 Density
Definition: Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.

Formula:

ρ = m/V

Where:
ρ (rho) = density
m = mass
V = volume

SI Unit: kg/m³ (also commonly used: g/cm³)

Key Properties:

Intensive property (doesn't depend on amount)

Temperature-dependent (generally decreases with increasing temperature)

Pressure-dependent for gases

Density of Common Substances:

Water: 1000 kg/m³ or 1 g/cm³

Air (at STP): 1.29 kg/m³

Ice: 917 kg/m³

Iron: 7870 kg/m³

Gold: 19,300 kg/m³
 Mercury: 13,600 kg/m³

Wood (oak): 600-900 kg/m³

Applications:

Determining purity of substances

Ship design (floatation)

Hot air balloons

Separation of mixtures

Quality control in manufacturing

Factors Affecting Density:

1. Temperature: Higher temperature → Lower density (generally)

2. Pressure: Higher pressure → Higher density (especially for gases)

3. Composition: Different materials have different atomic arrangements

Relative Density vs Absolute Density:

Absolute density: Actual density value

Relative density: Ratio compared to a reference (usually water)

1.3 Specific Gravity

Definition: Specific gravity (also called relative density) is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density
of a reference substance (usually water at 4°C).

Formula:

Specific Gravity = ρ_substance / ρ_reference

For liquids and solids:

SG = ρ_substance / ρ_water

Where ρ_water = 1000 kg/m³ or 1 g/cm³

Key Characteristics:

Dimensionless quantity (no units)

Same numerical value in any unit system

Indicates whether substance floats or sinks in reference fluid

Interpretation:
 SG < 1: Substance floats on water (less dense)

SG = 1: Neutral buoyancy

SG > 1: Substance sinks in water (more dense)

Examples:

Cork: SG ≈ 0.24 (floats)

Ice: SG ≈ 0.917 (floats)

Gasoline: SG ≈ 0.7 (floats)

Mercury: SG ≈ 13.6 (sinks)

Lead: SG ≈ 11.3 (sinks)

Measurement Methods:

1. Hydrometer Method:
Floating device with graduated scale

Used for liquids

Direct reading of specific gravity

2. Pycnometer Method:
Precise volume container

Weighing method
High accuracy

3. Displacement Method:
Based on Archimedes's principle

For irregular solids

SG = Weight in air / (Weight in air - Weight in water)

Applications:

Battery acid testing (car batteries)

Quality control in beverages (alcohol content)

Petroleum industry (API gravity)

Medical diagnosis (urine specific gravity)

Gemstone identification

Soil analysis

Specific Gravity vs Density:

Density has units; specific gravity is dimensionless

 Specific gravity easier for quick comparisons

Density provides absolute measure

2. WEIGHT AND FORCE

2.1 Force
Definition: Force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from its interaction with another object. Force can
cause acceleration or deformation.

Newton's Laws of Motion:

First Law (Law of Inertia): An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion with
constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force.

Second Law:

F = ma

Where:
F = Force (Newtons, N)
m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m/s²)

Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Types of Forces:

1. Contact Forces:
Normal force

Friction force

Tension force

Applied force

Air resistance

Spring force

2. Non-Contact Forces (Field Forces):

Gravitational force

Electromagnetic force

Nuclear forces (strong and weak)

Characteristics of Force:
 Vector quantity (has magnitude and direction)

SI Unit: Newton (N)

1 N = 1 kg⋅m/s²

Can be represented by arrows in diagrams

Force Calculations:

Net Force: Vector sum of all forces

Balanced forces: Net force = 0, no acceleration

Unbalanced forces: Net force ≠ 0, acceleration occurs

Free Body Diagrams:

Representation showing all forces acting on an object

Essential for problem-solving

Shows magnitude and direction of each force

2.2 Weight
Definition: Weight is the force exerted on an object due to gravity.

Formula:

W = mg

Where:
W = Weight (N)
m = mass (kg)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)

Key Points:

Weight is a force, hence a vector quantity

Direction: Always toward the center of Earth

SI Unit: Newton (N)

Weight varies with location (depends on g)

Weight vs Mass:
 Mass Weight

Amount of matter Force due to gravity

Scalar quantity Vector quantity

Constant everywhere Varies with location

Unit: kilogram (kg) Unit: Newton (N)

Measured with balance Measured with spring scale

 

Variation of Weight:

On Earth's surface: g ≈ 9.8 m/s²

On Moon: g ≈ 1.6 m/s² (1/6 of Earth)

On Mars: g ≈ 3.7 m/s²

In space: Weightlessness (g ≈ 0)

At Earth's poles: Slightly higher than at equator

Apparent Weight:

Weight felt in accelerating reference frames

In elevator going up: Apparent weight increases

In elevator going down: Apparent weight decreases

In free fall: Apparent weight = 0 (weightlessness)

Applications:

Engineering design (structural loads)

Sports (weight classes)

Aerospace (payload calculations)

Medical (body weight monitoring)

Gravitational Weight Formula (Universal):

W = GMm/r²

Where:
G = Universal gravitational constant
M = Mass of planet/celestial body
m = Mass of object
r = Distance from center of body
3. PRESSURE

3.1 Definition and Basic Concepts

Definition: Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area.

Formula:

P = F/A

Where:
P = Pressure
F = Force (perpendicular to surface)
A = Area

SI Unit: Pascal (Pa)

1 Pa = 1 N/m²

1 kPa = 1000 Pa

1 MPa = 1,000,000 Pa

Other Common Units:

Atmosphere (atm): 1 atm = 101,325 Pa

Bar: 1 bar = 100,000 Pa

Millimeters of mercury (mmHg): 1 atm = 760 mmHg

Pounds per square inch (psi): 1 atm = 14.7 psi

3.2 Types of Pressure

1. Atmospheric Pressure:

Pressure exerted by the weight of atmosphere

At sea level: ~101,325 Pa (1 atm)

Decreases with altitude

Measured with barometer

2. Gauge Pressure:

Pressure relative to atmospheric pressure

P_gauge = P_absolute - P_atmospheric

Used in tire pressure, blood pressure measurements

3. Absolute Pressure:
 Total pressure including atmospheric

P_absolute = P_gauge + P_atmospheric

Reference: Perfect vacuum (0 Pa)

4. Hydrostatic Pressure:

Pressure due to fluid column

Formula: P = ρgh
ρ = fluid density

g = acceleration due to gravity

h = depth/height of fluid column

3.3 Pressure in Fluids

Characteristics:

Pressure acts in all directions equally

Increases with depth

Same at all points at same horizontal level

Independent of container shape

Pressure at Depth:

P = P₀ + ρgh

Where:
P₀ = Surface pressure (atmospheric)
ρ = Fluid density
g = Gravitational acceleration
h = Depth below surface

Applications:

Hydraulic systems
Pneumatic systems

Scuba diving (pressure increases with depth)

Aviation (cabin pressurization)

Weather forecasting

3.4 Pressure Measurement Devices

1. Barometer:
 Measures atmospheric pressure

Types: Mercury barometer, aneroid barometer

Used in weather prediction

2. Manometer:

Measures gauge pressure

U-tube design
Used in laboratories and industry

3. Pressure Gauges:

Bourdon tube gauge

Digital pressure sensors

Diaphragm gauges

3.5 Important Concepts

Pressure Distribution:

In static fluids: Pressure same at same depth

In moving fluids: Bernoulli's principle applies

Effects of Pressure:

Compression of gases

Deformation of solids

Boiling point changes (with pressure)

Melting point changes

Pressure and Temperature (Gases):

Gay-Lussac's Law: P/T = constant (constant volume)

Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT

Safety Considerations:

Pressure vessels must be properly designed

Over-pressurization can cause explosions

Pressure relief valves essential
4. TORQUE

4.1 Definition
Torque (Moment of Force): The rotational equivalent of linear force. It's the tendency of a force to rotate an
object about an axis.

Formula:

τ = r × F = rF sin(θ)

Where:
τ (tau) = Torque
r = Distance from axis of rotation (lever arm)
F = Applied force
θ = Angle between r and F

For perpendicular force:

τ = rF (when θ = 90°)

SI Unit: Newton-meter (N⋅m)

Note: Although N⋅m equals Joule dimensionally, torque is NOT energy. We keep the units separate to maintain
physical distinction.

4.2 Characteristics
Vector Nature:

Torque is a vector quantity

Direction determined by right-hand rule

Magnitude and direction both important

Right-Hand Rule:

Point fingers in direction of r

Curl them toward F

Thumb points in direction of torque vector

Sign Convention:

Counterclockwise rotation: Positive torque

Clockwise rotation: Negative torque
4.3 Factors Affecting Torque

1. Magnitude of Force:

Greater force → Greater torque

Linear relationship

2. Lever Arm (Distance):

Greater distance → Greater torque

Perpendicular distance matters most

3. Angle of Application:

Maximum torque at 90°

Zero torque when force parallel to lever arm

τ = rF sin(θ)

4.4 Net Torque and Equilibrium

Net Torque:

τ_net = Σ τ = τ₁ + τ₂ + τ₃ + ...

Rotational Equilibrium:

Occurs when net torque = 0

Object doesn't rotate or rotates at constant angular velocity

Condition: Στ = 0

Static Equilibrium: Both conditions must be met:

1. ΣF = 0 (no linear acceleration)

2. Στ = 0 (no angular acceleration)

4.5 Applications
Everyday Examples:

Opening doors (apply force far from hinges)

Using wrenches (longer wrench = more torque)

Seesaws and balance beams

Steering wheels
Screwdrivers
 Pedaling bicycles

Engineering Applications:

Motor design (engine torque)

Gear systems

Robotics (joint actuators)

Construction (bolt tightening)

Torque in Machines:

Power = Torque × Angular velocity

P = τω

Important in rotational machinery

4.6 Relationship to Angular Acceleration

Newton's Second Law for Rotation:

τ = Iα

Where:
τ = Net torque
I = Moment of inertia
α = Angular acceleration

This is analogous to F = ma for linear motion.

Moment of Inertia:

Rotational equivalent of mass

Depends on mass distribution

I = Σ mr² for discrete masses

4.7 Problem-Solving Tips

Steps:

1. Choose axis of rotation

2. Calculate lever arm for each force

3. Determine sign (clockwise or counterclockwise)

4. Sum all torques

5. Apply equilibrium conditions if applicable
Common Mistakes to Avoid:

Using total distance instead of perpendicular distance

Forgetting to include all forces

Sign errors in direction

Confusing torque with work/energy

5. CONCEPT OF ELECTRIC FIELD

5.1 Electric Charge

Fundamental Property:

Two types: Positive and negative

Like charges repel; unlike charges attract

Quantized in multiples of elementary charge (e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C)

Conserved quantity

Unit: Coulomb (C)

Coulomb's Law:

F = k(q₁q₂)/r²

Where:
F = Electrostatic force
k = Coulomb's constant = 9 × 10⁹ N⋅m²/C²
q₁, q₂ = Charges
r = Distance between charges

5.2 Electric Field Definition

Definition: An electric field is a region of space around a charged object where another charge would
experience an electric force.

Electric Field Strength (Intensity):

E = F/q

Where:
E = Electric field strength (N/C or V/m)
F = Force on test charge
q = Test charge (small positive charge)
Electric Field due to Point Charge:

E = kQ/r²

Where:
Q = Source charge
r = Distance from charge

5.3 Properties of Electric Field

Vector Nature:

Has magnitude and direction

Direction: Direction of force on positive test charge

Points away from positive charges

Points toward negative charges

Superposition Principle:

Net field = vector sum of individual fields

E_total = E₁ + E₂ + E₃ + ...

Units:

Newton per coulomb (N/C)

Volt per meter (V/m)
Both are equivalent

5.4 Electric Field Lines

Characteristics:

1. Start on positive charges, end on negative charges

2. Never cross each other

3. Density indicates field strength (closer = stronger)

4. Tangent to line gives field direction

5. Perpendicular to conductor surfaces

Patterns:

Point charge: Radial lines

Dipole: Lines from + to -

Parallel plates: Uniform field (straight parallel lines)

Uniform Electric Field:

Constant magnitude and direction

Between parallel charged plates

E = V/d (V = voltage, d = separation)

5.5 Electric Field in Different Configurations

1. Point Charge:

E = kQ/r²
Radial field

Decreases as 1/r²

2. Electric Dipole:

Two equal and opposite charges

Field strongest near charges

Complex field pattern

3. Charged Sphere:

Outside: Acts like point charge at center

Inside (hollow): E = 0
Inside (solid): E increases linearly with r

4. Infinite Line of Charge:

E = λ/(2πε₀r)

Field perpendicular to line

λ = linear charge density

5. Infinite Sheet of Charge:

E = σ/(2ε₀)

Uniform field
Independent of distance

σ = surface charge density

5.6 Applications
Practical Uses:

Capacitors (energy storage)

 Electric motors and generators
Particle accelerators

Cathode ray tubes

Photocopiers and laser printers

Air purifiers (electrostatic precipitators)

Lightning rods

Shielding:

Conductors shield interior from external fields

Faraday cage principle

Used in sensitive electronics

5.7 Energy in Electric Fields

Electric Potential Energy:

U = kq₁q₂/r

Work Done by Electric Field:

W = qEd (for uniform field)

Relationship to Voltage:

V = E⋅d (uniform field)

Voltage is work per unit charge

6. MAGNETIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE

6.1 Magnetism Basics

Fundamental Concepts:

Magnetic poles always exist in pairs (dipoles)

No magnetic monopoles observed in nature

Like poles repel; unlike poles attract

Magnetic materials: Iron, cobalt, nickel (ferromagnetic)

Types of Magnetic Materials:

 1. Ferromagnetic: Strongly attracted (iron, nickel, cobalt)

2. Paramagnetic: Weakly attracted (aluminum, platinum)

3. Diamagnetic: Weakly repelled (copper, gold, water)

6.2 Magnetic Field Definition

Definition: A magnetic field is a region of space where a magnetic force can be detected.

Symbol: B (magnetic flux density or magnetic induction)

SI Unit: Tesla (T)

1 T = 1 Wb/m² (Weber per square meter)

1 T = 1 kg/(A⋅s²)
Also used: Gauss (G), where 1 T = 10,000 G

Magnetic Field Strength:

F = qvB sin(θ)

Where:
F = Magnetic force on moving charge
q = Charge
v = Velocity
B = Magnetic field strength
θ = Angle between v and B

6.3 Sources of Magnetic Fields

1. Permanent Magnets:

Natural (lodestone) or artificial

Produce constant magnetic field

Result from aligned atomic magnetic moments

2. Electric Currents:

Moving charges create magnetic fields

Current in wire produces circular field

Electromagnets (temporary magnets)

3. Magnetic Field due to Current-Carrying Wire:

 B = (μ₀I)/(2πr)

Where:
μ₀ = Permeability of free space = 4π × 10⁻⁷ T⋅m/A
I = Current
r = Distance from wire

4. Magnetic Field inside Solenoid:

B = μ₀nI

Where:
n = Number of turns per unit length
I = Current

6.4 Magnetic Lines of Force (Magnetic Field Lines)

Definition: Imaginary lines used to represent the magnetic field visually.

Properties:

1. Direction: From North pole to South pole (outside magnet)

2. From South to North inside the magnet (closed loops)

3. Never cross each other

4. Density indicates field strength (closer = stronger)

5. Tangent at any point gives field direction

6. Form closed loops (unlike electric field lines)

Patterns:

Bar Magnet:

Lines emerge from North pole

Curve around and enter South pole

Strongest near poles

Weakest in the middle

Current-Carrying Wire:

Concentric circles around wire

Direction: Right-hand thumb rule

Thumb: Current direction

 Fingers: Field direction

Solenoid:

Similar to bar magnet

Uniform field inside

Field lines parallel inside, spread outside

Two Parallel Currents:

Same direction: Attract

Opposite direction: Repel

6.5 Right-Hand Rules

For Straight Wire:

Thumb points in current direction

Fingers curl in field direction

For Solenoid:

Fingers curl in current direction

Thumb points to North pole

For Force on Moving Charge:

Fingers: Field direction

Thumb: Velocity (positive charge)

Palm push: Force direction

6.6 Magnetic Force

On Moving Charge:

F = qvB sin(θ)
Vector form: F = q(v × B)

On Current-Carrying Wire:
 F = BIL sin(θ)

Where:
B = Magnetic field
I = Current
L = Length of wire in field
θ = Angle between wire and field

Lorentz Force (Combined Electric and Magnetic):

F = q(E + v × B)

6.7 Applications
Practical Uses:

Electric motors (force on current)

Generators (induced current)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Magnetic levitation trains (Maglev)
Particle accelerators

Compass navigation
Computer hard drives

Magnetic locks and sensors

Speakers and microphones

Earth's Magnetic Field:

Acts like giant bar magnet

Protects from solar wind

Used for navigation

Magnitude: ~25-65 μT

Magnetic declination varies by location

6.8 Magnetic Flux

Definition: Total magnetic field passing through a surface.

Formula:
 Φ = BA cos(θ)

Where:
Φ (Phi) = Magnetic flux
B = Magnetic field
A = Area
θ = Angle between field and normal to surface

Unit: Weber (Wb)

1 Wb = 1 T⋅m²

Gauss's Law for Magnetism:

Total flux through closed surface = 0

∮ B⋅dA = 0
Confirms no magnetic monopoles

7. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE AND INDUCED EMF

7.1 Electromagnetic Induction

Discovery: Michael Faraday (1831) discovered that changing magnetic fields induce electric currents.

Fundamental Principle: A changing magnetic flux through a conductor induces an electromotive force (EMF)
and current.

Key Conditions for Induction:

1. Conductor must be in magnetic field

2. Relative motion between field and conductor

3. Or time-varying magnetic field

7.2 Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Statement: The induced EMF in a closed loop equals the negative rate of change of magnetic flux through the
loop.

Mathematical Form:
 ε = -dΦ/dt

For N turns:
ε = -N(dΦ/dt)

Where:
ε = Induced EMF (volts)
N = Number of turns
Φ = Magnetic flux (Wb)
t = Time

Induced EMF in Moving Conductor:

ε = BLv

Where:
B = Magnetic field strength
L = Length of conductor
v = Velocity perpendicular to B

7.3 Lenz's Law

Statement: The direction of induced current is such that it opposes the change that caused it.

Explanation:

Induced current creates magnetic field

This field opposes the change in original flux

Conservation of energy principle
Negative sign in Faraday's law

Applications:

Determines direction of induced current

Eddy current braking

Metal detectors

Examples:

Magnet approaching coil: Induced field repels

Magnet leaving coil: Induced field attracts

Always opposes the motion causing it

7.4 Ways to Induce EMF
1. Moving Conductor in Magnetic Field:

Linear motion through field

Rotation in field (generators)

2. Moving Magnet near Conductor:

Approaching or receding magnet

Changing distance

3. Changing Magnetic Field:

Varying current in nearby coil

Transformers principle

4. Changing Area of Loop:

Expanding or contracting coil

Rotating coil changes effective area

5. Changing Orientation:

Rotating coil in magnetic field

Angle between field and normal changes

7.5 Self-Induction and Mutual Induction

Self-Induction:

Change in current in coil induces EMF in same coil

Opposes the change in current
Inductance (L) measures this property

Formula:

ε = -L(dI/dt)

Where:
L = Self-inductance (Henry, H)
I = Current

Mutual Induction:

Current change in one coil induces EMF in nearby coil

 Basis of transformers

Formula:

ε₂ = -M(dI₁/dt)

Where:
M = Mutual inductance (Henry, H)

7.6 Eddy Currents

Definition: Circular currents induced in conductors when exposed to changing magnetic fields.

Characteristics:

Produce heat (I²R losses)

Create opposing magnetic field
Occur in conducting materials

Applications:

Useful:

Induction heating
Metal detectors
Speedometers

Magnetic braking systems

Unwanted (minimized by):

Laminated cores in transformers

Using ferrite cores

Slotted designs

7.7 Applications of Electromagnetic Induction

1. Electric Generators:

Convert mechanical → electrical energy

Rotating coil in magnetic field

AC or DC generators

2. Transformers:

Change AC voltage levels

 Mutual induction between coils
Power transmission efficiency

3. Induction Motors:

Rotating magnetic field

No physical commutator needed

Most common AC motor

4. Inductors:

Energy storage in circuits

Filter circuits

Timing applications

5. Wireless Charging:

Inductive power transfer

Used in smartphones, electric vehicles

Resonant induction

6. Electromagnetic Flowmeters:

Measure conductive fluid flow

Based on Faraday's law

7. Metal Detectors:

Eddy currents in metal objects

Security and treasure hunting

8. Magnetic Card Readers:

Read magnetic stripe data

ATMs, credit card terminals

7.8 Energy Considerations

Energy Stored in Inductor:
 U = (1/2)LI²

Where:
U = Energy (Joules)
L = Inductance (H)
I = Current (A)

Power in Inductive Circuit:

Power dissipated as heat

Reactive power in AC circuits

Phase shift between voltage and current

7.9 AC vs DC Induction
AC (Alternating Current):

Continuously changing, continuous induction

Transformers work only with AC
Easier to generate and transmit

DC (Direct Current):

Only changing current induces EMF

No induction with steady DC

Motors can use DC with commutators

8. BASIC CONCEPTS OF TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, AND PRESSURE

8.1 Temperature
Definition: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.

Temperature Scales:

1. Celsius (°C):

Water freezes: 0°C

Water boils: 100°C (at 1 atm)
Common in most countries

2. Fahrenheit (°F):

Water freezes: 32°F

 Water boils: 212°F
Used primarily in USA

3. Kelvin (K):

Absolute temperature scale

0 K = Absolute zero (-273.15°C)

SI unit for temperature
No negative values

Conversion Formulas:

°C to °F: F = (9/5)C + 32
°F to °C: C = (5/9)(F - 32)
°C to K: K = C + 273.15
K to °C: C = K - 273.15

Key Concepts:

Thermal Equilibrium:

No net heat flow between objects

Both at same temperature

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Absolute Zero:

Lowest possible temperature: 0 K

Particles have minimum kinetic energy

Unattainable in practice

Temperature vs Heat:

Temperature: Measure of average kinetic energy

Heat: Transfer of thermal energy

Heat flows from high to low temperature

Measurement Devices:

Mercury thermometer

Alcohol thermometer

Digital thermometer
Thermocouple
 Infrared thermometer
Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

8.2 Humidity
Definition: Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air.

Types of Humidity:

1. Absolute Humidity:

Mass of water vapor per unit volume of air

Unit: g/m³
Temperature-independent measure

2. Relative Humidity (RH):

Ratio of actual water vapor to maximum possible at that temperature

Expressed as percentage
Most commonly used

Formula:

RH = (Actual vapor pressure / Saturation vapor pressure) × 100%

Or:

RH = (Actual water content / Maximum water content at that temp) × 100%

3. Specific Humidity:

Mass of water vapor per unit mass of air

Unit: kg/kg or g/kg

Used in meteorology

Dew Point:

Temperature at which air becomes saturated

Water vapor begins to condense
Higher dew point = more moisture

Can't exceed current temperature

Factors Affecting Humidity:

 1. Temperature (warm air holds more moisture)
2. Pressure

3. Proximity to water bodies

4. Weather patterns

Effects of Humidity:

Comfort level (human body cooling)

Weather and precipitation

Corrosion rates
Static electricity

Preservation of materials
Agricultural productivity

Measurement:

Hygrometer: Measures relative humidity

Psychrometer: Wet and dry bulb thermometers

Digital humidity sensors

Hair tension hygrometer

Comfortable Range:

Indoor: 30-50% RH
Too low: Dry skin, static, respiratory issues

Too high: Mold growth, discomfort

8.3 Pressure (Atmospheric)

Atmospheric Pressure: Weight of air column above a point.

Standard Atmospheric Pressure:

At sea level: 101,325 Pa (1 atm)

Equals: 760 mmHg, 1.01325 bar, 14.7 psi

Variation with Altitude:

 P ≈ P₀ e^(-h/H)

Where:
P₀ = Sea level pressure
h = Height above sea level
H ≈ 8.5 km (scale height)

Effects:

Decreases exponentially with altitude

Affects boiling point of water

Impacts oxygen availability

Weather patterns and wind

Barometric Pressure and Weather:

High pressure: Generally clear, fair weather

Low pressure: Clouds, precipitation likely

Pressure gradients create wind

Measurement:

Barometer (mercury or aneroid)

Weather stations
Aircraft altimeters

8.4 Interrelationships
Temperature-Humidity-Pressure Connections:

1. Temperature and Humidity:

Warm air holds more moisture

Relative humidity decreases as temperature rises (constant moisture)
Air conditioning removes both heat and moisture

2. Temperature and Pressure:

Gay-Lussac's Law: P ∝ T (constant volume)

Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT

Heating increases pressure (closed container)

3. Humidity and Pressure:

 Water vapor affects air pressure
Humid air is less dense than dry air

Affects weather systems

Comfort Index:

Heat Index combines temperature and humidity

Feels-like temperature
Important for health warnings

Applications:

HVAC systems design

Weather forecasting
Aviation safety
Agricultural planning

Industrial processes
Food storage

Museum preservation

9. PASCAL'S LAW

9.1 Statement and Definition

Pascal's Law (Principle of Transmission of Fluid Pressure):

"Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions throughout the fluid and acts
perpendicular to the containing surfaces."

Mathematical Expression:

P₁ = P₂

or

F₁/A₁ = F₂/A₂

Where:
F₁, F₂ = Forces on pistons
A₁, A₂ = Areas of pistons

Key Points:
 Applies to incompressible fluids (liquids)
Pressure change transmitted instantly

Acts equally in all directions

Fundamental to hydraulic systems

9.2 Derivation and Explanation

Physical Basis:

Fluids cannot sustain shear stress

Pressure must be equal at same depth

Applied pressure adds to hydrostatic pressure

In Container:

External pressure applied anywhere

Transmitted throughout fluid
Reaches all walls and surfaces

Pressure at Depth with Added Pressure:

P_total = P_applied + ρgh

Where:
P_applied = External pressure
ρgh = Hydrostatic pressure

9.3 Hydraulic Systems

Hydraulic Press/Jack:

Principle:

Small force on small piston

Creates large force on large piston

Mechanical advantage = A₂/A₁

Formula:

F₂ = F₁ × (A₂/A₁)

Mechanical Advantage = F₂/F₁ = A₂/A₁

Work Consideration:

Work input = Work output (ideal case)

F₁d₁ = F₂d₂
Distance inversely proportional to area

Energy conserved

Example:

Input piston: 10 cm² area, 100 N force

Output piston: 100 cm² area

Output force: 100 × (100/10) = 1000 N

Mechanical advantage: 10

9.4 Applications
1. Hydraulic Brakes (Automobiles):

Foot pedal applies force to master cylinder

Pressure transmitted to brake cylinders at wheels

Equal braking force at all wheels

Brake fluid transmits pressure

2. Hydraulic Lifts:

Car lifts in garages

Elevators

Forklifts

Aircraft landing gear

3. Hydraulic Press:

Metal forming and shaping

Compression molding
Scrap metal crushing

Industrial manufacturing

4. Heavy Machinery:

Excavators and backhoes

Cranes
Bulldozers
 Hydraulic actuators

5. Aircraft Control Systems:

Flight control surfaces

Landing gear operation

Brake systems

6. Industrial Hydraulics:

Injection molding machines

Metal cutting machines

Presses and punches

Assembly line automation

9.5 Advantages of Hydraulic Systems

Benefits:

1. Force multiplication

2. Smooth operation
3. Precise control

4. Self-lubricating
5. Overload protection

6. Can transmit large forces

7. Flexible positioning (hoses)
8. Easy to control and regulate

Limitations:

1. Fluid leaks possible

2. Temperature sensitive
3. Maintenance required
4. Compressibility (if gas enters)

5. Environmental concerns (fluid spills)

9.6 Hydraulic Fluids

Requirements:

Incompressible
Low viscosity change with temperature
 Non-corrosive
Good lubrication properties

Fire resistant (in some applications)

Common Fluids:

Mineral oil based

Water-glycol mixtures
Synthetic fluids

Biodegradable options

9.7 Related Concepts

Continuity Equation:

A₁v₁ = A₂v₂

Volume flow rate constant

Bernoulli's Principle:

Energy conservation in fluid flow

Pressure + kinetic + potential energy = constant

Pressure Intensification:

Further increase in pressure

Multiple stage systems
Used for very high pressures

9.8 Safety Considerations

Important Points:

High pressure can be dangerous

Proper seals and connections essential

Regular inspection needed
Pressure relief valves important

Avoid air in system (compressible)

Training required for operation
10. GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

10.1 Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

Statement: Every particle attracts every other particle with a force proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Formula:

F = G(m₁m₂)/r²

Where:
F = Gravitational force (N)
G = Universal gravitational constant = 6.674 × 10⁻¹¹ N⋅m²/kg²
m₁, m₂ = Masses (kg)
r = Distance between centers (m)

Characteristics:

Always attractive (never repulsive)

Acts along line joining centers

Obeys inverse square law

Weakest of four fundamental forces

Infinite range
Cannot be shielded

Vector Form:

F = -G(m₁m₂/r²) r̂

Negative sign indicates attraction

10.2 Acceleration Due to Gravity (g)

Definition: The acceleration experienced by an object due to Earth's gravitational pull.

At Earth's Surface:
 g = GM/R²

Where:
G = 6.674 × 10⁻¹¹ N⋅m²/kg²
M = Mass of Earth ≈ 5.97 × 10²⁴ kg
R = Radius of Earth ≈ 6.37 × 10⁶ m

Therefore: g ≈ 9.8 m/s²

Standard Value: g = 9.80665 m/s² (defined for sea level at 45° latitude)

Properties:

Vector quantity (directed toward Earth's center)

Independent of falling object's mass

Varies with location

Produces uniform acceleration (in vacuum)

10.3 Variation of g
1. With Altitude (Height above surface):

g_h = g(1 - 2h/R) [for h << R]

or more precisely:

g_h = g(R/(R+h))²

Decreases with height

At h = R, g becomes 1/4 of surface value

2. With Depth (Below surface):

g_d = g(1 - d/R)

Where d = depth below surface

Decreases linearly with depth

At center of Earth: g = 0

3. With Latitude:

Maximum at poles: ~9.83 m/s²

 Minimum at equator: ~9.78 m/s²
Due to Earth's rotation and oblate shape

Formula:

g_λ = g_equator + k sin²(λ)

Where λ = latitude

4. Due to Earth's Shape:

Earth is oblate spheroid (flattened at poles)

Polar radius < Equatorial radius

Closer to center at poles → stronger gravity

5. Due to Local Geology:

Dense rock deposits increase g

Cavities decrease g
Used in geological surveys

10.4 Gravitational Field

Definition: Region of space where gravitational force is experienced.

Gravitational Field Strength:

g = F/m = GM/r²

Unit: N/kg (equivalent to m/s²)

Field Lines:

Point toward mass center

Radial for spherical mass

Density indicates field strength

10.5 Gravitational Potential Energy

Near Earth's Surface:
 U = mgh

Where:
m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height above reference

General Formula:

U = -GMm/r

Negative sign: Bound system

Zero at infinite separation

Escape Velocity:

v_escape = √(2GM/R) ≈ 11.2 km/s for Earth

Minimum speed to escape gravity

10.6 Weight and Apparent Weight

True Weight:

W = mg

Apparent Weight (on Rotating Earth):

W_apparent = W - mω²r cos(λ)

Where:
ω = Angular velocity of Earth
r = Distance from rotation axis
λ = Latitude

Maximum reduction at equator

No reduction at poles

In Elevator:

Accelerating up: W_app > W

Accelerating down: W_app < W
 Free fall: W_app = 0 (weightlessness)

10.7 Applications
Planetary Motion:

Kepler's Laws
Orbital mechanics

Satellite motion

Tides:

Gravitational pull of Moon and Sun

Differential forces create tides

Space Exploration:

Trajectory calculations
Launch windows
Gravity assists

Geophysics:

Gravimetry surveys

Oil and mineral exploration

Earth's interior structure

Everyday Phenomena:

Falling objects
Projectile motion

Pendulum motion

River flow

10.8 Orbital Motion

Orbital Velocity:

v_orbital = √(GM/r)

For Earth orbit at surface:

v ≈ 7.9 km/s

Orbital Period:
 T = 2π√(r³/GM)

Kepler's Third Law:

T² ∝ r³

Geostationary Orbit:

Period = 24 hours

Height ≈ 35,786 km above equator

Used for communication satellites

Weightlessness in Orbit:

Not due to zero gravity

Due to continuous free fall

Both astronaut and spacecraft falling together

11. PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS AND LEVERS

11.1 Moment of a Force

Definition: The turning effect of a force about a pivot point.

Formula:

Moment = Force × Perpendicular Distance

M=F×d

Where:
M = Moment (N⋅m)
F = Force (N)
d = Perpendicular distance from pivot to line of action

Alternative Names:

Torque

Moment of force
Turning moment

Characteristics:

Scalar treatment: Magnitude only

 Sign convention: Clockwise or counterclockwise
Depends on pivot point choice

11.2 Principle of Moments

Statement: For a body in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of
anticlockwise moments about that same point.

Mathematical Form:

Σ Clockwise Moments = Σ Anticlockwise Moments

or

Σ M_cw = Σ M_ccw

For equilibrium: Σ M = 0

Conditions for Equilibrium:

1. Translational Equilibrium:

Σ F = 0 (No linear acceleration)

2. Rotational Equilibrium:

Σ M = 0 (No angular acceleration)

Both must be satisfied for complete equilibrium.

11.3 Levers
Definition: A rigid bar that rotates about a fixed point (fulcrum) when forces are applied.

Components:

1. Fulcrum (Pivot): Point of rotation

2. Load (Resistance): Force to be overcome

3. Effort: Applied force
4. Load Arm: Distance from fulcrum to load

5. Effort Arm: Distance from fulcrum to effort

Lever Equation:
 Effort × Effort Arm = Load × Load Arm

F_E × d_E = F_L × d_L

Mechanical Advantage = Load/Effort = d_E/d_L

11.4 Classes of Levers

Class 1 Lever: Fulcrum Between Effort and Load

Examples:

Seesaw
Crowbar
Scissors

Pliers
Balance scales

Characteristics:

Can provide mechanical advantage > 1, = 1, or < 1

Can change direction of force

Most versatile class

Mechanical Advantage:

MA > 1 if effort arm > load arm

MA = 1 if arms equal
MA < 1 if effort arm < load arm

Class 2 Lever: Load Between Fulcrum and Effort

Examples:

Wheelbarrow
Nutcracker
Bottle opener

Door (pushing to close)

Oar in rowing

Characteristics:

Always MA > 1
 Effort arm always longer than load arm
Same direction for effort and load movement

Force amplification

Class 3 Lever: Effort Between Fulcrum and Load

Examples:

Human forearm (bicep)

Tweezers

Fishing rod
Broom

Baseball bat
Tongs

Characteristics:

Always MA < 1
Load arm longer than effort arm

Sacrifices force for distance/speed

Increases range of motion

11.5 Mechanical Advantage and Efficiency

Mechanical Advantage (MA):

MA = Load Force / Effort Force

or

MA = Effort Distance / Load Distance

Velocity Ratio (VR):

VR = Distance moved by effort / Distance moved by load

Efficiency:
 Efficiency = (MA / VR) × 100%

or

Efficiency = (Work output / Work input) × 100%

Ideal vs Real Systems:

Ideal: No friction, Efficiency = 100%, MA = VR

Real: Friction present, Efficiency < 100%, MA < VR

11.6 Applications of Levers

Everyday Life:

Door handles

Light switches
Bicycle brakes

Can openers
Staplers
Hammer pulling nail

Human Body:

Joints act as fulcrums

Bones are lever arms

Muscles provide effort

Various classes throughout body

Tools and Machines:

Wrenches (increase torque)

Jack (lifting heavy loads)

Nail clippers
Piano keys

Construction:

Crane arms

Excavator buckets
Lifting equipment
11.7 Center of Mass and Stability
Center of Mass (CM):

Point where entire mass can be considered concentrated

For uniform objects: Geometric center

For irregular objects: Found by suspension method

Stability Conditions:

Stable: CM over base, returns when tilted

Unstable: CM at edge, tips easily

Neutral: CM unchanged when moved

Improving Stability:

1. Lower center of mass

2. Widen base of support
3. Increase mass

Toppling:

Occurs when vertical line through CM falls outside base

Angle of tilt important

11.8 Problem-Solving Strategy

Steps:

1. Identify the fulcrum (pivot point)

2. Draw a diagram showing all forces
3. Mark perpendicular distances from fulcrum

4. Choose moment direction (CW or CCW)

5. Apply principle of moments

6. Solve for unknown

Common Problems:

Finding unknown forces

Locating center of mass

Determining balance points

Calculating mechanical advantage

Tips:

Always use perpendicular distance

Check units consistency

Consider all forces including weight

Use appropriate sign convention

12. ARCHIMEDES'S PRINCIPLE AND BUOYANCY

12.1 Archimedes's Principle

Statement: When a body is immersed wholly or partially in a fluid, it experiences an upward force (buoyant
force) equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

Mathematical Expression:

F_buoyant = Weight of displaced fluid

F_b = ρ_fluid × V_displaced × g

Where:
F_b = Buoyant force (N)
ρ_fluid = Density of fluid (kg/m³)
V_displaced = Volume of fluid displaced (m³)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)

Key Points:

Acts vertically upward

Acts through center of buoyancy (center of displaced volume)

Independent of object's depth (if fully submerged)

Depends only on displaced fluid volume and density

12.2 Buoyancy
Definition: The upward force exerted by a fluid on an object immersed in it.

Origin:

Pressure increases with depth

Greater pressure on bottom than top

Net upward force results

Pressure Difference:

For object of height h:

ΔP = ρ_fluid × g × h

Buoyant force = ΔP × A = ρ_fluid × g × h × A = ρ_fluid × g × V

12.3 Floating, Sinking, and Neutral Buoyancy

Three Scenarios:

1. Object Floats (Partially Submerged):

F_buoyant > Weight of object

ρ_object < ρ_fluid

Equilibrium: F_buoyant = Weight

ρ_fluid × V_submerged × g = ρ_object × V_total × g

Fraction submerged = ρ_object / ρ_fluid

2. Object Sinks:

F_buoyant < Weight of object

ρ_object > ρ_fluid

Net downward force causes sinking

3. Neutral Buoyancy:

F_buoyant = Weight of object

ρ_object = ρ_fluid

Object suspended at any depth

Examples:

Ice floats: ρ_ice (917 kg/m³) < ρ_water (1000 kg/m³)

Ships float: Average density < water density

Submarines: Adjust ballast for neutral buoyancy

Hot air balloon: ρ_hot air < ρ_cold air
12.4 Apparent Weight
In Fluid:

Apparent Weight = Actual Weight - Buoyant Force

W_apparent = W - F_b
W_apparent = mg - ρ_fluid × V_object × g
W_apparent = (ρ_object - ρ_fluid) × V_object × g

Special Cases:

In air: Buoyancy negligible for dense objects

In water: Significant reduction in apparent weight
When ρ_object = ρ_fluid: Apparent weight = 0

Weight Loss Percentage:

% Weight loss = (F_b / W) × 100%

= (ρ_fluid / ρ_object) × 100%

12.5 Applications of Archimedes's Principle

1. Ships and Boats:

Hull designed to displace large water volume

Average density (including air inside) < water density

Plimsoll line indicates safe loading

2. Submarines:

Ballast tanks filled/emptied with water

Control depth by adjusting buoyancy

Neutral buoyancy for cruising

3. Hot Air Balloons:

Heated air is less dense

Buoyant force lifts balloon

Control altitude by temperature

4. Hydrometers:

Measure liquid density/specific gravity

 Floats at different levels in different liquids
Used for battery acid, alcohol content

5. Swimming and Diving:

Human body slightly less dense than water

Lungs filled: Float

Lungs exhaled: Sink
Scuba divers use weight belts

6. Icebergs:

~90% submerged (ρ_ice/ρ_seawater ≈ 0.9)

Navigation hazard (most underwater)

7. Fish Swim Bladder:

Gas-filled organ

Adjust buoyancy to maintain depth

Volume control for neutral buoyancy

8. Cartesian Diver:

Demonstration of buoyancy and pressure

Air-filled vessel in flexible container

Pressure changes volume, thus buoyancy

12.6 Determining Density Using Archimedes's Principle

For Regular Solids:

1. Weigh object in air: W_air

2. Weigh object in water: W_water
3. Buoyant force: F_b = W_air - W_water
4. Volume: V = F_b / (ρ_water × g)
5. Density: ρ = W_air / (V × g)

Simplified:
ρ_object = ρ_water × (W_air / (W_air - W_water))

For Irregular Solids:

Same method as above

Displacement method measures volume

 Works for objects denser than water

For Objects Less Dense Than Water:

Attach to sinker of known properties

Weigh combination

Calculate object's density algebraically

12.7 Center of Buoyancy

Definition: Point through which the buoyant force acts (centroid of displaced fluid volume).

Stability of Floating Objects:

Stable Configuration:

Center of buoyancy (B) above center of gravity (G)

When tilted, creates restoring couple

Returns to upright position

Unstable Configuration:

G above B
Tilting creates overturning couple

Capsizes easily

Metacenter:

Point of intersection of vertical through B when tilted

Above G: Stable
Below G: Unstable

Important in ship design

12.8 Related Concepts

Upthrust:

Another term for buoyant force

Net upward force from fluid pressure

Hydrostatic Paradox:

Pressure depends only on depth, not container shape

Same depth = same pressure

Buoyancy independent of container shape

Displacement:

Volume or weight of fluid pushed aside

Measured in m³ or kg
For ships: Displacement tonnage

13. HOOKE'S LAW

13.1 Statement and Formula

Hooke's Law: Within the elastic limit, the extension of a spring (or elastic material) is directly proportional to
the applied force.

Mathematical Form:

F = kx

or

F ∝ x (within elastic limit)

Where:
F = Applied force (N)
k = Spring constant or force constant (N/m)
x = Extension or compression from natural length (m)

Alternative Form (Stress-Strain):

Stress = E × Strain

σ=E×ε

Where:
σ = Stress (Pa or N/m²)
E = Young's modulus (Pa)
ε = Strain (dimensionless)

13.2 Spring Constant

Definition: The stiffness of a spring; force required to produce unit extension.

Formula:
 k = F/x

Unit: N/m (Newton per meter)

Characteristics:

Higher k = stiffer spring

Lower k = more flexible spring
Depends on material and geometry

Constant for given spring (within elastic limit)

Factors Affecting k:

1. Material properties (Young's modulus)

2. Wire diameter

3. Coil diameter
4. Number of coils
5. Free length of spring

13.3 Elastic Limit and Related Terms

Key Terms:

1. Elastic Limit:

Maximum stress material can withstand and still return to original shape
Beyond this: Permanent deformation

2. Proportional Limit:

Point up to which Hooke's Law holds

Stress proportional to strain

Usually slightly less than elastic limit

3. Yield Point:

Stress at which material begins to deform plastically

Beyond elastic behavior

4. Ultimate Tensile Strength:

Maximum stress before breaking

Breaking point
Stress-Strain Curve Regions:

1. Elastic Region (OA):

Hooke's Law applies

Proportional relationship

Reversible deformation

2. Plastic Region (AB):

Permanent deformation

Non-linear relationship
Irreversible

3. Fracture Point (B):

Material breaks
Ultimate strength exceeded

13.4 Stress and Strain

Stress:

Stress (σ) = Force / Area = F/A

Unit: Pascal (Pa) or N/m²

Types: Tensile, compressive, shear

Strain:

Strain (ε) = Change in length / Original length = ΔL/L

Dimensionless (ratio)
Types: Longitudinal, volumetric, shear

Young's Modulus (E):

E = Stress / Strain = (F/A) / (ΔL/L)

Unit: Pa or N/m²
Measure of material stiffness

Values for Common Materials:

 Steel: E ≈ 200 GPa
Aluminum: E ≈ 70 GPa

Copper: E ≈ 120 GPa

Rubber: E ≈ 0.05 GPa

Concrete: E ≈ 30 GPa

13.5 Energy Stored in Springs

Elastic Potential Energy:

U = (1/2)kx²

Where:
U = Elastic potential energy (J)
k = Spring constant (N/m)
x = Extension or compression (m)

Derivation:

Work done = Average force × distance

Average force = kx/2

Work = (kx/2) × x = kx²/2

From Force-Extension Graph:

Area under F-x curve

Triangular area = (1/2) × base × height

U = (1/2) × x × F = (1/2) × x × kx = (1/2)kx²

Energy Density:

u = U/V = (1/2) × Stress × Strain

Per unit volume of material

13.6 Springs in Series and Parallel

Springs in Series:
 1/k_total = 1/k₁ + 1/k₂ + 1/k₃ + ...

Equivalent spring is more flexible

Total extension = Sum of individual extensions
Same force through all springs

Springs in Parallel:

k_total = k₁ + k₂ + k₃ + ...

Equivalent spring is stiffer

Same extension for all springs
Total force = Sum of individual forces

13.7 Applications
Practical Uses:

1. Measuring Instruments:

Spring balances (weighing)

Force meters

Pressure gauges

2. Mechanical Systems:

Vehicle suspension

Shock absorbers
Door closers

Mattresses

3. Watches and Clocks:

Balance spring (hairspring)

Maintains oscillation

4. Sports Equipment:

Diving boards
Trampoline
Bow and arrow

Pole vault poles

5. Engineering:

Vibration damping

Energy storage
Coupling systems

Safety mechanisms

6. Musical Instruments:

String tension (guitars, pianos)

Determines pitch

13.8 Limitations and Exceptions

When Hooke's Law Doesn't Apply:

1. Beyond Elastic Limit:

Plastic deformation begins
Non-linear behavior

2. Rubber and Elastomers:

Non-linear from start

Complex molecular behavior

3. Very Large Deformations:

Geometric non-linearity
Material non-linearity

4. Time-Dependent Materials:
Viscoelastic materials
Creep and stress relaxation

5. Composite Materials:
Anisotropic behavior
Different properties in different directions

Ideal vs Real Springs:

Ideal: Massless, perfectly elastic

Real: Have mass, limited elastic range, energy losses

14. OHM'S LAW

14.1 Statement and Formula

Ohm's Law: At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it.

Mathematical Form:

V = IR

or

I = V/R

or

R = V/I

Where:
V = Potential difference or voltage (Volts, V)
I = Current (Amperes, A)
R = Resistance (Ohms, Ω)

Graphical Representation:

V-I graph is straight line through origin

Slope = Resistance (R)

Linear relationship

14.2 Electrical Resistance

Definition: Opposition to the flow of electric current through a conductor.

Formula:

R = V/I

Unit: Ohm (Ω)

1 Ω = 1 V/A

Factors Affecting Resistance:

1. Length (L):
 R∝L

Longer conductor = Higher resistance

2. Cross-sectional Area (A):

R ∝ 1/A

Thicker conductor = Lower resistance

3. Material (Resistivity ρ):

R∝ρ

Different materials have different resistivities

4. Temperature:

For metals: R increases with temperature

For semiconductors: R decreases with temperature

Complete Formula:

R = ρL/A

Where:
ρ = Resistivity (Ω⋅m)
L = Length (m)
A = Cross-sectional area (m²)

14.3 Resistivity
Definition: Intrinsic property of material representing its resistance to current flow.

Formula:

ρ = RA/L

Unit: Ohm-meter (Ω⋅m)

Resistivity Values (at 20°C):

Silver: 1.59 × 10⁻⁸ Ω⋅m (best conductor)

 Copper: 1.68 × 10⁻⁸ Ω⋅m
Gold: 2.44 × 10⁻⁸ Ω⋅m

Aluminum: 2.82 × 10⁻⁸ Ω⋅m

Iron: 1.0 × 10⁻⁷ Ω⋅m

Nichrome: 1.1 × 10⁻⁶ Ω⋅m

Glass: 10¹⁰ to 10¹⁴ Ω⋅m (insulator)
Rubber: 10¹³ Ω⋅m (insulator)

Temperature Dependence:

ρ_T = ρ₀[1 + α(T - T₀)]

Where:
α = Temperature coefficient of resistivity
T₀ = Reference temperature

Classification:

Conductors: ρ < 10⁻⁵ Ω⋅m

Semiconductors: 10⁻⁵ to 10⁵ Ω⋅m
Insulators: ρ > 10⁵ Ω⋅m

14.4 Conductance and Conductivity

Conductance (G):

G = 1/R

Unit: Siemens (S) or mho (℧)

1 S = 1 A/V

Conductivity (σ):

σ = 1/ρ

Unit: Siemens per meter (S/m)

Relationship:

G = σA/L
14.5 Resistors in Series and Parallel
Series Connection:

R_total = R₁ + R₂ + R₃ + ...

- Same current through all resistors

- Voltage divides: V = V₁ + V₂ + V₃ + ...
- Total resistance increases

Voltage Division:

V₁ = V × (R₁/R_total)

Parallel Connection:

1/R_total = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + 1/R₃ + ...

- Same voltage across all resistors

- Current divides: I = I₁ + I₂ + I₃ + ...
- Total resistance decreases

For Two Resistors in Parallel:

R_total = (R₁ × R₂)/(R₁ + R₂)

Product over sum formula

Current Division:

I₁ = I × (R₂/(R₁ + R₂))

Current inversely proportional to resistance

14.6 Electrical Power

Power Dissipation:
 P = VI (fundamental)

Using Ohm's Law:

P = I²R
P = V²/R

Where:
P = Power (Watts, W)
1 W = 1 J/s

Energy Consumed:

E = Pt

E = VIt = I²Rt = (V²/R)t

Unit: Joule (J) or Watt-hour (Wh)

1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J

Applications:

Electric heating (I²R heating)

Power ratings of appliances

Electricity bills (kWh consumption)

14.7 Ohmic and Non-Ohmic Materials

Ohmic Conductors:

Obey Ohm's Law

Linear V-I relationship

Constant resistance (at constant temperature)

Examples: Metals, metal alloys, carbon resistors

Non-Ohmic Conductors:

Don't obey Ohm's Law

Non-linear V-I relationship

Variable resistance
Examples:
Diodes (exponential relationship)

Transistors
 Thermistors (temperature dependent)
Filament lamps (resistance increases with current)

Gas discharge tubes

Semiconductors

14.8 Applications of Ohm's Law

Circuit Analysis:

Calculate unknown values (V, I, or R)

Design circuits

Troubleshooting

Practical Examples:

1. LED Circuit Design:

Calculate required resistor

Limit current to safe value

2. Voltage Dividers:

Obtain specific voltage from supply

Sensor interfacing

3. Current Sensing:

Measure current via voltage drop across known resistor

Ammeter shunts

4. Heating Elements:

Design for specific power output

P = V²/R determines resistance needed

5. Fuses and Circuit Protection:

Select appropriate ratings

I = V/R determines current

14.9 Limitations of Ohm's Law

Does Not Apply To:

1. Non-linear devices (diodes, transistors)

2. At very high frequencies (reactive effects)

 3. At very high voltages (breakdown)
4. Superconductors (R = 0)

5. Arc discharges
6. Vacuum tubes

7. Electrolytes (ionic conduction complexity)

Conditions for Validity:

Constant temperature

Uniform material
No physical changes

Within voltage/current limits

15. BASICS OF THERMOMETRY AND THERMAL EXPANSION

15.1 Thermometry
Definition: Science of temperature measurement.

Thermometric Properties: Properties that change measurably with temperature:

Volume of liquid (mercury, alcohol)

Pressure of gas at constant volume

Resistance of conductor
EMF of thermocouple
Color of hot body (pyrometry)

Volume of gas at constant pressure

15.2 Types of Thermometers

1. Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers:

Mercury Thermometer:

Range: -39°C to 357°C

Advantages:
Visible (opaque)
Doesn't wet glass

Uniform expansion
High boiling point
 Disadvantages:
Toxic

Expensive
Freezes at -39°C

Alcohol Thermometer:

Range: -115°C to 78°C

Advantages:
Low freezing point
Inexpensive

Safe

Disadvantages:
Transparent (needs dye)

Wets glass
Low boiling point

Non-uniform expansion

2. Gas Thermometers:

Most accurate
Based on gas laws
Constant volume or constant pressure

Used for calibration

Range: Very wide

3. Resistance Thermometers (RTD):

Based on resistance change with temperature

Platinum resistance thermometer (standard)

Very accurate
Range: -200°C to 1000°C

4. Thermocouples:

Junction of two dissimilar metals

Produce voltage proportional to temperature difference

Wide range: -200°C to 2000°C

Fast response
 Used industrially

5. Infrared Thermometers (Pyrometers):

Non-contact measurement
Detect thermal radiation

High temperature applications

Medical (forehead thermometers)

6. Digital Thermometers:

Electronic sensors (thermistors)

Digital display

Accurate and fast

Battery powered

15.3 Fixed Points and Calibration

Fixed Points: Standard temperatures for calibration:

Ice Point (Lower Fixed Point):

Melting ice at 1 atm: 0°C or 273.15 K

Steam Point (Upper Fixed Point):

Boiling water at 1 atm: 100°C or 373.15 K

Triple Point of Water:

Modern standard: 273.16 K (0.01°C)

Unique temperature and pressure where ice, water, and vapor coexist

Other Fixed Points:

Oxygen boiling: -183°C

Gold melting: 1064°C

Silver melting: 962°C

Calibration Process:

1. Mark ice point (0°C)

2. Mark steam point (100°C)

3. Divide interval into 100 equal parts (Celsius)

15.4 Thermal Expansion
Definition: Increase in size of a substance when heated.

Cause:

Increased molecular kinetic energy

Greater amplitude of vibration

Increased average separation between atoms

Types:

1. Linear Expansion (Solids): Change in length

Formula:

ΔL = αL₀ΔT

or

L = L₀(1 + αΔT)

Where:
ΔL = Change in length
L₀ = Original length
α = Coefficient of linear expansion (K⁻¹ or °C⁻¹)
ΔT = Temperature change

2. Area Expansion (Solids): Change in area

Formula:

ΔA = βA₀ΔT

or

A = A₀(1 + βΔT)

Where:
β = Coefficient of area expansion
β ≈ 2α

3. Volume Expansion (Solids, Liquids, Gases): Change in volume

Formula:
 ΔV = γV₀ΔT

or

V = V₀(1 + γΔT)

Where:
γ = Coefficient of volume expansion
γ ≈ 3α (for solids)

15.5 Coefficients of Expansion

Linear Expansion Coefficients (α) at 20°C:

Aluminum: 23 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹

Copper: 17 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹

Steel: 11 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹
Iron: 12 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹

Glass (Pyrex): 3 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹

Brass: 19 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹

Concrete: 12 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹

Invar (Fe-Ni alloy): 1.2 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹

Volume Expansion Coefficients (γ):

Liquids:

Water: Anomalous (minimum density at 4°C)

Mercury: 182 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹

Alcohol: 1100 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹
Glycerin: 500 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹

Gases:

All ideal gases: 1/273 K⁻¹ ≈ 3.66 × 10⁻³ K⁻¹

Much larger than solids/liquids

15.6 Applications of Thermal Expansion

Engineering Applications:

1. Railway Tracks:
 Gaps left between rails
Prevent buckling in summer

Continuous welded rail (CWR) pre-stressed

2. Bridges:

Expansion joints
Allow movement without damage
Roller or sliding bearings

3. Power Lines:

Sag more in summer

Account for expansion in design

4. Bimetallic Strips:

Two metals with different α bonded together

Bends when heated

Applications:
Thermostats
Circuit breakers

Temperature indicators
Fire alarms

5. Riveting:

Hot rivets cool and contract

Create tight joint

Used in ship building, structures

6. Fitting Wheel Rims:

Heat metal rim to expand

Fit over wheel

Contracts for tight fit when cooled

7. Glass and Ceramics:

Must have matched expansion coefficients

Pyrex has low α (thermal shock resistant)

Annealing prevents stress

8. Thermometers:

Liquid expansion principle

Relative expansion (liquid vs. glass)

9. Pendulum Clocks:

Temperature affects period

Compensated pendulums used

Grid pendulum design

15.7 Anomalous Expansion of Water

Unique Behavior:

Maximum density at 4°C

Expands when cooled below 4°C

Expands when heated above 4°C

Density vs Temperature:

0°C (ice): 917 kg/m³

4°C (water): 1000 kg/m³ (maximum)

0°C (water): 999.8 kg/m³

Consequences:

1. Lakes and Ponds:

Water at 4°C sinks to bottom

Ice forms on surface

Bottom remains at 4°C
Aquatic life survives winter

2. Pipes Bursting:

Water expands when freezing

Creates enormous pressure

Pipes crack in winter

3. Weathering of Rocks:

Water in cracks freezes

Expansion breaks rocks
 Frost wedging

Explanation:

Hydrogen bonding
Ice has open hexagonal structure

Less dense than liquid water

15.8 Problems and Calculations

Common Problem Types:

1. Simple Expansion:

Given: L₀, α, ΔT
Find: ΔL or L_final

Example:
Steel rod: L₀ = 100 m, α = 11 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹
ΔT = 50°C
ΔL = αL₀ΔT = 11 × 10⁻⁶ × 100 × 50
ΔL = 0.055 m = 5.5 cm

2. Thermal Stress: When expansion is prevented, stress develops

Stress = E × α × ΔT

Where E = Young's modulus

3. Apparent vs Real Expansion: For liquids in containers:

γ_apparent = γ_liquid - γ_container

Apparent expansion is what we observe

4. Bimetallic Strip: Radius of curvature when heated:

r = t/[ΔT(α₁ - α₂)]

Where t = thickness of each strip

16. ELECTRICAL ENERGY

16.1 Electrical Energy Basics

Definition: Energy associated with electric charges and their movement through conductors.

Fundamental Relationship:

Electrical Energy = Power × Time

E = Pt

Where:
E = Energy (Joules, J)
P = Power (Watts, W)
t = Time (seconds, s)

From Ohm's Law:

E = VIt (using P = VI)

E = I²Rt (using P = I²R)
E = (V²/R)t (using P = V²/R)

16.2 Electric Power

Definition: Rate at which electrical energy is converted to other forms.

Formulas:

P = VI (Voltage × Current)
P = I²R (Joule heating)
P = V²/R
P = E/t (Energy per unit time)

Unit: Watt (W)

1 W = 1 J/s

Common Units:

Watt (W): 10³ W

Kilowatt (kW): 10³ W

Megawatt (MW): 10⁶ W

Gigawatt (GW): 10⁹ W
16.3 Electrical Energy Units
Joule (J):

SI unit

1 J = 1 W⋅s
Small for practical purposes

Kilowatt-hour (kWh):

Commercial unit
Energy consumed by 1 kW device in 1 hour

1 kWh = 1000 W × 3600 s = 3.6 × 10⁶ J = 3.6 MJ

Conversion:

1 kWh = 3.6 MJ
1 kWh = 1 unit of electricity (billing)

Board of Trade Unit:

Same as kWh
Used in electricity billing

16.4 Sources of Electrical Energy

1. Chemical Energy:

Batteries (Primary):
Dry cell, alkaline battery

Single use, non-rechargeable

Chemical → Electrical energy

Batteries (Secondary):
Lead-acid, Li-ion, NiMH
Rechargeable

Reversible chemical reactions

Fuel Cells:
Hydrogen fuel cells

Continuous supply of fuel

High efficiency
2. Mechanical Energy:

Generators:
Hydroelectric dams
Wind turbines

Steam turbines (coal, nuclear)

Mechanical rotation → Electrical energy

3. Solar Energy:

Photovoltaic Cells:
Direct light → electricity conversion

Semiconductor based
Clean, renewable

4. Thermal Energy:

Thermoelectric Generators:
Seebeck effect

Temperature difference → electricity

Low efficiency, special applications

5. Nuclear Energy:

Nuclear fission reactions

Heat → Steam → Turbine → Generator

High energy density

6. Geothermal Energy:

Earth's internal heat

Steam drives turbines
Renewable source

16.5 Energy Conversion and Efficiency

Energy Transformations:

Electrical → Heat:

Electric heaters, stoves

Resistive heating (I²R)
Efficiency ≈ 100%
Electrical → Light:

Incandescent bulbs: 5% efficient

Fluorescent lamps: 20% efficient

LED: 40-50% efficient

Electrical → Mechanical:

Electric motors
Efficiency: 70-95%

Losses: Heat, friction

Electrical → Chemical:

Battery charging

Electrolysis
Electroplating

Efficiency Formula:

Efficiency (η) = (Useful energy output / Total energy input) × 100%

or

η = (Output power / Input power) × 100%

Power Loss:

Power loss = Input power - Output power

P_loss = P_in - P_out

16.6 Electrical Energy in Circuits

Single Resistor:

E = I²Rt = (V²/R)t = VIt

Series Circuit:
 Total energy = Sum of energies in each resistor
E_total = E₁ + E₂ + E₃ + ...

Each: E_i = I²R_it (same current)

Parallel Circuit:

Total energy = Sum of energies in each branch

E_total = E₁ + E₂ + E₃ + ...

Each: E_i = (V²/R_i)t (same voltage)

16.7 Cost of Electrical Energy

Electricity Bill Calculation:

Cost = Energy consumed (kWh) × Rate per kWh

Energy (kWh) = (Power in kW) × (Time in hours)

Example:

Device: 1500 W heater

Usage: 6 hours/day for 30 days
Rate: $0.12 per kWh

Energy = 1.5 kW × 6 h/day × 30 days = 270 kWh

Cost = 270 × $0.12 = $32.40