UNIT 5

Politics, Economy and Social Processes

th th
from the Early 16 to the end of the 18
C’s
 Outlines
√ Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate
of Adal and After
√ Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
√ Population Movements
●Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali
●Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement
(1522- 1618)
●The Gadaa System
●The Oromo Population Movement (1522- 1618)
√ Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious
Diversities
√ Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and
Western Regions
√ The Gondarine Period and Zemene Mesafint
 5.1. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM
AND THE SULTANATE OF ADAL AND AFTER
● The revival of long- distance trade caused competition and
struggle for control over the trade routes between the
Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities.
● This was followed by a series of wars, which were depicted as
wars for religious supremacy in historical accounts of
Christian and Muslim clerics.
● Causes of the conflict:-
● competition and struggle for control over the trade routes
● mal- administration and exploitation of periphery made
military mobilization possible.
● demographic pressure among the Afar and Somali
pastoralists pushing to approach Harar and the
Christian Kingdom.
● religion provided ideological justification for the wars.
● Major causes remained:- the interest to control trade routes
lay at the heart of the conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates that lasted from 1529
to 1543.
● Background to the Conflict
● Among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife, corruption
and anarchy was intensified and a new leadership was
urgently called for.
● Such leadership came from Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-
Ghazi. The origins of Imam Ahmed, alias “the left- handed,”
are obscure.
● He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and
raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of the oases on the
route to Zeila.
● He was a rigorous and ardent believer of Islam. He soldiered
for Garad Abun of Adal, who during his few years in power
called for Islamic Puritanism.
● For centuries, lowland inhabiting Muslim pastoralists had
wanted to expand to high plateaus for better and enough
● With increased population and overgrazing in Somali and Afar
th th
of eastern Ethiopia, between the 13 and 16 centuries,
raiding and counter- raiding at water holes or animal rustling
intensified.
● It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in
leadership that he mobilized the pastoral communities of the
Afar, the Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common
cause.
● He convinced them not to fight amongst themselves but to
unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom and resolve their
pressing material needs while at the same time keep Islamic
believes.
● The Course of the War:
● Lebne- Dengel was enthroned when he was only eleven.
Assisted by the elderly Elleni and due to internal conflicts in
Adal, the Christian state initially retained its interest and even
scoring significant victories into Muslim territory in the early
th
16 century.
● However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army in 1520,
●The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the territories
including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata
and the Christian Kingdom was at risk.
●In 1528, Lebne- Dengel mobilized a vast force and encamped
about fifty kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa.
●There was the problem of logistics and the leadership of the
army of Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a common
strategy to defeat Adal’s force.
●On the other hand, enthusiastic Imam Ahmed’s army
managed logistics problems with its small- sized army. The
Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership characterized
by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified
command.
√ As a result, the larger and well- equipped Christian army was
defeated in one of the most decisive engagement at the
battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day Mojo.
√ After the victory, the Imam’s army made a large- scale control
of the territories of the Christian Kingdom including Shewa,
Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash.
●The Process of Conquest/Futuh al Habasha/
●Ahmad resumed an overall invasion of Christian territories in
1531 and occupied Dawaro and Shawa.
●By 1535, he brought most parts of the country under his
control.
●He continued his devastating conquest without any effective
resistance and reached the present provinces of Tigray and
Eritrea and along the Red Sea coast.
● By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to
Massawa on the coast including the Ethiopian interior.
●However, despite his success in crushing the Christian army,
Ahmad was not able to capture Libne Dingel, who remained
fugitive and died in the 1540 in the monastery of Dabra
Damo, and was succeeded by his son, Gelawdewos
(1540- 1559).
●Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative bureaucracy
constituted from his own men and newly recruited personnel
●One of the most illuminating figures during the war was the
wife of the Imam, Bati Del Wanbara. She was the daughter of
a Muslim military commander of Adal known as Mahfuz.
●Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had encouraged her
husband to avenge the death of her father. She accompanied
her husband throughout his expeditions and she is said to
have marched even in a state of pregnancy during which she
was unable to use mules.
●Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of
1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present day Tigray respectively.
●Gelawdewos ((r. 1540- 1559) and the Battle of Woyna-
Dega:
●Gelawdewos (r. 1540- 1559), continued to face the wars with
more intensity as Imam Ahmed had received Turkish
musketeers.
●In the meantime, based on earlier request made by Lebne-
Dengel in 1535, about 400 Portuguese soldiers, armed with
matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in 1541Christopher
da Gama.
●An important anecdote that should be mentioned here is the
role of Lebne- Dengel's wife Seblewongel. She is said to have
participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542.
●After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his
army’s, he sent his allies back home and let his army camp.
●On the part of the Christians, preparations were made for
final confrontation under the leadership of Emperor
Gelawdewos (r.1540- 59).
●The Queen mother, Seble- Wongel, advised the reigning
emperor how to prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-
Dega.
●Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run
strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army.
●Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous quality of easy
mobility because they did not know where the attacks came
from.
● On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped
near Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed after a fierce
●Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the
nobility and his army were loyal to him. As a result, the king
restored possession of almost all the northern and central
plateau.
●Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to
Gelawdewos and he was tolerant toward them to promote
national conciliation and to develop revival of smooth
relations with the Muslim world.
●Gelawdewos was able to restore many of pre- 1520s
territories and tributary regions. The king attempted to
reconsolidate the state through campaigns to different
areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas.
●By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong
Christian Kingdom. However, the control over the Muslim
dominated areas was not an easy task.
●In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian state
came from:
- the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal,
 - Jesuit interlude, and
- Oromo that advanced into the center.
●Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al- Waazir Mujahid was
ready to wage war against the Christian state for revenge.
●In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and
killed the king himself.
●Emperor Minas (r.1559- 1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos
defeated the Turks' force and reclaimed territories in the coast
including Dabarwa.
●However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied with
the Turks against him.
●Similarly, Sartsa- Dengle (r.1563- 1598) had to defend the
Turks while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete- Israel,
Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo.
●Consequences of the War
●The Muslim- Christian conflict had resulted in a number of
consequences.
●One of the most obvious was the huge human and material
cost. Ahmed Gragn also burnt so many historical churches
and monasteries with their invaluable heritage possessions
and their priests and monks.
●It is also evident that both the Muslim Sultanate and
Christian Kingdom were weakened thereby paving the way
for an easy infiltration and success of the Oromo population
movement.
●Ahmad Gragn’s destruction of the royal prison of Amba
Gishen left many contending princes free and this resulted
into a dynastic conflict and political instability in the
Christian kingdom.
●The war also led the shift of political centre of the Christian
kingdom from central Shawa to the north, towards the Lake
Tana area.
5. The religious controversies in the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church, caused by the Jesuit missionaries who came from
Portugal following Portuguese army and the Ottoman Turkish
threat along the Red Sea coasts after Ahmad’s war were some
of long term consequences of the war.
6. Ahmad Gragn’s domination also encouraged
expansion of Islam. However, the war had also a
disastrous impact on Muslims.
√ The Muslim states were left impoverished and the
ground cleared the way for their occupations by the
Oromos.
● On the positive side, it should be restated that the war had
arguably resulted in cultural interaction among the peoples of
Ethiopia.
√ Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by
intermarriages among peoples of the various cultural groups
were one of these manifestations in the long history of
Ethiopia and the Horn.
√ Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian
Ocean between Portugal and the Ottoman Turks gave the
prolonged conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim principalities a global dimension.
√ Persians, Arabs, Syrians, Egyptians, and Turks, traditional
international trade intermediaries, who were under Ottoman
Turks were hit by discovery of a seaway to India by Vasco da
Gama in 1498 and tried to prevent rival Portuguese ships
from trading with India.
■Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions
between the Christian Kingdom and Portugal, the Turks gave
moral and military support to Imam Ahmed.
■ In 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for
assistance and regional Ottoman authorities provided two
hundred Muslim musketeers and ten cannons.
 5.2. FOREIGN INTERVENTION AND RELIGIOUS
CONTROVERSIES
√ The church was weakened by the wars against the sultanate
of Adal. The destruction of property and deaths of its clergy
hampered the operation of the Church and therefore, its
service as an ideological arm of the state.
√ The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an
alliance with Roman Catholicism as a tactic to secure
suffi cient modern weaponry and training to restore its lost
territories.
●Background for the arrival of Jesuits:-
√ The background for the arrival of Catholic missionaries was
led by the coming of Portuguese diplomatic mission in 1520
and Portuguese army in 1541.
√ In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop,
Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism.
√ The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and
therefore separate, natures of Christ- divine and human, which
√ EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a
perfect human nature inseparable from divinity.
√ The leading members of the Jesuits mission who played key
role in efforts to evangelize the country include Joao
Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso
Mendez.
√ The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor
Gelawdewos (r.1540- 59), hoping that the rest of the society
would follow suit.
√ Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with
the missionaries, but he was not prepared to give in. Instead,
he defended the teachings of Orthodox Christianity in a
document entitled the Confession of Faith.
√ Minas and Sertse- Dengel, who succeeded Gelawdewos one
after the other, were too busy fighting against the Oromo
and the Turkish forces to entertain the Jesuits in their
courts.
√ The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za- Dengel (r.
1603- 4) who secretly converted to Catholicism.
√ But Za- Dengel’s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect
the desired result. Za- Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r.
1598- 1603; 1604- 7), who befell a similar fate in the hands of
Susenyos (r. 1607- 32).
√ Susenyos, too, as was challenged by provincial leaders who
refused to pay tribute, integrated the Oromo with the forces
of central government to consolidate his power and then
stabilize the country.
√ Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an alliance,
which he got through the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.
√ In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and announced
it to be state religion later in 1622. In the meantime, in
1617- 8 several anti- Catholic voices mounted following the
changes in liturgy and religious practices.
●Even worse, with the monarch’s consent, another Spanish
Jesuit, Alfonso Mendez ordered:-
- re- consecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and
rebaptism of the mass.
 - Besides, he called for the suspension of Jewish customs
such as
male circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath.
- Additional pronouncements include prohibition of
preaching in
Ge’ez, fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for
Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
- Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and
Gregorian
calendar to be adopted.
√ The reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the
nobility. Even loyal followers of the emperor including his own
son Fasiledas (r. 1632- 67) were opposed to the changes
initiated by the Jesuits.
√ After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted
and the state came to the verge of falling apart. In a battle in
June 1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in one day.
√ Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of
√ Fasiledas:-
√ restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state
religion,
√ expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including
Susenyos’ uncle and the most fervent supporter of
Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos.
√ By fearing another religious conflict, Emperor Fasiledas
introduced a new policy called "Close- Door Policy", which
isolated the state from all Europeans for about a century and
a half.
√ Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close
diplomatic relations with the Islamic world and formed an
alliance with the neighboring Muslim states to ensure that
no European crossed into the Christian Kingdom.
√ As a result, in 1647, he concluded an agreement with the
Ottoman Pasha at Suakin and Massawa to the effect that
the latter should block any European from entering in to his
territory.
√ Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained effective
until the beginning of the nineteenth century with the
exception of secret visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques
Poncet and the Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and
1769, respectively.
√ Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and
controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was
divided into disputant sects and reached its peak during the
Zemene Mesafint.
√ Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in
eternity as a Divine Being the eternal birth and second, born
again from St. Mary into the world as a perfect man and
perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo
(United). It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
√ Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet
doctrine and accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of
Christ, but claimed that at the moment of his incarnation,
when he was born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him.
√ This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
√ Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace)
taught that Christ was first born in eternity as divine being,
was born again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by
Holy Ghost. This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
5.3. POPULATION MOVEMENTS
The movements of people from one place to another have
played important roles in shaping the history of Ethiopia
and the Horn.
Population movements occurred in the Horn due to
various reasons, in varied scales and followed different
directions.
In Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the movements
could be attributed to the region's long socio- political
conditions involving military conflicts, drought and
demographic factors.
√ Population movements had extensive effects including the
integration of peoples across ethnic and religious lines.
√ Major outcomes of population movements during the period
 I. POPULATION MOVEMENTS OF THE ARGOBA, AFAR, AND
SOMALI
●Causes:
● The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and
th th
the Sultanate of Adal in the late 15 and the early 16
centuries was partly responsible for the population movement
of the Argoba, Afar and Somali.
●The demographic pressure on environment gave background
for the population movement.
This population movement was probably triggered off
by: - population growth and shortage of grazing land,
and
- finally, mounting pressure of Oromos, who began their
th
expansion in the 15 Century.
[Link] Argoba: the Argoba were major agents of Islamic
expansion, trade and Muslim state formation in the Horn.
th
√ Towards the end of the 13 century, with the decline of the
sultanate of Shewa, the sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba
√ On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, the Argoba
joined the Afar and the Somali against the Christian
Kingdom.
√ The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a target of the
expanding Christian Kingdom and was the major center of
conflict. This was because the major caravan trade routes
passed through Argoba territory.
th
B. The Afar: before the 16 century, due to drought, the Afar
moved towards the east until they reached the middle
Awash.
√ Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through
the Afar's territory.
√ As a result, the region was the centre of competition
between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates
to control the trade routes.
√ Besides being actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably
pressurized the Afar to move into different directions to
avoid the risk of the conflicts.
th
C. The Somali: their territory laid in the medieval competition
for the control of trade routes.
√ The population movement of the Somali was a strong force
behind the military strength of the Imam.
√ However, the population movement of the Somali did not
last for long as they returned to their home base following the
defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
II. GADAA SYSTEM AND THE OROMO POPULATION
MOVEMENT (1522- 1618)
A . The Gadaa System
th
●The Oromo population movement of the 16 century cannot
be better understood without considering the Gadaa system.
●The Gadaa system was an institution through which the
Oromo: - - socially organized themselves,
- administered their affairs,
- defended their territories, maintained law and order, and
- managed their economies.
●Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa
system emerged. However, it is clear that for long the society
organized their politics, economy, social, cultural, and
religious affairs through the Gadaa institution.
●The account by Abba Bahrey indicates that during the early
th
16 century, the system fully functioned because of which
the Oromo were well organized.
●Thus, it is reasonable to think that the Oromo had practiced
th
the Gadaa system long before the 16 century movement of
the Oromo.
●Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and Gadaa
centers suggest that the system evolved from the earlier
Cushitic age- set social organization.
●Time computation and recording history was based on the
eight- year segment of time. In the system, eight years
represented one Gadaa period, 5- gadaa periods or 40 years
represented one generation and nine generations
represented an era.
●Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during various eras
because of various internal and external factors. For
instance, the Borana- Barentu Gadaa was instituted after
interruption for nearly two generations. It was revived in
1450 at Madda Walabu that became the central Chaffe
(assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu until 1900.
●The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such
as: -
- periodic succession and power sharing to prevent a one- man
rule,
- representation of all lineages, clans and confederacies.
- served as a mechanism of socialization, education, maintenance
of peace
and order, and social cohesion.
- Gadaa constituted rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma
(compensation) and rakoo (marriage).
- provided a socio- political framework that institutionalized
relationship
between seniors and juniors and egalitarian relations among
●The system helped the members of age- sets to develop a
consistent and stable sense of self and others. Sons joined
the first grade as members of Gadaa class (generation class
or set) forty years after their fathers.
Age- grades and their roles
Gade Grade Age Roles

Dabale Birth- 8 years

Socialization
Game 9- 16 years

Folle 17- 24 years Military training, agriculture, etc.

Qondala 25- 32 years Military service

Raba- Dori 33- 40 years Candidates for political power

Luba 41- 48 years Leaders of Gadaa government

Yuba 49- 80 years Senior advisors, educators and ritual

leaders
●The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head of
the government was known as Abba- Gadaa and assisted by
several representatives from among the generation set.
●These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe
(head of the assembly), Abba- Dula (war leader), Abba Sera
(father of law), Abba Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a (father of
treasury) and other councillors.
●In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played
indispensable roles in power transfer and legitimizing the
ruling gadaa class.
●Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution,
which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity.
Women from childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-
pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale
(wives of Luba and Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/
above 80 years) were believed to have sacred power.
●They involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict
resolution, thanks- giving and others. The kalale were also
privileged to support and advise the ruling class.
●The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power transfer
from one Gadaa class to the next every eight years.
●With some minor differences in nomenclature in different
parts of Oromo territories, the five Gadaa classes
(generation sets) are listed below:
The Five Gadaa Classes
Fathers Sons
Melba Harmufa
Mudana Robale
Kilole Birmaji
Bifole Mul’ata
Michille Dulo

B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522- 1618)

●Causes:-
√ A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo
th th
population movement of the 16 and 17 centuries.
● Natural factors include demographic pressure and subsequent
need for land to accommodate the growing human and livestock
population.
2. The conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
th th
Sultanates from the 13 to the 16 centuries might have pressurized
mainly pastoral Oromo groups to leave the lands they inhabited for
other areas.
●Courses of the Movement:-
√ In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo
were already organized under Borana and Barentu
confederacies.
√ The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed through
a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya. When they
reached half way between Lakes Abbaya and Hawassa then
westward and across the Bilatte River to the southwest.
√ From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.
√ The first Gadaa i.e Melba (1522- 1530) fought and defeated
Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali.
√ Gadaa Mudena (1530- 8) reached the edge of Awash River.
√ The Kilole Gadaa (1538- 46) controlled Dawaro after defeating
Christian regiment Adal Mabraq.
√ Gadaa Bifole (1546- 54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
√ The Michille (1554- 62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at
√ The Harmufa (1562- 70) fought Minas (r.1559- 63) at Qacina
and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
√ In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563- 97) cavalry led by Azzaj
Halibo defeated Robale gadaa (1570- 78) at Woyna Daga, but
Robale recovered by defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force.
√ The Birmaji (1578- 86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama
to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
√ The Mul’ata (1586- 94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat,
Dambiya and Tigray.
th
√ In the early 17 century, the Dulo (1594- 1602), Melba
(1603- 10), and Mudena (1610- 18) expanded to West and
Northern parts of the Horn of Africa.
√ Others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and
Majertin in Somalia.
●Why the Oromos so successful:
●The wars between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates,
● The organization of the Oromo under the Gadaa system
●In the course of their movement into various regions,
different Oromo branches established Gadaa centres.
The Five major Gadaa centres
Gadaa Centers Respective Oromo clans
Oda Nabee Tulama
Oda Roba Sikko- Mando (Arsi)
Oda Bultum Itu- Humabenna
Oda Bisil Mecha
Oda Bulluq Jawwi Mecha

√ Other places, which became Gadaa centers, were Gayo of

Sabbo- Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle
of Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc.
√ Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra
of Guji, Makko- Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma and
others established Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal
laws in their respective areas.
●However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through
the offi ce of Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated
at Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times of
diffi culty.
●Besides, they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law)
through sending their delegates to Madda- Walabu, the
central chaffe until the pan- Oromo assembly was forbidden
in 1900 due to the political influence of the Ethiopian state.
●In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource allocation
formula including land. Land holding system to regulate
resource and their interaction among different clans is
known as the qabiyye system.
● The system established rights of precedence (seniority) in
possession of land. Accordingly, place names were given the
names of the pioneer as a marker of qabiyye rights.
 5.4. INTERACTION AND INTEGRATION ACROSS ETHNIC AND
RELIGIOUS DIVERSITIES
●The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval
period were the major factors for the people's interactions
across regions.
●Such interactions occurred during peace and conflict times.
The cases in point were the trade contacts and conflicts to
control trade routes, religious expansion, and territorial
expansion and population movements.
●One of the major consequences of the interactions in the
medieval period particularly in the population movement of
th
the 16 century was the integration of peoples across ethnic
and religious diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
●It is apparent that territorial and religious expansion by the
Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to
the south. Similarly, the wars of Imam Ahmed and the
population movements of the Argoba, the Afar and the
Somali caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts of
Ethiopia.
●One consequence of the Oromo population movement was
that it put an end to the wars between the Christian and
Muslim states as well as the southward expansion of the
Christian state.
●At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in
th
the 16 century brought far- reaching integrations among
peoples across ethnic and religious background.
●The Oromo integrated non- Oromo through two adoption
mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
● Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster
parent. In this system, the child enjoyed equal rights and
privileges with a biological child.
●Moggasa was a system of adopting non- Oromos commonly
known as Oromsu. Moggasa was the practice of
incorporation of individuals or groups to a clan through oath
of allegiance with all the rights and obligations that such
membership entailed.
● Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of
the clan. The adopted groups gained both protection and
●The process significantly contributed to the social cohesions,
national integration, and the revival of long- distance trade.
●The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-
cultural values and institutions. A number of peoples in the
neighborhood of the Oromo adopted Gadaa system and
Oromo language. E.g. Sidama and Gedeo adopted the
Gadaa system.
●The Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and traditions of
the people with whom they came into contact. E.g. the
adoption of monarchical systems and the integration of the
Oromo to the Christian and Muslim states.
● It is important to mention the rise of nobles in the northern
Oromo in politics particularly during the Gondar period,
Zemene- Mesafint and the making of modern Ethiopia.
 5.6. THE GONDARINE PERIOD AND ZEMENE- MESAFINT
1. THE GONDARINE PERIOD
A. Political Developments
●The period of Gondar begins from the reign of Emperor
Sartsa- Dengle when the political center of Ethiopian
emperors shifted to Gondar area.
●Emperor Sartsa- Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in
1571.
●Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near
Gondar like at Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
●Gondar was founded in 1636 by Fasiledas as his political
seat.
● Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three
successive emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I
(r.1667- 82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
● Among the major reforms during these periods were:
- the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion, and
- the establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve
● Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate
quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem.
● His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system,
introduced a system of land measurement in Begemder, taxes,
and customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
● The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the
leadership of his own son, Tekle- Haymanot, ushered in
political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning
of reigning monarchs.
● Tekle- Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his
father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos. Tewoflos was
again killed by Yostos, who was also poisoned and replaced by
Dawit III, who himself was poisoned and replaced by Bakafa.
●Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his
followers and his wife Etege Mentewab until he was
incapacitated in 1728.
● The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement of
the Oromo in politics and the army.
● From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her
brother Ras- Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732- 1767) dominated the
●Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II
(1730- 55) and Iyoas (1755- 69). Following his death in 1767,
Etege Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito, her
daughter- in- law from Wollo.
●To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the
royal court, Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el
Sehul of Tigray who was politically astute and military
powerful.
●Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation and
refused to return to Tigray although demanded by Iyoas.
This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement
by an old man Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el
killed Yohannes II and put his son Takla- Haymanot II
(1769- 77) on power. This marked the onset of the period of
Zemene- Mesafint (1769- 1855).
B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period
●Gondar became the center of state administration, learning,
commerce, education, art, and crafts for more than two
centuries.
●The cultural achievements of the period led some writers to
describe Gondarine period in history as Ethiopian
Renaissance.
●Architecture: when Gondar served as a permanent capital,
for about one hundred fifty years, Ethiopian kings built
significant secular buildings like castles, bridges, residences,
bath, library, towers, fortifications and there are squared,
round and unknown shape of churches.
●In the cities compound the most impressive building known
as Fasil Gemb, there are different palaces corresponding to
Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa and
regent Queen Mentewab.
●The Gondarine architecture would have started before the
reign of emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor
Sartsa- Dengle at about 1586, at Guzara near Enfranz, and
built a very fine bridge near his palace at Guzara, and
Emperor Susenyos likewise erected a bridge over Blue Nile at
Alata.
● Even it goes back to the reign of Lebne- Dengel
●Painting: With a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts
and on wood, ornaments, weapons and other accessories
especially, the churches built by Queen Mentwab were
known by beautiful paintings, cross and an art works.
●Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a
great number of manuscripts. Besides the Gospels, the
Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian Saints and the
Litanies, and many other kinds of illuminated manuscripts
were also produced.
●Gondar is also known for its traditional medicine, music and
poetry.
●Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was a commercial center
that connected long distance trade routes of the southern
region with Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio- Sudan
border.
●Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange. The
appearance of daily market was known.
●With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of
foreign communities like Indians, Greeks and Armenians. The
●In addition to its political and commercial importance, it
served as religious center of Christians, Muslims and Bete-
Israel. Besides, it served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox
Church (residence of the abun and Ichege) until the mid of
th
19 Century.
●Many of Orthodox churches served as education centers
(known by excellence in teaching aqwaqwam), liturgical
chanting was centered at Gondar.
[Link] Period of Zemene- Mesafint (1769- 1855)
● Zemene- Mesafint refers to the period when actual position
of political power was in the hands of different regional
lords.
● Zemene Mesafent was the period when Ethiopia was divided
within itself with no effective central authority; the regional
lords constantly fought against each other for expansion of
their territory and to become the guardian of the king.
●The period lasts from the time Ras Michael Sehul
"assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu
was crowned as Tewodros II.
●Ras Mika’el who was a king maker in the period took strong
measures against the nobility. These measures made him
highly unpopular because of which coalitions of lords of
Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo that defeated him at the
battle of Sarba- Kussa in 1771.
●The main political regions that Zemene- Mesafint lords ruled
were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo,
Gojjam and Shewa.
●When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty” was the
leading power during the Zemen- Mesafint with the center at
Debre- tabor. Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered
as the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
●Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso
(r.1803- 1825) who made incessant struggle against Ras
Walde- Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis
Woldu of Agame.
●In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825- 8), defeated
Hayle- Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru of Dambiya was also
killed at the battle of Koso- Ber in 1827.
●The period of zemene mesafint was brought to an end by
Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of battles that lasted
from 1840s to 1855.
Major features of Zemene- Mesafint include:
●absence of effective central government;
●the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
●the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia;
●rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king maker;
●establishment of fragile coalition to advance political
interests;
●Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes;
●Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door
Policy.”
●In addition to the above features, there were developments
in terms of literature, arts, architecture etc during the
Thank You