Hardware

Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a computer

system, including the devices connected to it. You cannot create a computer or use
software without using hardware. The screen on which you are reading this information
is also a hardware.

What is a hardware upgrade?

A hardware upgrade refers to a new hardware, or a replacement for the old one, or
additional hardware developed to improve the performance of the existing hardware. A
common example of a hardware upgrade is a RAM upgrade that increases the
computer's total memory, and video card upgrade, where the old video card is removed
and replaced with the new one.

Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described below:

1) Motherboard:
The motherboard is generally a thin circuit board that holds together almost all parts of
a computer except input and output devices. All crucial hardware like CPU, memory,
hard drive, and ports for input and output devices are located on the motherboard. It is
the biggest circuit board in a computer chassis.

It allocates power to all hardware located on it and enables them to communicate with
each other. It is meant to hold the computer's microprocessor chip and let other
components connect to it. Each component that runs the computer or improves its
performance is a part of the motherboard or connected to it through a slot or port.

There can be different types of motherboards based on the type and size of the
computers. So, a specific motherboard can work only with specific types of processors
and memory.

Components of a Motherboard:
CPU Slot: It is provided to install the CPU. It is a link between a microprocessor and a
motherboard. It facilitates the use of CPU and prevents the damage when it is installed
or removed. Furthermore, it is provided with a lock to prevent CPU movement and a
heat sink to dissipate the extra heat.

RAM Slot: It is a memory slot or socket provided in the motherboard to insert or install
the RAM (Random Access Memory). There can be two or more memory slots in a
computer.

Expansion Slot: It is also called the bus slot or expansion port. It is a connection or
port on the motherboard, which provides an installation point to connect a hardware
expansion card, for example, you can purchase a video expansion card and install it into
the expansion slot and then can install a new video card in the computer. Some of the
common expansion slots in a computer are AGP, AMR, CNR, PCI, etc.

Capacitor: It is made of two conductive plates, and a thin insulator sandwiched

between them. These parts are wrapped in a plastic container.

Inductor (Coil): It is an electromagnetic coil made of a conducting wire wrapped

around an iron core. It acts as an inductor or electromagnet to store magnetic energy.

Northbridge: It is an integrated circuit that allows communications between the CPU

interface, AGP, and memory. Furthermore, it also allows the southbridge chip to
communicate with the RAM, CPU, and graphics controller.

USB Port: It allows you to connect hardware devices like mouse, keyboard to your
computer.

PCI Slot: It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect slot. It allows you to connect
the PCI devices like modems, network hardware, sound, and video cards.

AGP Slot: It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It provides the slot to connect
graphics cards.

Heat Sink: It absorbs and disperses the heat generated in the computer processor.

Power Connector: It is designed to supply power to the motherboard.

CMOS battery: It stands for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor. It is a

memory that stores the BIOS settings such as time, date, and hardware settings.

2) Monitor:
A monitor is the display unit of a computer on which the processed data, such as text,
images, etc., is displayed. It comprises a screen circuity and the case which encloses
this circuity. The monitor is also known as a visual display unit (VDU).

Types of Monitors:

1. CRT Monitor: It has cathode ray tubes which produce images in the form of
video signals. Its main components are electron gun assembly, deflection plate
assembly, glass envelope, fluorescent screen, and base.

2. LCD Monitor: It is a flat panel screen. It uses liquid crystal display technology to
produce images on the screen. Advanced LEDs have thin-film transistors with
capacitors and use active-matrix technology, which allows pixels to retain their
charge.
 3. LED Monitor: It is an advanced version of an LCD monitor. Unlike an LCD
monitor, which uses cold cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display, it has
LED panels, each of which has lots of LEDs to display the backlight.

4. Plasma Monitor: It uses plasma display technology that allows it to produce

high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate,
outstanding contrast ration, and more.

3) Keyboard:
It is the most important input device of a computer. It is designed to allow you input
text, characters, and other commands into a computer, desktop, tablet, etc. It comes
with different sets of keys to enter numbers, characters, and perform various other
functions like copy, paste, delete, enter, etc.

Types of Keyboards:

1. QWERTY Keyboards

2. AZERTY Keyboards

3. DVORAK Keyboards

4) Mouse:
It is a small handheld device designed to control or move the pointer (computer
screen's cursor) in a GUI (graphical user interface). It allows you to point to or select
objects on a computer's display screen. It is generally placed on a flat surface as we
need to move it smoothly to control the pointer. Types of Mouse: Trackball mouse,
Mechanical Mouse, Optical Mouse, Wireless Mouse, etc.

Main functions of a mouse:

o Move the cursor: It is the main function of the mouse; to move the cursor on
the screen.

o Open or execute a program: It allows you to open a folder or document and

execute a program. You are required to take the cursor on the folder and double
click it to open it.

o Select: It allows you to select text, file, or any other object.

 o Hovering: Hovering is an act of moving the mouse cursor over a clickable
object. During hovering over an object, it displays information about the object
without pressing any button of the mouse.

o Scroll: It allows you to scroll up or down while viewing a long webpage or

document.

Parts of a mouse:

o Two buttons: A mouse is provided with two buttons for right click and left click.

o Scroll Wheel: A wheel located between the right and left buttons, which is used
to scroll up and down and Zoom in and Zoom out in some applications like
AutoCAD.

o Battery: A battery is required in a wireless mouse.

o Motion Detection Assembly: A mouse can have a trackball or an optical

sensor to provide signals to the computer about the motion and location of the
mouse.

Software
Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a set of programs that enables the
hardware to perform a specific task. All the programs that run the computer are
software. The software can be of three types: system software, application software,
and programming software.

1) System Software
The system software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn on the
computer, it activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their functioning. The
application programs are also controlled by system software. An operating system is an
example of system software.

i) Operating System:
An operating system is the system software that works as an interface to enable the
user to communicate with the computer. It manages and coordinates the functioning of
hardware and software of the computer. The commonly used operating systems are
Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Apple Mac OS X.

Some other examples of system software include:

 o BIOS: It stands for basic input output system. It is a type of system software,
which is stored in Read Only Memory (ROM) located on the motherboard.
However, in advanced computer systems, it is stored in flash memory. BIOS is
the first software that gets activated when you turn on your computer system. It
loads the drivers of the hard disk into memory as well as assists the operating
system to load itself into the memory.

o Boot Program: Boot refers to starting up a computer. When you switch on the
computer, the commands in the ROM are executed automatically to load the
boot program into memory and execute its instructions. The BIOS program has a
basic set of commands that enables the computer to perform the basic
input/output instructions to start the computer.

o An assembler: It plays the role of a converter as it receives basic computer

instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits. The processor uses these
bits to perform basic operations.

o A device driver: This system software controls hardware devices connected to

a computer. It enables the computer to use the hardware by providing an
appropriate interface. The kernel of a Computer's CPU communicates with
different hardware through this software. Operating systems generally come with
most of the device drivers. If the operating system does not have a device driver
for hardware, you have to install the device driver before using that hardware
device.

2) Application Software:
Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It does not
control the working of a computer as it is designed for end-users. A computer can run
without application software. Application software can be easily installed or uninstalled
as required. It can be a single program or a collection of small programs. Microsoft
Office Suite, Adobe Photoshop, and any other software like payroll software or income
tax software are application software. As we know, they are designed to perform
specific tasks. Accordingly, they can be of different types such as:

o Word Processing Software: This software allows users to create, edit, format,
and manipulate the text and more. It offers lots of options for writing documents,
creating images, and more. For example, MS Word, WordPad, Notepad, etc.
 o Spreadsheet Software: It is designed to perform calculations, store data,
create charts, etc. It has rows and columns, and the data is entered in the cell,
which is an intersection of a row and column, e.g., Microsoft Excel.

o Multimedia Software: These software are developed to perform editing of

video, audio, and text. It allows you to combine texts, videos, audio, and images.
Thus, you can improve a text document by adding photos, animations, graphics,
and charts through multimedia software. For example, VLC player, Window Media
Player, etc.

o Enterprise Software: These software are developed for business operational

functions. It is used in large organizations where the quantum of business is too
large. It can be used for accounting, billing, order processing and more. For
example, CRM (Customer Relationship Management), BI (Business Intelligence),
ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), SCM (Supply Chain Management), customer
support system, and more.

3) Programming Software:
It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software or
programs. It assists them in creating, debugging, and maintaining software or programs
or applications. We can say that these are facilitator software that helps translate
programming language such as Java, C++, Python, etc., into machine language code.
So, it is not used by end-users. For example, compilers, linkers, debuggers, interpreters,
text editors, etc. This software is also called a programming tool or software
development tool.

Some examples of programming software include:

o Eclipse: It is a java language editor.

o Coda: It is a programming language editor for Mac.

o Notepad++: It is an open-source editor for windows.

o Sublime text: It is a cross-platform code editor for Linux, Mac, and Windows.

The 4 Main Types of Software

What Are the 4 Main Types of Software?
Now that we’ve covered the basic definition of software, let’s look at the four
main types of software and how they are used in life and in business.

Application Software

This is the most common type of computer software, and can be defined as end-
user programs that help you perform tasks or achieve a desired outcome. The
end-user is the person who is actually using a product or program. (They are the
one for whom the “end result” is designed.) Some examples of application
software include internet browsers, a CRM tool like Hubspot, a photo-editing
software like Adobe or Lightroom, or a word processing application like Microsoft
Word. Application software is installed on a computer or mobile device based
upon a user’s need. Because this is the most common type of software, there are
many options available and users can choose the one that best fits their needs,
budget, and expectations. (For example, anyone wanting to look on the internet
could use Chrome, Safari, or even Firefox.)

System Software

System software helps the user, the computer or mobile device, and an
application all work together seamlessly. This makes system software crucial to
running any kind of application software as well as the whole computer system.

Think about when your laptop or phone has an update. This is system software in
action: there is a tweak made to the system software that helps your computer or
phone continue to work well and keep applications running. Apple’s iOS is an
example of system software, as is Microsoft Windows. System software is always
running in the background of your device, but it is never something you will use
directly. In fact, the only time most people remember it’s there is when it is time
for an update.

Programming Software

While application software is designed for end-users, and system software is

designed for computers or mobile devices, programming software is for computer
programmers and developers who are writing code. These are programs that are
used to write, develop, test, and debug other software programs. It’s helpful to
think of these programs as a translator of sorts: they take programming
languages like Laravel, Python, C++, and more and translate them into
something a computer or phone will understand.

Driver Software

This software is often considered to be a type of system software. Driver

software operates and controls devices that are plugged into a computer. These
drivers make it possible for devices to perform their necessary functions. A very
good (and practical) example of this is your printer. When you are first setting up
your printer to work with your computer, you have to install software to connect
the two so that they communicate and print anything you need.

Input Devices
Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a
computer. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer receives the input and
processes it to produce the output.

Some of the popular input devices are:

1. Keyboard

2. Mouse

3. Scanner

4. Joystick

5. Light Pen

6. Digitizer

7. Microphone

8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

9. Optical Character Reader (OCR)

10. Digital Camera

11. Paddle

12. Steering Wheel

13. Gesture recognition devices

14. Light Gun

15. Touch Pad

16. Remote

17. Touch screen

18. VR

19. Webcam
 20. Biometric Devices

1) Keyboard
The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer or any
other electronic device by pressing keys. It has different sets of keys for letters,
numbers, characters, and functions. Keyboards are connected to a computer
through USB or a Bluetooth device for wireless communication.

Types of keyboards: There can be different types of keyboards based on the region
and language used. Some of the common types of keyboards are as follows:

i) QWERTY Keyboard:

It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times. It is named
after the first six letters of the top row of buttons and is even popular in countries that
do not use Latin-based alphabet. It is so popular that some people think that it is the
only type of keyboard to use with computers as an input device.

ii) AZERTY Keyboard:

It is considered the standard French keyboard. It is developed in France as an

alternative layout to the QWERTY layout and is mainly used in France and other
European countries. Some countries have manufactured their own versions of AZERTY.

Its name is derived from the first six letters that appear on the top left row of the
keyboard. The Q and W keys in AZERTY keyboard are interchanged with A and Z keys in
QWERTY keyboard. Furthermore, in AZERTY keyboard M key is located to the left of the
L key.

AZERTY keyboard differs from QWERTY keyboard not only in the placement of letters
but also in many other ways, e.g., it gives emphasis on accents, which is required for
writing European languages like French.

iii) DVORAK Keyboard:

This type of keyboard layout was developed to increase the typing speed by reducing
the finger movement while typing. The most frequently used letters are kept in a home
row to improve typing.

2) Mouse
The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or pointer across
the screen. It is designed to be used on a flat surface and generally has left and right
button and a scroll wheel between them. Laptop computers come with a touchpad that
works as a mouse. It lets you control the movement of cursor or pointer by moving your
finger over the touchpad. Some mouse comes with integrated features such as extra
buttons to perform different buttons.

The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early mouse had a roller ball
integrated as a movement sensor underneath the device. Modern mouse devices come
with optical technology that controls cursor movements by a visible or invisible light
beam. A mouse is connected to a computer through different ports depending on the
type of computer and type of a mouse.

Common types of the mouse:

i) Trackball Mouse:

It is a stationary input device that has ball mechanism to move the pointer or cursor on
the screen. The ball is half inserted in the device and can be easily rolled with finger,
thumb or the palm to move the pointer on the screen. The device has sensor to detect
the rotation of ball. It remains stationary; you don't need to move it on the operating
surface. So, it is an ideal device if you have limited desk space as you don't need to
move it like a mouse.

ii) Mechanical Mouse:

It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a corded type of
mouse. A mechanical mouse can be used for high performance. The drawback is that
they tend to get dust into the mechanics and thus require regular cleaning.

iii) Optical Mouse:

An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more reliable than
a mechanical mouse and also requires less maintenance. However, its performance is
affected by the surface on which it is operated. Plain non-glossy mouse mat should be
used for best results. The rough surface may cause problems for the optical recognition
system, and the glossy surface may reflect the light wrongly and thus may cause
tracking issues.

iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse:

As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless technology
such as IrDA (infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to control the movement of the
cursor. It is used to improve the experience of using a mouse. It uses batteries for its
power supply.

3) Scanner
The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a
document. The scanned picture or document then converted into a digital format or file
and is displayed on the screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition
techniques to convert images into digital ones. Some of the common types of scanners
are as follows:

Types of Scanner:

i) Flatbed Scanner:

It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light illuminates the
pane, and then the image is placed on the glass pane. The light moves across the glass
pane and scans the document and thus produces its digital copy. You will need a
transparency adapter while scanning transparent slides.

ii) Handheld Scanner:

It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over a flat
image that is to be scanned. The drawback in using this device is that the hand should
be steady while scanning; otherwise, it may distort the image. One of the commonly
used handheld scanners is the barcode scanner which you would have seen in shopping
stores.
iii) Sheetfed Scanner:

In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the scanner. The main
components of this scanner include the sheet-feeder, scanning module, and calibration
sheet. The light does not move in this scanner. Instead, the document moves through
the scanner. It is suitable for scanning single page documents, not for thick objects like
books, magazines, etc.

iv) Drum Scanner:

Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It does not have a
charge-coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The photomultiplier tube is extremely
sensitive to light. The image is placed on a glass tube, and the light moves across the
image, which produces a reflection of the image which is captured by the PMT and
processed. These scanners have high resolution and are suitable for detailed scans.

v) Photo Scanner:

It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth, which are
required for scanning photographs. Some photo scanners come with in-built software for
cleaning and restoring old photographs.

4) Joystick

A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick with a
spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement of the stick. The
movement of stick controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.

The frist joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. A
joystick can be of different types such as displacement joysticks, finger-operated
joysticks, hand operated, isometric joystick, and more. In joystick, the cursor keeps
moving in the direction of the joystick unless it is upright, whereas, in mouse, the cursor
moves only when the mouse moves.
5) Light Pen

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light pen
contains a light-sensitive detector that enables the user to point to or select objects on
the display screen. Its light sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the
corresponding signals to the CPU. It is not compatible with LCD screens, so it is not in
use today. It also helps you draw on the screen if needed. The first light pen was
invented around 1955 as a part of the Whirlwind project at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (MIT).

6) Digitizer

Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes with a
stylus. It enables the user to draw images and graphics using the stylus as we draw on
paper with a pencil. The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer appear on the
computer monitor or display screen. The software converts the touch inputs into lines
and can also convert handwritten text to typewritten words.

It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from taped papers.
Furthermore, it is also used to receive information in the form of drawings and send
output to a CAD (Computer-aided design) application and software like AutoCAD. Thus,
it allows you to convert hand-drawn images into a format suitable for computer
processing.

7) Microphone

The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It receives
the sound vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to a recording
medium. The audio signals are converted into digital data and stored in the computer.
The microphone also enables the user to telecommunicate with others. It is also used to
add sound to presentations and with webcams for video conferencing. A microphone
can capture audio waves in different ways; accordingly the three most common types
are described below:

i) Dynamic:
It is the most commonly used microphone with a simple design. It has a magnet which
is wrapped by a metal coil and a thin sheet on the front end of the magnet. The sheet
transfers vibrations from sound waves to the coil and from coil to electric wires which
transmit the sound like an electrical signal.

ii) Condenser:

It is designed for audio recording and has a very sensitive and flat frequency response.
It has a front plate called diaphragm and a back plate parallel to the front plate. When
sound hits the diaphragm, it vibrates the diaphragm and alters the distance between
the two plates. The changes in distance are transmitted as electric signals.

iii) Ribbon:

It is known for its reliability. It has a thin ribbon made of aluminum, duraluminum, or
nanofilm suspended in a magnetic field. The sound waves cause vibrations in the
ribbon, which generate a voltage proportional to the velocity of the vibration. The
voltage is transmitted as an electrical signal. Early ribbon microphones had a
transformer to increase the output voltage, but modern ribbon microphones come with
advanced magnets to produce a strong signal.

8) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic ink.
MICR is a character recognition technology that makes use of special magnetized ink
which is sensitive to magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to process the cheques
and other organizations where security is a major concern. It can process three hundred
cheques in a minute with hundred-percent accuracy. The details on the bottom of the
cheque (MICR No.) are written with magnetic ink. A laser printer with MICR toner can be
used to print the magnetic ink.

The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing. A document
printed in magnetic ink is required to pass through a machine which magnetizes the ink,
and the magnetic information is then translated into characters.
9) Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of handwritten,
typed or printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices and libraries to convert
documents and books into electronic files.

It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After copying
the documents, the OCR software converts the documents into a two-color (black and
white), version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and dark areas, where the
dark areas are selected as characters, and the light area is identified as background. It
is widely used to convert hard copy legal or historic documents into PDFs. The
converted documents can be edited if required like we edit documents created in ms
word.

10) Digital camera:

It is a digital device as it captures images and records videos digitally and then stores
them on a memory card. It is provided with an image sensor chip to capture images, as
opposed to film used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a camera that is connected to
your computer can also be called a digital camera.

It has photosensors to record light that enters the camera through the lens. When the
light strikes the photosensors, each of the sensors returns the electrical current, which
is used to create the images.

11) Paddle:

It is a simple input device that is widely used in games. It is a wheel that is held by hand
and looks like a volume knob on a stereo that is used to increase or decrease the
volume. Paddle moves or controls cursor or any other objects in the game in a back-
and-forth motion. It is widely used as an alternative to the joystick. Besides this, the
term paddle also refers to many handheld devices designed to control a function in an
electronic device, computer, etc.
12) Steering wheel:

It is used as an input device in racing video games such as car racing games or in
driving programs as virtual simulators to steer a vehicle. It works like the real steering
wheel by allowing you to take a right or left turn. A steering wheel may be provided with
acceleration and brake pedal devices and a mechanism for shifting gears. Thus, it
makes racing games more adventurous and entertaining.

13) Gesture recognition devices:

These devices take human gestures as input. There are many such devices that respond
to gestures. For example, Kinect is one such device that observes the movement of a
player's body and interprets these movements as inputs to video games. This feature is
also available in certain tablets and smartphones where you can perform certain tasks
such as taking pictures using finger gestures such as swiping, pinching, etc.

14) Light Gun:

As the name suggests, it is a pointing input device that is designed to point at and shoot
the targets on the screen in a video game, or arcade, etc. The light gun was used for
the first time on the MIT Whirwind computer. When the gun is pointed at the target on
the screen and the trigger is pulled, the screen goes blank for a fraction of a second.
During this moment, the photodiode, which is present in the barrel, determines where
the gun is pointed. For example, shooting ducks in a duck hunt game.

15) Touchpad:

It is usually found in laptops as a substitute for the mouse. It allows you to move or
control the cursor on the screen using your finger. Just like a mouse, it also has two
buttons for right and left click. Using the touchpad, you can perform all the tasks that
you do with a mouse, such as selecting an object on the screen, copy, paste, delete,
open a file or folder, and more.

16) Remote:

It is a hardware device designed to control the functioning of a device, e.g., a TV remote

that can be used to change channels, increase or decrease the volume, from a distance
without leaving the seat. The first cordless TV remote was invented by Dr. Robert Adler
of Zenith in 1956. The remote sends the electromagnetic waves to communicate with
the device. These waves can be infrared rays, radio waves, etc.

17) Touch screen:

It is the display screen of a device such as a smartphone, tablet, etc., that allows users
to interact or provide inputs to the device by using their finger. Today, most of the
electronic devices come with touchscreen as an alternative to a mouse for navigating a
graphical user interface. For example, by touching, you can unlock your phone, open
emails, open files, play videos, etc. Besides this, it is used in lots of devices such as
Camera, Car GPS, Fitness machine, etc.

The concept of the touch screen was first introduced and published by E.A. Johnson in
1965. The first touch screen was developed at the beginning of the 1970s by CERN
engineers Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe.

18) VR:

VR stands for virtual reality. It is an artificial or virtual environment which is generated

by computers. A person can interact with virtual objects of this artificial environment
using some input devices such as headsets, gloves, headphones, etc. For example, he
or she can find himself or herself walking on a beach, watching a football match,
walking in the sky, etc., without actually doing all this.
19) Webcam:

Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam. The in-built camera
provided on a computer can also be considered a webcam. It is an input device as it can
take pictures, and can be used to record videos if required. The pictures and videos are
stored in the computer memory and can be displayed on the screen if required.
Although it works almost the same as the digital camera, it is different from a digital
camera, as it is designed to take compact digital photos that can be uploaded easily on
the webpages and shared with others through the internet.

20) Biometric Devices:

Biometrics refers to a process in which a person is identified through his or her
biological features such as fingerprints, eye cornea, face structure, etc. It is done by
using biometric devices, which can be of different types based on their scanning
features and abilities, such as:

i) Face Scanner:

It is designed to identify a person by scanning his or her face. It takes the face
measurements of a person. For example, the distance between eyes, nose, and mouth,
etc., accordingly, it confirms the identity of a person. Besides this, it is smart enough to
differentiate between a person's picture and the real person.

ii) Hand Scanner:

The hand of a person can also be used to verify his or her identity as every person has a
unique pattern of veins in the palm, just like fingerprints. This device takes advantage
of this feature; it identifies a person by scanning the palm of his hand. It uses infrared
light to scan veins' patterns and blood flowing in them. Palm is even more unique than
fingerprints.

iii) Fingerprint Scanner:

It scans the fingerprints to identify people or for biometric authentication. This device is
developed, keeping in mind the fact that no two persons in the world can have the
same fingerprints. It is widely used in companies as a fingerprint attendance system to
mark the attendance of employees. This type of scanners captures the pattern of
valleys and ridges found on a finger and store it in the memory or database. When you
press your finger on the given space, it verifies the identity by using its pattern-
matching software.

iv) Retina or Iris Scanner:

It scans the retina or iris of a person's eye to confirm the identity. This device is more
secure than others as it is next to impossible to copy the retina or iris. It works by
mapping the retina's blood vessel patterns of the eye. The blood vessels of retina
absorb light more easily as well as can be identified with appropriate lighting.

In this scan, a beam of low-energy infrared light falls on the retina through the scanner's
eyepiece. Then, the software captures the network of blood vessels in the retina and
uses it to verify a person's identity.

v) Voice Scanner:

It records the voice of a person and digitizes it to create a distinctive voice print or
template. The voiceprints are stored in the database, and are used to verify the voice of
a person to confirm his or her identity. The person is required to speak in the normal or
same voice that was used to create a voice template. It is not much reliable as it can be
misused using a tape recording.

Output Devices
The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is entered in the
computer through an input device. There are a number of output devices that display
output in different ways such as text, images, hard copies, and audio or video.

Some of the popular output devices are:

1. Monitor

o CRT Monitor

o LCD Monitor

o LED Monitor

o Plasma Monitor
 2. Printer

o Impact Printers

A. Character Printers

i. Dot Matrix printers

ii. Daisy Wheel printers

B. Line printers

i. Drum printers

ii. Chain printers

o Non-impact printers

A. Laser printers

B. Inkjet printers

3. Projector

1) Monitor
The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output device
that displays the processed data or information as text, images, audio or video.

The types of monitors are given below.

i) CRT Monitor

CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes which
produce images in the form of video signals. Cathode rays tube produces a beam of
electrons through electron guns that strike on the inner phosphorescent surface of the
screen to produce images on the screen. The monitor contains millions of phosphorus
dots of red, green and blue color. These dots start to glow when struck by electron
beams and this phenomenon is called cathodoluminescence.

The main components of a CRT monitor include the electron gun assembly, deflection
plate assembly, fluorescent screen, glass envelope, and [Link] front (outer surface)
of the screen onto which images are produced is called the face plate. It is made up of
fiber optics.

There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue. So, the
colors which you see on the screen are the blends of red, blue and green [Link]
magnetic field guides the beams of electrons. Although LCDs have replaced the CRT
monitors, the CRT monitors are still used by graphics professionals because of their
color quality.

ii) LCD Monitor

The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as compared to
CRT monitors. It is based on liquid crystal display technology which is used in the
screens of laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD screen comprises two layers of
polarized glass with a liquid crystal solution between them. When the light passes
through the first layer, an electric current aligns the liquids crystals. The aligned liquid
crystals allow a varying level of light to pass through the second layer to create images
on the screen.

The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the [Link] LCDs
had passive-matrix screens in which individual pixels are controlled by sending a
charge. A few electrical charges could be sent each second that made screens appear
blurry when the images moved quickly on the screen.

Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors (TFTs) with
capacitors. This technology allows pixels to retain their charge. So, they don?t make
screen blurry when images move fast on the screen as well as are more efficient than
passive-matrix displays.

iii) LED monitor

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat panel
display and uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD monitors. The difference
between them lies in the source of light to backlight the display. The LED monitor has
many LED panels, and each panel has several LEDsto backlight the display, whereas the
LCD monitors use cold cathode fluorescent light to backlight the [Link]
electronic devices such as mobile phones, LED TVs, laptop and computer screens, etc.,
use a LED display as it not only produces more brilliance and greater light intensity but
also consumes less power.

iv) Plasma Monitor

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display
technology. It has small tiny cells between two glass panels. These cells contain
mixtures of noble gases and a small amount of mercury. When voltage is applied, the
gas in the cells turns into a plasma and emits ultraviolet light that creates images on
the screen, i.e., the screen is illuminated by a tiny bit of plasma, a charged gas. Plasma
displays are brighter than liquid crystal displays (LCD) and also offer a wide viewing
angle than an LCD.

Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent contrast

ratios, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate and more. Thus, they offer a unique
viewing experience while watching action movies, sports games, and more.

2) Printer
A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print
images, text or any other information onto the paper.

Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact Printers and
Non-impact Printers.

o Impact Printers: They are of two types:

A. Character Printers

i. Dot Matrix printers

ii. Daisy Wheel printers

B. Line printers

i. Drum printers

ii. Chain printers

o Non-impact printers: They are of two types:

A. Laser printers

B. Inkjet printers

Impact Printer
The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or images onto
the paper. The hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink ribbon against the paper
to print characters and images.

Impact printers are further divided into two types.

A. Character Printers

B. Line printers
A) Character Printers

Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of the print
head or hammer. It does not print one line at a time. Dot Matrix printer and Daisy Wheel
printer are character printers. Today, these printers are not in much use due to their low
speed and because only the text can be printed. The character printers are of two
types, which are as follows:

i) Dot Matrix Printer

Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images printed by it are the
patterns of dots. These patterns are produced by striking the ink soaked ribbon against
the paper with a print head. The print head contains pins that produce a pattern of dots
on the paper to form the individual characters. The print head of a 24 pin dot matrix
contains more pins than a 9 pin dot matrix printer, so it produces more dots which
results in better printing of characters. To produce color output, the black ribbon can be
changed with color stripes. The speed of Dot Matrix printers is around 200-500
characters per second.

ii) Daisy Wheel Printer

Daisy Wheel Printer was invented by David S. Lee at Diablo Data [Link] consists of
a wheel or disk that has spokes or extensions and looks like a daisy, so it is named
Daisy Wheel printer. At the end of extensions, molded metal characters are mounted.
To print a character the printer rotates the wheel, and when the desired character is on
the print location the hammer hits disk and the extension hits the ink ribbon against the
paper to create the impression. It cannot be used to print graphics and is often noisy
and slow, i.e., the speed is very low around 25-50 characters per second. Due to these
drawbacks,these printers have become obsolete.

B) Line Printers:

Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-speed
impact printer as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per minute. Drum printer and chain
printer are examples of line printers.

i) Drum Printer:

Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print characters. The
drum has circular bands of characters on its surface. It has a separate hammer for each
band of characters. When you print, the drum rotates, and when the desired character
comes under the hammer, the hammer strikes the ink ribbon against the paper to print
characters. The drum rotates at a very high speed and characters are printed by
activating the appropriate hammers. Although all the characters are not printed at a
time, they are printed at a very high speed. Furthermore, it can print only a predefined
style as it has a specific set of characters. These printers are known to be very noisy
due to the use of hammering techniques.

ii) Chain Printer:

Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print characters. The
characters are embossed on the surface of the chain. The chain rotates horizontally
around a set of hammers, for each print location one hammer is provided, i.e., the total
number of hammers is equal to the total number of print positions.

The chain rotates at a very high speed and when the desired character comes at the
print location, the corresponding hammer strikes the page against the ribbon and
character on the [Link] can type 500 to 3000 lines per minute. They are also noisy
due to the hammering action.

Non-Impact Printer:
Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head or hammer
on the ink ribbon placed against the paper. They print characters and images without
direct physical contact between the paper and the printing machinery. These printers
can print a complete page at a time, so they are also known as page printers. The
common types of non-impact printers are Laser printer and Inkjet printer:

i) Laser Printer:

A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print the characters.
The laser beam hits the drum, which is a photoreceptor and draws the image on the
drum by altering electrical charges on the drum. The drum then rolls in toner, and the
charged image on the drum picks the toner. The toner is then printed on the paper
using heat and pressure. Once the document is printed, the drum loses the electric
charge,and the remaining toner is collected. The laser printers use powdered toner for
printing instead of liquid ink and produce quality print objects with a resolution of 600
dots per inch (dpi) or more.

ii) Inkjet Printer:

The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and characters by spraying
fine,ionized drops of ink. The print head has tiny nozzles to spray the ink. The printer
head moves back and forth and sprays ionized drops of ink on the paper, which is fed
through the printer. These drops pass through an electric field that guides the ink onto
the paper to print correct images and characters.

An inkjet printer has cartridges that contain ink. Modern inkjet printers are color printers
that have four cartridges containing different colors: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black.
It is capable of printing high-quality images with different colors. It can produce print
objects with a resolution of at least 300 dots per inch (dpi).

3) Projector

A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto a large
surface such as a big screen or wall. It can be connected to a computer and similar
devices to project their output onto a screen. It uses light and lenses to produce
magnified texts, images, and videos. So, it is an ideal output device to give
presentations or to teach a large number of people.

Modern projects (digital projectors) come with multiple input sources such as HDMI
ports for newer equipment and VGA ports that support older devices. Some projectors
are designed to support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth as well. They can be fixed onto the ceiling,
placed on a stand, and more and are frequently used for classroom teaching, giving
presentations, home cinemas, etc.

A digital projector can be of two types:

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) digital projector: This type of digital projectors are
very popular as they are lightweight and provide crisp output. An LCD projector uses
transmissive technology to produce output. It allows the light source, which is a
standard lamp, to pass through the three colored liquid crystal light panels. Some colors
pass through the panels and some are blocked by the panels and thus images are on
the screen.

Digital Light Processing (DLP) digital projector: It has a set of tiny mirrors, a
separate mirror for each pixel of the image and thus provide high-quality images. These
projectors are mostly used in theatres as they fulfill the requirement of high-quality
video output.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A Central Processing Unit is also called a processor, central processor, or
microprocessor. It carries out all the important functions of a computer. It receives
instructions from both the hardware and active software and produces output
accordingly. It stores all important programs like operating systems and application
software. CPU also helps Input and output devices to communicate with each other.
Owing to these features of CPU, it is often referred to as the brain of the computer.

CPU is installed or inserted into a CPU socket located on the motherboard. Furthermore,
it is provided with a heat sink to absorb and dissipate heat to keep the CPU cool and
functioning smoothly.

Generally, a CPU has three components:

o ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

o Control Unit

o Memory or Storage Unit

Control Unit: It is the circuitry in the control unit, which makes use of electrical signals
to instruct the computer system for executing already stored instructions. It takes
instructions from memory and then decodes and executes these instructions. So, it
controls and coordinates the functioning of all parts of the computer. The Control Unit's
main task is to maintain and regulate the flow of information across the processor. It
does not take part in processing and storing data.

ALU: It is the arithmetic logic unit, which performs arithmetic and logical functions.
Arithmetic functions include addition, subtraction, multiplication division, and
comparisons. Logical functions mainly include selecting, comparing, and merging the
data. A CPU may contain more than one ALU. Furthermore, ALUs can be used for
maintaining timers that help run the computer.

Memory or Storage Unit/ Registers: It is called Random access memory (RAM). It

temporarily stores data, programs, and intermediate and final results of processing. So,
it acts as a temporary storage area that holds the data temporarily, which is used to run
the computer.

What is CPU Clock Speed?

The clock speed of a CPU or a processor refers to the number of instructions it can
process in a second. It is measured in gigahertz. For example, a CPU with a clock speed
of 4.0 GHz means it can process 4 billion instructions in a second.

Types of CPU:
CPUs are mostly manufactured by Intel and AMD, each of which manufactures its own
types of CPUs. In modern times, there are lots of CPU types in the market. Some of the
basic types of CPUs are described below:
Single Core CPU: Single Core is the oldest type of computer CPU, which was used in
the 1970s. It has only one core to process different operations. It can start only one
operation at a time; the CPU switches back and forth between different sets of data
streams when more than one program runs. So, it is not suitable for multitasking as the
performance will be reduced if more than one application runs. The performance of
these CPUs is mainly dependent on the clock speed. It is still used in various devices,
such as smartphones.

Dual Core CPU: As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU contains two cores in a single
Integrated Circuit (IC). Although each core has its own controller and cache, they are
linked together to work as a single unit and thus can perform faster than the single-core
processors and can handle multitasking more efficiently than Single Core processors.

Quad Core CPU: This type of CPU comes with two dual-core processors in one
integrated circuit (IC) or chip. So, a quad-core processor is a chip that contains four
independent units called cores. These cores read and execute instructions of CPU. The
cores can run multiple instructions simultaneously, thereby increases the overall speed
for programs that are compatible with parallel processing.

Quad Core CPU uses a technology that allows four independent processing units (cores)
to run in parallel on a single chip. Thus by integrating multiple cores in a single CPU,
higher performance can be generated without boosting the clock speed. However, the
performance increases only when the computer's software supports multiprocessing.
The software which supports multiprocessing divides the processing load between
multiple processors instead of using one processor at a time.

Architecture of Computer System

Computer is an electronic machine that makes performing any task very easy. In
computer, the CPU executes each instruction provided to it, in a series of steps, this
series of steps is called Machine Cycle, and is repeated for each instruction. One
machine cycle involves fetching of instruction, decoding the instruction, transferring the
data, executing the instruction.
Computer system has five basic units that help the computer to perform operations,
which are given below:

1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Storage Unit
4. Arithmetic Logic Unit
5. Control Unit
Input Unit
Input unit connects the external environment with internal computer system. It provides
data and instructions to the computer system. Commonly used input devices
are keyboard, mouse, magnetic tape etc.
Input unit performs following tasks:

 Accept the data and instructions from the outside environment.

 Convert it into machine language.
 Supply the converted data to computer system.

Output Unit
It connects the internal system of a computer to the external environment. It provides
the results of any computation, or instructions to the outside world. Some output devices
are printers, monitor etc.

Storage Unit
This unit holds the data and instructions. It also stores the intermediate results before
these are sent to the output devices. It also stores the data for later use.
The storage unit of a computer system can be divided into two categories:

 Primary Storage: This memory is used to store the data which is being currently
executed. It is used for temporary storage of data. The data is lost, when the
computer is switched off. RAM is used as primary storage memory.
 Secondary Storage: The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than
primary memory. It is used for permanent storage of data. Commonly used
secondary memory devices are hard disk, CD etc.
Arithmetic Logical Unit
All the calculations are performed in ALU of the computer system. The ALU can perform
basic operations such as addition, subtraction, division, multiplication etc. Whenever
calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data from storage unit to ALU.
When the operations are done, the result is transferred back to the storage unit.

Control Unit
It controls all other units of the computer. It controls the flow of data and instructions to
and from the storage unit to ALU. Thus it is also known as central nervous system of the
computer.

CPU
It is Central Processing Unit of the computer. The control unit and ALU are together
known as CPU. CPU is the brain of computer system. It performs following tasks:

 It performs all operations.

 It takes all decisions.
 It controls all the units of computer.

Above figure shows the block diagram of a computer.

Computer Memory
The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to process raw data and
produce output. The computer memory is divided into large number of small parts
known as cells. Each cell has a unique address which varies from 0 to memory size
minus one.

Computer memory is of two types: Volatile (RAM) and Non-volatile (ROM). The
secondary memory (hard disk) is referred as storage not memory.

But, if we categorize memory on behalf of space or location, it is of four types:

o Register memory

o Cache memory

o Primary memory

o Secondary memory

Register Memory
Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer. It is not a part of
the main memory and is located in the CPU in the form of registers, which are the
smallest data holding elements. A register temporarily holds frequently used data,
instructions, and memory address that are to be used by CPU. They hold instructions
that are currently processed by the CPU. All data is required to pass through registers
before it can be processed. So, they are used by CPU to process the data entered by the
users.

Registers hold a small amount of data around 32 bits to 64 bits. The speed of a CPU
depends on the number and size (no. of bits) of registers that are built into the CPU.
Registers can be of different types based on their uses. Some of the widely used
Registers include Accumulator or AC, Data Register or DR, the Address Register or AR,
Program Counter (PC), I/O Address Register, and more.

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a high-speed memory, which is small in size but faster than the main
memory (RAM). The CPU can access it more quickly than the primary memory. So, it is
used to synchronize with high-speed CPU and to improve its performance.

Cache memory can only be accessed by CPU. It can be a reserved part of the main
memory or a storage device outside the CPU. It holds the data and programs which are
frequently used by the CPU. So, it makes sure that the data is instantly available for CPU
whenever the CPU needs this data. In other words, if the CPU finds the required data or
instructions in the cache memory, it doesn't need to access the primary memory (RAM).
Thus, by acting as a buffer between RAM and CPU, it speeds up the system
performance.

Primary Memory
Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.

RAM (Volatile Memory)

It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or instructions permanently.
When you switch on the computer the data and instructions from the hard disk are
stored in RAM.

CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut down the
computer the RAM loses all the data.

ROM (Non-volatile Memory)

It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or programs that are
written on it at the time of manufacture. So it is a permanent memory that contains all
important data and instructions needed to perform important tasks like the boot
process.

What is File?
A file a container in a computer system that stores data, information, settings, or
commands, which are used with a computer program. In graphical user interface (GUI),
such as Microsoft operating systems, represent the files as icons, which associate to the
program that opens the file. For instance, the picture is shown as an icon; it is related
to Microsoft Word. If your computer contains this file and you double-click on the icon, it
will open in Microsoft Word installed on the computer.

There are several types of files available such as directory files, data files, text files,
binary and graphic files, and these several kinds of files contain different types of
information. In the computer system, files are stored on hard drives, optical drives,
discs, or other storage devices.

In most of the operating systems, a file must be saved with a unique name within a
given file directory. However, certain characters cannot be used during creating a file as
they are considered illegal. A filename is consisted of with a file extension that is also
called a suffix. The file extension contains two to four characters that follow the
 complete filename, and it helps to recognize the file format, type of file, and the
attributes related to the file.

Most modern computer systems have the ability to protect files from file corruption or
damage. The file can be contained the data from system-generated information to user-
specified information. File management is done manually at times with the help of the
user or done with the help of third-party tools and operating systems.

The basic operations that can be performed on a file are given below:

o Closing or terminating a file operation

o Creation of programs

o Reading of data from the file

o Creation of a new file

o Opening the file in order to make the contents available to other

o Modification of data or file attributes

o Writing data to the file

How are the files created?

A software program helps to create a file on the computer. For instance, to create a
document file, you will use a word processor, to create a C programming file, you would
use a C software, to create an image file, you would use an image editor. Specific
software is used to create a particular file.

Where are files stored?

Computer files are stored on a hard drive, disc-like DVD, and floppy disk. It can also be
stored in a folder that is stored on the drives.

Illegal file characters

The given below characters are considered illegal with most operating systems, hence
cannot be used. If you try to create a file name with these characters, it would generate
an error or make the file inaccessible.

1. : * ? " < > | \ /

File management

File management is also referred to as a file system that is a process of creating an

organized structure and retrieving files from a storage medium such as a hard drive. It
is a type of software that usually comprise files separated into groups, which is called
directories. Basically, it is designed to handle individual or group files, like records and
special office documents. It is able to display report details, such as creation date, state
of completion, owner and more other similar details, which are useful in an office
environment.

Nowadays, NTFS (New Technology File System) is the most widely used file system with
Windows. All files cannot be organized without file management, and it would be
impossible to be the same name for a file. Often, files are managed in a hierarchical
way that allows users to view files in the current directory and then navigate into any
subdirectories.

File Format
The file format is the structure of a file that arranges the data logically within a file. It
allows a program to represent the information correctly, retrieve data, and continue
with processing. For instance, a Microsoft Word document will be saved with .doc file
format; it will be best viewed in Microsoft Word software. Although another software can
open this file, it may not have all features to display the document properly, like
Microsoft Word. The programs may be able to give an overview of a file if they are
compatible with the file format. But they may be unable to display all the files features.

Additionally, some of the programs that are not supported with a file format maybe give
you garbage with opening a file. For example, if you will open [Link] file in another
program like notepad, it will not display the document properly and give you garbage. A
file format minimizes the required storage space as it contains the data encoding
process. For instance, video and picture are encoded by embedded processes like
compression; in this process, a picture is divided into pixels.

Furthermore, it also includes presentation information. For example, a Microsoft .xls file
includes both the document's text and its final form, as well as table, color, calculations,
font size, charts, and other information that must be organized in a standard form inside
the file.

Common file formats

Below is a table that contains common file formats you are most likely to see while
working on a computer.

File type File extension

Image .bmp .eps .gif .jpg .pict .png .psd .tif

 Text .asc .doc .docx .rtf .msg .txt .wpd .wps

Video .avi .mp4 .mpg .mov .wmv

Compressed .arc .arj .gz .hqx .rar .sit .tar .z .zip

Program .bat .com .exe

Sound aac .au .mid .mp3 .ra .snd .wma .wav

File Extension
A file extension is an identifier that helps identify the type of file in operating systems,
such as Microsoft Windows. It can be classified as a type of metadata, and it helps the
operating systems to understand the intended use of a file and the characteristics. The
filename extension may be contained one to four characters and used as a suffix to the
file name. For example, in Microsoft Windows, the file extension is often followed by
three characters.

A dot (.) symbol is used to separate the file extension from the filename. The filename is
considered incomplete without file extension; therefore, to complete a filename, it must
be included in the file extension. Generally, file extensions are hidden from the users
in Windows operating systems. Although file extensions can be renamed, it is not
necessarily by renaming a file extension will convert one file format to another. File
extensions are helpful for both users and the file system in two ways:

1. It helps in identifying the type of data that a file hold.

2. It allows the operating system to select the proper program or application with
which to open a file.

What makes a valid file name extension?

A filename extension is always at the end of the file name, which starts with a period
(After dot symbol). Although it is often between one and three characters, some of the
programs also support more than three characters. For instance, in the latest versions
of Microsoft Word file will be saved with .docx extension and some web pages with .html
file extension.
Can be a file extension more than three or four characters?
Yes, a file extension can be more than three or four characters. It depends on the
program of how it was designed. Some of the programs are designed to identify and
open a program with a longer (more than three or four characters) file extension.
However, most programs do not exceed four characters to keep the overall file name
short.