SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY 7
is called the Excess Reagent. e.g. if we burn carbon in air
11. CHEMICAL REACTIONS (which has an infinite supply of oxygen) then the amount
of CO2 being produced will be governed by the amount of
A chemical reaction is only rearrangement of atoms. Atoms
carbon taken. In this case, Carbon is the LR and O2 is the
from different molecules (may be even same molecule) rearrange ER.
themselves to form new molecules.
13. PERCENT YIELD
Points to remember :
As discussed earlier, due to practical reasons the amount of
Always balance chemical equations before doing any product formed by a chemical reaction is less than the amount
calculations
predicted by theoretical calculations. The ratio of the amount
The number of molecules in a reaction need not to be of product formed to the amount predicted when multiplied
conserved e.g. by 100 gives the percentage yield.
N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3. The number of molecules is not
conserved Actual Yield
Percentage Yield = Theoretical Yield × 100
If we talk about only rearrangement of atoms in a
balanced chemical reaction then it is evident that the
mass of the atoms in the reactants side is equal to the
14. REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS MEDIA
sum of the masses of the atoms on the products side. Two solids cannot react with each other in solid phase
This is the Law of Conservation of Atoms and Law of and hence need to be dissolved in a liquid. When a solute
Conservation of Mass. is dissolved in a solvent, they coexist in a single phase
called the solution. Various parameters are used to measure
the strength of a solution.
12. STOICHIOMETRY
The strength of a solution denotes the amount of solute
The study of chemical reactions and calculations related which is contained in the solution. The parameters used to
to it is called Stoichiometry. The coefficients used to balance denote the strength of a solution are:
the reaction are called Stoichiometric Coefficients.
Mole fraction X : moles of a component / Total moles
of solution.
Points to remember :
Mass% : Mass of solute (in g) present in 100g of
The stoichiometric coefficients give the ratio of
solution.
molecules or moles that react and not the ratio of
masses. Mass/Vol : Mass of solute (in g) present in 100mL of
solution
Stoichiometric ratios can be used to predict the moles of
product formed only if all the reactants are present in the v/v : Volume of solute/volume of solution {only for
stoichiometric ratios. liqliq solutions}
Practically the amount of products formed is always g/L : Wt. of solute (g) in 1L of solution
less than the amount predicted by theoretical
calculations mass of solute 6
ppm : mass of solution 10
12.1 Limiting Reagent (LR) and Excess Reagent (ER)
moles of solute
If the reactants are not taken in the stoichiometric ratios Molarity (M) : volume of solution (L)
then the reactant which is less than the required amount
determines how much product will be formed and is known moles of solute
as the Limiting Reagent and the reactant present in excess Molality (m) : mass of solvent (kg)
8 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY
IMPORTANT RELATIONS e.g. molality remains unchanged with temperature. Formulae
involving volume are altered by temperature e.g. Molarity.
1. Relation between molality (m) Molarity (M), density (d) of
solution and molar mass of solute (MO) 17. INTRODUCTION TO EQUIVALENT CONCEPT
d : density in g/mL Equivalent concept is a way of understanding reactions
and processes in chemistry which are often made simple
MO : molar mass in g mol–1
by the use of Equivalent concept.
M 1000 17.1 Equivalent Mass
Molality, m
1000d MM O
2. Relationship between molality (m) and mole fraction (XB) of “The mass of an acid which furnishes 1 mol H+ is called
the solute its Equivalent mass.”
“The mass of the base which furnishes 1 mol OH– is called
XB 1000 1 X A 1000
m m its Equivalent mass.”
1 XB MA XA MA
17.2 Valency Factor (Z)
Points to remember :
Valency factor is the number of H+ ions supplied by 1
Molarity is the most common unit of measuring
molecule or mole of an acid or the number of OH ions
strength of solution.
supplied by 1 molecule or 1 mole of the base.
The product of Molarity and Volume of the solution
gives the number of moles of the solute, n = M × V Molecular Mass
Equivalent mass, E
All the formulae of strength have amount of solute. Z
(weight or moles) in the numerator.
17.3 Equivalents
All the formulae have amount of solution in the
denominator except for molality (m).
wt. of acid / base taken
No. of equivalents =
15. DILUTION LAW Eq. wt.
When a solution is diluted, more solvent is added, the moles
of solute remains unchanged. If the volume of a solution
having a Molarity of M1 is changed from V1 to V2 we can
write that: It should be always remembered that 1 equivalent of an
acid reacts with 1 equivalent of a base.
M1V1 = moles of solute in the solution = M2V2
16. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE 18. MIXTURE OF ACIDS AND BASES
Volume of the solvent increases on increasing the Whenever we have a mixture of multiple acids and bases
temperature. But it shows no effect on the mass of solute in we can find whether the resultant solution would be acidic
the solution assuming the system to be closed i.e. no loss of or basic by using the equivalent concept. For a mixture of
mass. multiple acids and bases find out the equivalents of acids
and bases taken and find which one of them is in excess.
The formulae of strength of solutions which do not involve
volume of solution are unaffected by changes in temperature.
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY 9
22. EQUIVALENT VOLUME OF GASES
19. LAW OF CHEMICAL EQUIVALENCE
Equivalent volume of gas is the volume occupied by 1
According to this law, one equivalent of a reactant
equivalent of a gas at STP.
combines with one equivalent of the other reactant to
give one equivalent of each product . For, example in a Equivalent mass of gas = molecular mass /Z.
reaction aA + bB cC + dD irrespective of the
Since 1 mole of gas occupies 22.4L at STP therefore 1
stoichiometric coefficients, 1 eq. of A reacts with 1 eq. of
equivalent of a gas will occupy 22.4/Z L at STP. e.g. Oxygen
B to give 1 eq. each of C and 1eq of D
occupies 5.6L, Chlorine and Hydrogen occupy 11.2L.
20. EQUIVALENT WEIGHTS OF SALTS 23. NORMALITY
To calculate the equivalent weights of compounds which
The normality of a solution is the number of equivalents of
are neither acids nor bases, we need to know the charge on
solute present in 1L of the solution.
the cation or the anion. The mass of the cation divided by
the charge on it is called the equivalent mass of the cation
equivalents of solute
and the mass of the anion divided by the charge on it is N
volume of solution (L)
called the equivalent mass of the anion. When we add the
equivalent masses of the anion and the cation, it gives us
the equivalent mass of the salt. For salts, Z in the total The number of equivalents of solute present in a solution is
amount of positive or negative charge furnished by 1 mol given by Normality × Volume (L).
of the salt. On dilution of the solution the number of equivalents of
the solute is conserved and thus, we can apply the
21. ORIGIN OF EQUIVALENT CONCEPT
formula : N1V1 = N2V2
Equivalent weight of an element was initially defined as
Caution :
weight of an element which combines with 1g of hydrogen.
Later the definition wad modified to : Equivalent weight of Please note that the above equation gives rise to a lot of
an element is that weight of the element which combines confusion and is a common mistake that students make.
with 8g of Oxygen. This is the equation of dilution where the number of
equivalents are conserved. Now, since one equivalent of
a reactant always reacts with 1 equivalent of another
reactant a similar equation is used in problems involving
titration of acids and bases. Please do not extend the same
logic to molarity.
Same element can have multiple equivalent weights
depending upon the charge on it. e.g. Fe2+ and Fe3+.
Relationship between Normality and Molarity
N = M × Z ; where ‘Z’ is the Valency factor